Monitor lizard

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Monitor lizard
Temporal range: Early Miocene – Recent
Varanidae-01.jpg
Left: V. salvator , V. flavescens , V. tristis , V. prasinus Right: V. komodoensis , V. giganteus , V. albigularis , V. varius
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Varanidae
Genus: Varanus
Merrem, 1820
Type species
Lacerta varia [ citation needed ]
Shaw, 1790
Subgenera
Worldwidevaranus.PNG
Combined native range of all the monitor lizards
Skulls of various varanoids Varanoid skulls.png
Skulls of various varanoids

Monitor lizards are lizards in the genus Varanus, the only extant genus in the family Varanidae. They are native to Africa, Asia, and Oceania, and one species is also found in the Americas as an invasive species. [1] About 80 species are recognized.

Contents

Monitor lizards have long necks, powerful tails and claws, and well-developed limbs. The adult length of extant species ranges from 20 cm (7.9 in) in some species such as Varanus sparnus , to over 3 m (10 ft) in the case of the Komodo dragon, though the extinct megalania (Varanus priscus) may have reached lengths of more than 7 m (23 ft). Most monitor species are terrestrial, but many are also arboreal or semiaquatic. While most monitor lizards are carnivorous, eating smaller reptiles, fish, birds, insects, small mammals, and eggs, a few species also eat fruit and vegetation. [2]

Etymology

The generic name Varanus is derived from the Arabic word ورلwaral [Standard Arabic] / وررwarar [colloquially] / ورنwaran [colloquially], from a common Semitic root ouran, waran, warar or waral, meaning "lizard beast". [3]

In English, they are known as "monitors" or "monitor lizards". The earlier term "monitory lizard" became rare by about 1920. [4] The name may have been suggested by the occasional habit of varanids to stand on their two hind legs and to appear to "monitor", [3] or perhaps from their supposed habit of "warning people of the approach of venomous animals". [5] But all of these explanations for the name "monitor" postdate Linnaeus giving the scientific name Lacerta monitor to the Nile monitor in 1758, which may have been based on a mistaken idea by Linnaeus that the German word Waran (borrowed from Arabic) was connected to warnen (to warn), leading him to incorrectly Latinize it as monitor ('warner', 'adviser'). [6]

Austronesian languages spoken across Southeast Asia, where varanids are common, have a large number of slightly related local names for them. They are usually known as biawak (Malay, including Indonesian standard variety), bayawak (Filipino), binjawak or minjawak or nyambik (Javanese), or variations thereof. [7] Other names include hokai (Solomon Islands); bwo, puo, or soa (Maluku); halo (Cebu); galuf or kaluf (Micronesia and the Caroline Islands); batua or butaan (Luzon); alu (Bali); hora or ghora (Komodo group of islands); phut (Burmese); and guibang (Manobo). [8] [9]

In South Asia, they are known as hangkok in Meitei, mwpou in Boro, ghorpad घोरपड in Marathi, uḍumbu உடும்பு in Tamil and udumbu ഉടുമ്പ് in Malayalam, bilgoh in Bhojpuri, gohi (गोहि) in Maithili, in Sinhala as තලගොයා / කබරගොයා (talagoya [land monitor] / kabaragoya [water monitor where kabara means vitiligo]), in Telugu as uḍumu (ఉడుము), in Kannada as uḍa (ಉಡ), in Punjabi and Magahi as गोह (goh), in Assamese as gui xaap, in Odia as ଗୋଧି (godhi), and in Bengali as গোসাপ (goshaap) or গুইসাপ (guishaap), and गोह (goh) in Hindi and गोधा (godhā) in Sanskrit. [10]

The West African Nile monitor is known by several names in Yoruba, including awọ́nríwọ́n, awọ̀n, and àlégbà. In Wolof it is known as mbossé or bar, and is the traditional totem of the city of Kaolack. [11]

Due to confusion with the large New World lizards of the family Iguanidae, the lizards became known as "goannas" in Australia. Similarly, in South African English, they are referred to as leguaans, or likkewaans, from the Dutch term for the Iguanidae, leguanen.

