Superior mesenteric artery syndrome

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Superior mesenteric artery compressing the duodenum, featuring the superior mesenteric artery syndrome SMA-syndrome.png
Superior mesenteric artery compressing the duodenum, featuring the superior mesenteric artery syndrome

Superior mesenteric artery (SMA) syndrome is a gastro-vascular disorder in which the third and final portion of the duodenum is compressed between the abdominal aorta (AA) and the overlying superior mesenteric artery. This rare, potentially life-threatening syndrome is typically caused by an angle of 6–25° between the AA and the SMA, in comparison to the normal range of 38–56°, due to a lack of retroperitoneal and visceral fat (mesenteric fat). In addition, the aortomesenteric distance is 2–8 millimeters, as opposed to the typical 10–20. [1] However, a narrow SMA angle alone is not enough to make a diagnosis, because patients with a low BMI, most notably children, have been known to have a narrow SMA angle with no symptoms of SMA syndrome. [2]

Contents

SMA syndrome is also known as Wilkie's syndrome, cast syndrome, mesenteric root syndrome, chronic duodenal ileus and intermittent arterio-mesenteric occlusion. [3] It is distinct from nutcracker syndrome, which is the entrapment of the left renal vein between the AA and the SMA, although it is possible to be diagnosed with both conditions. [4]

Signs and symptoms

Superior mesenteric artery syndrome
Other namesWilkie syndrome
Wiki-CAT.JPG
Abdominal and pelvic computed tomography scan showing duodenal compression (black arrow) by the superior mesenteric artery (red arrow) and the abdominal aorta (blue arrow).
Specialty Gastroenterology, general surgery
Symptoms Early satiety, nausea, vomiting, extreme "stabbing" postprandial abdominal pain, abdominal distention and tenderness, burping, reflux, and heartburn.

Signs and symptoms include early satiety, nausea, vomiting, extreme "stabbing" postprandial abdominal pain (due to both the duodenal compression and the compensatory reversed peristalsis), abdominal distention/distortion, burping, external hypersensitivity or tenderness of the abdominal area, reflux, and heartburn. [5] In infants, feeding difficulties and poor weight gain are also frequent symptoms. [6]

In some cases of SMA syndrome, severe malnutrition accompanying spontaneous wasting may occur. [7] This, in turn, increases the duodenal compression, which worsens the underlying cause, creating a cycle of worsening symptoms. [8]

Fear of eating is commonly seen among those with the chronic form of SMA syndrome. For many, symptoms are partially relieved when in the left lateral decubitus or knee-to-chest position, or in the prone (face down) position. A Hayes maneuver, which corresponds to applying pressure below the umbilicus in cephalad and dorsal direction, elevates the root of the SMA, also slightly easing the constriction. Symptoms can be aggravated when leaning to the right or taking a face up position. [7]

Causes

Retroperitoneal fat and lymphatic tissue normally serve as a cushion for the duodenum, protecting it from compression by the SMA. SMA syndrome is thus triggered by any condition involving an insubstantial cushion and narrow mesenteric angle. SMA syndrome can present in two forms: chronic/congenital or acute/induced.[ citation needed ]

Patients with the chronic, congenital form of SMA syndrome predominantly have a lengthy or even lifelong history of abdominal complaints with intermittent exacerbations depending on the degree of duodenal compression. Risk factors include anatomic characteristics such as: asthenic (very thin or "lanky") body build, an unusually high insertion of the duodenum at the ligament of Treitz, a particularly low origin of the SMA, or intestinal malrotation around an axis formed by the SMA. [9] Predisposition is easily aggravated by any of the following: poor motility of the digestive tract, [3] retroperitional tumors, loss of appetite, malabsorption, cachexia, exaggerated lumbar lordosis, visceroptosis, abdominal wall laxity, peritoneal adhesions, abdominal trauma, [10] rapid linear adolescent growth spurt, weight loss, starvation, catabolic states (as with cancer and burns), and history of neurological injury. [11]