Distribution

The various species cover a vast area, occurring through Africa, the Indian subcontinent, to China, the Ryukyu Islands in southern Japan, south to Southeast Asia to Thailand, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, the Philippines, New Guinea, Australia, and islands of the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea. They have also been introduced outside of their natural range, for instance, the West African Nile monitor is now found in South Florida. [12] Monitor lizards also occurred widely in Europe in the Neogene, with the last known remains in the region dating to the Middle Pleistocene. [13]

Habits and diet

Most monitor lizards are almost entirely carnivorous, [14] consuming prey as varied as insects, crustaceans, arachnids, myriapods, molluscs, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Most species feed on invertebrates as juveniles and shift to feeding on vertebrates as adults. Deer make up about 50% of the diet of adult Komodo dragons, the largest monitor species. [15] In contrast, three arboreal species from the Philippines, Varanus bitatawa , mabitang , and olivaceus , are primarily fruit eaters. [16] [17] [18]

Biology

Monitor lizards are considered unique among animals in that its members are relatively morphologically conservative, yet show a very large size range. [19] However, finer morphological features such as the shape of the skull and limbs do vary, and are strongly related to the ecology of each species. [20] [21]

Monitor lizards maintain large territories and employ active-pursuit hunting techniques that are reminiscent of similar-sized mammals. [22] The active nature of monitor lizards has led to numerous studies on the metabolic capacities of these lizards. The general consensus is that monitor lizards have the highest standard metabolic rates of all extant reptiles. [23]

Like snakes, monitor lizards have highly forked tongues that act as part of the "smell" sense, where the tips of the tongue carry molecules from the environment to sensory organs in the skull. The forked apparatus allows for these lizards to sense boundaries in the molecules they collect, almost smelling in "stereo". [24]

Monitor lizards have a high aerobic scope [23] [25] that is afforded, in part, by their heart anatomy. Whereas most reptiles are considered to have three-chambered hearts, the hearts of monitor lizards – as with those of boas and pythons – have a well developed ventricular septum that completely separates the pulmonary and systemic sides of the circulatory system during systole. [26] This allows monitor lizards to create mammalian-equivalent pressure differentials between the pulmonary and systemic circuits, [26] which in turn ensure that oxygenated blood is quickly distributed to the body without also flooding the lungs with high-pressure blood.

Monitor lizards are oviparous, [23] laying from seven to 38 eggs, [27] which they often cover with soil or protect in a hollow tree stump. Some species, including the Komodo dragon, are capable of parthenogenesis. [28]

Venom

Anatomical and molecular studies indicate that all varanids (and possibly all lizards) are venomous. [29] [30] Unlike snakes, monitor lizard venom glands are situated in their lower jaw. [31] The venom of monitor lizards is diverse and complex, as a result of the diverse ecological niches monitor lizards occupy. [32]

For example, many species have anticoagulant venom, disrupting clotting through a combination of fibrinogenolysis and blocking platelet aggregation. Amongst them, arboreal species, such as the tree monitors and the banded monitor, have by far the strongest fibrinogenolytic venom. As a result, wounds from monitor lizard bites often bleed more than they would if they were simply lacerations. Venom may also cause hypotension. [33]

In some species such as the Komodo dragon and the desert monitor, venom also induces a powerful neurotoxic effect. In the latter species for instance, envenomation causes immediate paralysis in rodents (but not birds) and lesser effects of the same nature in humans. [34]

Intelligence

At least some species of monitors are known to be able to count; studies feeding rock monitors varying numbers of snails showed that they can distinguish numbers up to six. [35] [36] Nile monitors have been observed to cooperate when foraging; one animal lures the female crocodile away from her nest, while the other opens the nest to feed on the eggs. The decoy then returns to also feed on the eggs. [35] [36] Komodo dragons at the National Zoo in Washington, DC, recognize their keepers and seem to have distinct personalities. [36] Blue and green tree monitors in British zoos have been observed shredding leaves, apparently as a form of play. [37]

Human Uses

As pets

Injured Bengal monitor being nursed at the Lok Biradari Prakalp in India Dada Panchal with monitor lizard 6 x 4.JPG
Injured Bengal monitor being nursed at the Lok Biradari Prakalp in India

Monitor lizards have become a staple in the reptile pet trade. The most commonly kept monitors are the savannah monitor and Ackie dwarf monitor, due to their relatively small size, low cost, and relatively calm dispositions with regular handling. [3] Among others, black-throated, Timor, Asian water, Nile, mangrove, emerald tree, black tree, roughneck, Dumeril's, peach-throated, crocodile, and Argus monitors have been kept in captivity. [3]

Traditional medicines

Monitor lizards are poached in some South- and Southeast Asian countries, as their organs and fat are used in some traditional medicines, although there is no scientific evidence as to their effectiveness. [38] [39]

Monitor lizard meat, particularly the tongue and liver, is eaten in parts of India and Malaysia and is supposed to be an aphrodisiac. [40] [41]

In parts of Pakistan and southern India, as well in Northeastern India, particularly Assam, the different parts of monitor lizards are traditionally used for treating rheumatic pain, skin infections and hemorrhoids, and the oil is used as an aphrodisiac lubricant (sande ka tel). [42]

Consuming raw blood and flesh of monitor lizards has been reported to cause eosinophilic meningoencephalitis, as some monitors are hosts for the parasite Angiostrongylus cantonensis . [40]

Leather

"Large-scale exploitation" of monitor lizards is undertaken for their skins, which are described as being "of considerable utility" in the leather industry. [42] In Papua New Guinea, monitor lizard leather is used for membranes in traditional drums (called kundu ), and these lizards are referred to as kundu palai or "drum lizard" in Tok Pisin, the main Papuan trade language. Monitor lizard skins are prized in making the resonant part of serjas (Bodo folk sarangis) and dotaras (native strummed string instruments of Assam, Bengal and other eastern states). The leather is also used in making a Carnatic music percussion instrument called the kanjira .

Food

The meat of monitor lizards is eaten by some tribes in India, [43] Nepal, [44] the Philippines, Australia, South Africa and West Africa as a supplemental meat source.[ citation needed ] Both meat and eggs are also eaten in Southeast Asian countries such as Vietnam and Thailand as a delicacy. [45]

Conservation

According to IUCN Red List of threatened species, most of the monitor lizards species fall in the categories of least concern, but the population is decreasing globally. All but five species of monitor lizards are classified by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora under Appendix II, which is loosely defined as species that are not necessarily threatened with extinction but may become so unless trade in such species is subject to strict regulation to avoid use incompatible with the survival of the species in the wild. The remaining five species – the Bengal, yellow, desert, and clouded monitors and the Komodo Dragon– are classified under CITES Appendix I, which outlaws international commercial trade in the species. [46]

The yellow monitor is protected in all countries in its range except Bhutan, Nepal, India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. [47]

In Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Telangana and all other parts of South India, catching or killing of monitor lizards is banned under the Protected Species Act.

Evolution

The giant extinct megalania (Varanus priscus) Varanus priscus Melbourne Museum.jpg
The giant extinct megalania (Varanus priscus)

Varanus is the only living genus of the family Varanidae. Varanids last shared a common ancestor with their closest living relatives, earless "monitors", during the Late Cretaceous. The oldest known varanids are from the Late Cretaceous of Mongolia. During the Eocene, the varanid Saniwa occurred in North America. The closest known relative of Varanus is Archaeovaranus from the Eocene of China, suggesting that the genus Varanus is of Asian origin. The oldest fossils of Varanus date to the early Miocene. [48]

Many of the species within the various subgenera also form species complexes with each other:

Euprepriosaurus

Odatria

Varanus

Polydaedalus

Empagusia

Soterosaurus

The tree monitors of the V. prasinus species complex ( V. prasinus , V. beccarii , V. boehmei , V. bogerti , V. keithhornei , V. kordensis , V. macraei , V. reisingeri , V. telenesetes ) were once in the subgenus Euprepriosaurus, but as of 2016, form their own subgenus Hapturosaurus . [51]

V. jobiensis was once considered to be a member of the V. indicus species complex, but is now considered to represent its own species complex. [51]

Phylogeny as of Brennan et al. 2020 [56]
Varanus phylogeny as of Brennan et al 2020 (UPDATE 5).jpg

Taxonomy

Bengal monitor (V. bengalensis) with green iguana (Iguana iguana) Iguana and Indian monitor lizard.jpg
Bengal monitor (V. bengalensis) with green iguana (Iguana iguana)
Dumeril's monitor (V. dumerilii) Dumeril's Monitor Lizard (Varanus dumerilii) (Photo by Xavier MALLERET) (24237560651).jpg
Dumeril's monitor ( V. dumerilii )

Genus Varanus

Species marked with † are extinct

Subgenus Empagusia :