The acute form of SMA syndrome develops rapidly after traumatic incidents that forcibly hyper-extend the SMA across the duodenum, inducing the obstruction, or sudden weight loss for any reason. Causes include prolonged supine bed rest, scoliosis surgery, left nephrectomy, ileo-anal pouch surgery.[ citation needed ]

SMA syndrome is usually difficult to differentiate with anorexia nervosa. [12] Patients with SMA syndrome can be hindered restoring weight in those with anorexia nervosa. [13]

Diagnosis

Diagnosis is very difficult, and usually one of exclusion. SMA syndrome is thus considered only after patients have undergone an extensive evaluation of their gastrointestinal tract including upper endoscopy, and evaluation for various malabsorptive, ulcerative and inflammatory intestinal conditions with a higher diagnostic frequency. Diagnosis may follow X-ray examination revealing duodenal dilation followed by abrupt constriction proximal to the overlying SMA, as well as a delay in transit of four to six hours through the gastroduodenal region. Standard diagnostic exams include abdominal and pelvic computed tomography (CT) scan with oral and IV contrast, upper gastrointestinal series (UGI), and, for equivocal cases, hypotonic duodenography. In addition, vascular imaging studies such as ultrasound and contrast angiography may be used to indicate increased bloodflow velocity through the SMA or a narrowed SMA angle. [14] [15]

Despite multiple case reports, there has been controversy surrounding the diagnosis and even the existence of SMA syndrome since symptoms do not always correlate well with radiologic findings, and may not always improve following surgical correction. [16] However, the reason for the persistence of gastrointestinal symptoms even after surgical correction in some cases has been traced to the remaining prominence of reversed peristalsis in contrast to direct peristalsis. [17]

Since females between the ages of 10 and 30 are most frequently affected, it is not uncommon for physicians to initially and incorrectly assume that emaciation is a choice of the patient instead of a consequence of SMA syndrome. Patients in the earlier stages of SMA syndrome often remain unaware that they are ill until substantial damage to their health is done, since they may attempt to adapt to the condition by gradually decreasing their food intake or naturally gravitating toward a lighter and more digestible diet.[ citation needed ]

Treatment

Upper gastrointestinal series showing duodenojejuonostomy (white arrow). Duodenojejunostomy.JPG
Upper gastrointestinal series showing duodenojejuonostomy (white arrow).

SMA syndrome can present in acute, acquired form (e.g. abruptly emerging within an inpatient stay following scoliosis surgery) as well as chronic form (i.e. developing throughout the course of a lifetime and advancing due to environmental triggers, life changes, or other illnesses). According to a number of recent sources, at least 70% of cases can typically be treated with medical treatment, while the rest require surgical treatment. [5] [11] [19]

Medical treatment is attempted first in many cases. In some cases, emergency surgery is necessary upon presentation. [11] A six-week trial of medical treatment is recommended in pediatric cases. [5] The goal of medical treatment for SMA syndrome is resolution of underlying conditions and weight gain. Medical treatment may involve nasogastric tube placement for duodenal and gastric decompression, mobilization into the prone or left lateral decubitus position, [20] the reversal or removal of the precipitating factor with proper nutrition and replacement of fluid and electrolytes, either by surgically inserted jejunal feeding tube, nasogastric intubation, or peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC line) administering total parenteral nutrition (TPN). Pro-motility agents such as metoclopramide may also be beneficial. [21] Symptoms may improve after restoration of weight, except when reversed peristalsis persists, or if regained fat refuses to accumulate within the mesenteric angle. [17] Most patients seem to benefit from nutritional support with hyperalimentation irrespective of disease history. [22]