Clouded monitor (V. nebulosus) Clouded monitor 2.1.jpg
Clouded monitor ( V. nebulosus )
Blue-tailed monitor (V. doreanus) Varanidae - Varanus doreanus.JPG
Blue-tailed monitor ( V. doreanus )
Blue-spotted tree monitor (V. macraei) Varanus macraei - Reptilium Landau 01.jpg
Blue-spotted tree monitor ( V. macraei )

Subgenus Euprepiosaurus : [61]

Timor tree monitor (V. timorensis) Varanus timorensis.jpg
Timor tree monitor ( V. timorensis )

Subgenus Hapturosaurus : [51]

Ridge-tailed monitor (V. acanthurus) Amneville varanus acanthurus 2708 2010.jpg
Ridge-tailed monitor ( V. acanthurus )
Crocodile monitor (V. salvadorii) Varanus Salvadorii Koln Zoo 31122014 2.jpg
Crocodile monitor ( V. salvadorii )
Northern Sierra Madre forest monitor (V. bitatawa) Varanus bitatawa (KU 322188) from Barangay Dibuluan, San Mariano - ZooKeys-266-001-g069.jpg
Northern Sierra Madre forest monitor ( V. bitatawa)

Subgenus Odatria :

Subgenus Papusaurus

Subgenus Philippinosaurus :

White-throated monitor (V. a. albigularis) on the Kalahari savannah Monitor lizard in Kalahari.JPG
White-throated monitor ( V. a. albigularis ) on the Kalahari savannah
"Ornate monitor", "V. ornatus" Varanus niloticus ornatus.jpg
"Ornate monitor", " V. ornatus "

Subgenus Polydaedalus :

Caspian monitor (V. g. caspius) Varanus griseus caspius.jpg
Caspian monitor ( V. g. caspius )
Water monitor (V. salvator) Monitor Lizard, Sungei Buloh Wetlands Reserve, Singapore (1669835154).jpg
Water monitor (V. salvator)

Subgenus Psammosaurus :

Subgenus Solomonsaurus : [70]

Perentie (V. giganteus) Perentie Lizard Pair.jpg
Perentie ( V. giganteus )

Subgenus Soterosaurus :

Komodo dragon (V. komodoensis) Komodo Dragon (15620549901).jpg
Komodo dragon ( V. komodoensis)

Subgenus Varanus :


Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Varanidae</span> Family of lizards

The Varanidae are a family of lizards in the superfamily Varanoidea and order Anguimorpha. The family, a group of carnivorous and frugivorous lizards, includes the living genus Varanus and a number of extinct genera more closely related to Varanus than to the earless monitor lizard (Lanthanotus). Varanus includes the Komodo dragon, crocodile monitor, savannah monitor, the goannas of Australia and Southeast Asia, and various other species with a similarly distinctive appearance. Their closest living relatives are the earless monitor lizard and Chinese crocodile lizard. The oldest members of the family are known from the Late Cretaceous of Mongolia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Megalania</span> Extinct species of giant monitor lizard

Megalania is an extinct species of giant monitor lizard, part of the megafaunal assemblage that inhabited Australia during the Pleistocene. It is the largest terrestrial lizard known to have existed, but the fragmentary nature of known remains make estimates highly uncertain. Recent studies suggest that most known specimens would have reached around 2–3 m (6.6–9.8 ft) in body length excluding the tail, while some individuals would have been significantly larger, reaching sizes around 4.5–7 m (15–23 ft) in length.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Perentie</span> Species of lizard

The perentie is a species of monitor lizard. It is one of the largest living lizards on earth, after the Komodo dragon, Asian water monitor, and the Crocodile monitor. Found west of the Great Dividing Range in the arid areas of Australia, it is rarely seen, because of its shyness and the remoteness of much of its range from human habitation. The species is considered to be a least-concern species according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Asian water monitor</span> Species of lizard

The Asian water monitor is a large varanid lizard native to South and Southeast Asia. It is widely considered to be the second-largest lizard species, after the Komodo dragon. It is distributed from eastern and northeastern India and Bangladesh, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Sri Lanka, through southern China and Hainan Island in the east to mainland Southeast Asia and the islands of Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Lombok, the Riau Archipelago, Sulawesi. It is one of the most widespread monitor lizards.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lace monitor</span> Species of lizard

The lace monitor, also known as the tree goanna, is a member of the monitor lizard family native to eastern Australia. A large lizard, it can reach 2 metres (6.6 ft) in total length and 14 kilograms (31 lb) in weight. The lace monitor is considered to be a least-concern species according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sand goanna</span> Species of lizard

The sand goanna, also known commonly as Gould's monitor, the racehorse goanna, and the sand monitor, is a species of large Australian monitor lizard in the family Varanidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black tree monitor</span> Species of reptile

The black tree monitor or Beccari's monitor is a species of lizard in the family Varanidae. The species is a relatively small member of the family, growing to about 90–120 cm (35–47 in) in total length. V. beccarii is endemic to the Aru Islands off New Guinea, living in an arboreal habitat. The skin color of adults is completely black, to which one common name refers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emerald tree monitor</span> Species of lizard

The emerald tree monitor or green tree monitor, is a small to medium-sized arboreal monitor lizard. It is known for its unusual coloration, which consists of shades from green to turquoise, topped with dark, transversedorsal banding. This coloration helps camouflage it in its arboreal habitat. Its color also makes the emerald tree monitor highly prized in both the pet trade and zoos alike.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peacock monitor</span> Species of lizard

The peacock monitor, also known commonly as Auffenberg's monitor, is a species of small monitor lizard in the family Varanidae. The species, which belongs to the subgenus Odatria, is endemic to Rote Island, Indonesia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Golden-spotted tree monitor</span> Species of lizard

The golden-spotted tree monitor, also known commonly as the golden speckled tree monitor, is a species of monitor lizard in the family Varanidae. The species is endemic to Waigeo Island in Indonesia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peach-throated monitor</span> Species of lizard

The peach-throated monitor, also known as the Sepik monitor, is a species of monitor lizard native to New Guinea.

The Pilbara monitor, also known commonly as Bush's monitor, Bush's pygmy monitor, and the Pilbara mulga goanna, is a species of monitor lizard in the family Varanidae. The species is endemic to Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blue-tailed monitor</span> Species of lizard

The blue-tailed monitor, blue-tailed tree monitor or Kalabeck's monitor, is a monitor lizard of the family Varanidae. It belongs to the V. doreanus group of the subgenus Euprepiosaurus.

Varanus keithhornei, commonly known as the canopy goanna, Keith Horne's monitor, blue-nosed tree monitor, or Nesbit River monitor, is a species of monitor lizards native to northeast Australia. It is a member of the Varanus prasinus species group.

<i>Varanus kordensis</i> Species of lizard

Varanus kordensis, the Biak tree monitor, is a member of the Varanidae family found on Biak Island in Indonesia. It is also known as the Kordo tree monitor. Long considered a subspecies of the emerald tree monitor, most authorities now treat it as a separate species.

<i>Varanus spinulosus</i> Species of lizard

Varanus spinulosus, the Solomon Island spiny monitor, Isabel monitor, or spiny-neck monitor, is a species of monitor lizard. It is endemic to the Solomon Islands archipelago and is also known from Santa Isabel Island, San Jorge Island and Bourgainville Island.

Bogert's monitor is a species of tree-dwelling monitor lizard. The species is native to Papua New Guinea.

<i>Varanus <span style="font-style:normal;">(</span>Hapturosaurus<span style="font-style:normal;">)</span></i> Subgenus of reptiles

Hapturosaurus, sometimes known as the tree monitors, is a subgenus of lizards, consisting of slender-bodied arboreal monitor lizards mostly found in the tropical rainforests of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mariana monitor</span> Species of lizard

Varanus tsukamotoi, the Mariana monitor or Saipan monitor, is a species of lizard of the family Varanidae. It is endemic to the Northern Mariana Islands and Guam, and has been introduced to Japan in the Marshall Islands.

<i>Varanus <span style="font-style:normal;">(</span>Euprepiosaurus<span style="font-style:normal;">)</span></i> Subgenus of monitor lizards

Euprepiosaurus is a subgenus of monitor lizards found in the Malay Archipelago and northern Australia, which includes small to medium sized species.

References

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  38. ↑ "How Lizard Genitalia Became a Black Market Craze". National Geographic Society . 7 July 2017. Archived from the original on March 3, 2021.
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  46. ↑ "Identification Guides for Wildlife Traded in Southeast Asia". ASEAN-WEN. 2008.
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  50. 1 2 Böhme, Wolfgang (2019-11-23). "The Kei Islands Monitor Lizard (Squamata: Varanidae: Varanus: Euprepiosaurus) as a Distinct Morphological, Taxonomic, and Conservation Unit". Russian Journal of Herpetology. 26 (5): 272–280. doi:10.30906/1026-2296-2019-26-5-272-280. S2CID   213867767.
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  52. ↑ BÖHME, WOLFGANG (2003). "Checklist of the living lizards of the world (family Varanidae)". Zool. Verh. Leiden. 341.
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  54. ↑ Koch, Andre (2010-05-06). "Unravelling The Underestimated Diversity Of Philippine Water Monitor Lizards (Squamata: Varanus Salvator Complex), With The Description Of Two New Species And A New Subspecies". Zootaxa. 2446: 1–54. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.2446.1.1.
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  59. ↑ Villa, Andrea; Abella, Juan; Alba, David M.; Almécija, Sergio; Bolet, Arnau; Koufos, George D.; Knoll, Fabien; Luján, Àngel H.; Morales, Jorge; Robles, Josep M.; Sánchez, Israel M. (2018-12-05). "Revision of Varanus marathonensis (Squamata, Varanidae) based on historical and new material: morphology, systematics, and paleobiogeography of the European monitor lizards". PLOS ONE. 13 (12): e0207719. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1307719V. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0207719 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   6281198 . PMID   30517172.
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  62. 1 2 Weijola, Valter; Vahtera, Varpu; Koch, André; Schmitz, Andreas; Kraus, Fred (2020). "Taxonomy of Micronesian monitors (Reptilia: Squamata: Varanus): endemic status of new species argues for caution in pursuing eradication plans". Royal Society Open Science. 7 (5): 200092. Bibcode:2020RSOS....700092W. doi: 10.1098/rsos.200092 . PMC   7277287 . PMID   32537217.
  63. 1 2 Weijola, Valter; Kraus, Fred (2023). "Two new species of monitor lizards (Squamata: Varanus) endemic to the Louisiade and Tanimbar archipelagos". Journal of Natural History. 57 (13–16): 947–975. doi: 10.1080/00222933.2023.2218574 .
  64. ↑ Weijola, Valter; Sweet, Samuel (2010). "A new melanistic species of monitor lizard (Reptilia: Squamata: Varanidae) from Sanana Island, Indonesia" (PDF). Zootaxa. 2434: 17–32. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.2434.1.2.
  65. ↑ Weijola, Valter; Donnellan, Stephen; Lindqvist, Christer (2016). "A new blue-tailed Monitor lizard (Reptilia, Squamata, Varanus) of the Varanus indicus group from Mussau Island, Papua New Guinea". ZooKeys (568): 129–54. Bibcode:2016ZooK..568..129W. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.568.6872 . PMC   4829673 . PMID   27103877.
  66. ↑ Varanus keithhornei, The Reptile Database
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  68. ↑ Eidenmüller, Bernd; Wicker, Rudolf (2005). "Eine weitere neue Waranart aus dem Varanus prasinus-Komplex von den Insel Misol, Indonesian ". Sauria27 (1): 3-8. (Varanus reisingeri, new species). (in German).
  69. 1 2 3 Pavón-Vázquez, Carlos J.; Esquerré, Damien; Fitch, Alison J.; Maryan, Brad; Doughty, Paul; Donnellan, Stephen C.; Keogh, J. Scott (2022-08-01). "Between a rock and a dry place: phylogenomics, biogeography, and systematics of ridge-tailed monitors (Squamata: Varanidae: Varanus acanthurus complex)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 173: 107516. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2022.107516. ISSN   1055-7903. PMID   35577290. S2CID   248807709.
  70. ↑ Bucklitsch, Yannick (2016-08-17). "Scale Morphology and Micro-Structure of Monitor Lizards (Squamata: Varanidae: Varanus spp.) and their Allies: Implications for Systematics, Ecology, and Conservation". Zootaxa. 4153 (1): 1–192. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4153.1.1. PMID   27615821.
  71. 1 2 Brendan M. Lynch (2015-01-12). "Undercover researchers expose two new species of lizard for sale on Philippine black market". KU Today. KU | The University of Kansas.
  72. ↑ Koch, André; Gaulke, Maren; Böhme, Wolfgang (2010). "Unravelling the underestimated diversity of Philippine water monitor Lizards (Squamata: Varanus salvator complex), with description of two new species and a new subspecies". Zootaxa2446: 1-54. (Varanus rasmusseni, new species, p. 28).
  73. ↑ Varanus rasmusseni, The Reptile Database

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