If medical treatment fails, or is not feasible due to severe illness, surgical intervention is required. The most common operation for SMA syndrome, duodenojejunostomy, was first proposed in 1907 by Bloodgood. [7] Performed as either an open surgery or laparoscopically, duodenojejunostomy involves the creation of an anastomosis between the duodenum and the jejunum, [23] bypassing the compression caused by the AA and the SMA. [1] Less common surgical treatments for SMA syndrome include Roux-en-Y duodenojejunostomy, gastrojejunostomy, anterior transposition of the third portion of the duodenum, intestinal derotation, division of the ligament of Treitz (Strong's operation), and transposition of the SMA. [24] Both transposition of the SMA and lysis of the duodenal suspensory muscle have the advantage that they do not involve the creation of an intestinal anastomosis. [9]

The possible persistence of symptoms after surgical bypass can be traced to the remaining prominence of reversed peristalsis in contrast to direct peristalsis, although the precipitating factor (the duodenal compression) has been bypassed or relieved. Reversed peristalsis has been shown to respond to duodenal circular drainage—a complex and invasive open surgical procedure originally implemented and performed in China. [17]

In some cases, SMA syndrome may occur alongside a serious, life-threatening condition such as cancer or AIDS. Even in these cases, though, treatment of the SMA syndrome can lead to a reduction in symptoms and an increased quality of life. [25] [26]

Prognosis

Delay in the diagnosis of SMA syndrome can result in fatal catabolysis (advanced malnutrition), dehydration, electrolyte abnormalities, hypokalemia, acute gastric rupture or intestinal perforation (from prolonged mesenteric ischemia), gastric distention, spontaneous upper gastrointestinal bleeding, hypovolemic shock, and aspiration pneumonia. [1] [14] [27]

A 1-in-3 mortality rate for Superior Mesenteric Artery syndrome has been quoted by a small number of sources. [28] However, after extensive research, original data establishing this mortality rate has not been found, indicating that the number is likely to be unreliable. While research establishing an official mortality rate may not exist, two recent studies of SMA syndrome patients, one published in 2006 looking at 22 cases [11] and one in 2012 looking at 80 cases, [19] show mortality rates of 0% [11] and 6.3%, [19] respectively. According to the doctors in one of these studies, the expected outcome for SMA syndrome treatment is generally considered to be excellent. [11]

Epidemiology

According to a 1956 study, only 0.3% of patients referred for an upper-gastrointestinal-tract barium studies fit this diagnosis, and is thus a rare disease. [29] Recognition of SMA syndrome as a distinct clinical entity is controversial, due in part to its possible confusion with a number of other conditions, [30] though it is now widely acknowledged. [1] However, unfamiliarity with this condition in the medical community coupled with its intermittent and nonspecific symptomatology probably results in its underdiagnosis. [26]

As the syndrome involves a lack of essential fat, more than half of those diagnosed are underweight, sometimes to the point of sickliness and emaciation. Females are impacted more often than males, and while the syndrome can occur at any age, it is most frequently diagnosed in early adulthood. The most common co-morbid conditions include mental and behavioral disorders including eating disorders and depression, infectious diseases including tuberculosis and acute gastroenteritis, and nervous system diseases including muscular dystrophy, Parkinson's disease, and cerebral palsy. [19]

History

SMA syndrome was first described in 1861 by Carl Freiherr von Rokitansky. Rokitansky Carl.jpg
SMA syndrome was first described in 1861 by Carl Freiherr von Rokitansky.

SMA syndrome was first described in 1861 by Carl Freiherr von Rokitansky in victims at autopsy, but remained pathologically undefined until 1927 when Wilkie published the first comprehensive series of 75 patients. [31]

Society and culture

American actor, director, producer, and writer Christopher Reeve had the acute form of SMA syndrome as a result of spinal cord injury.[ citation needed ] Former model Lisa Brown died in 2017 due to her SMAS after her insurance denied the potentially life saving surgery she needed. Her initial surgery failed causing her to require an intestinal transplant that was expected to cost up to $1 million leading her insurance to deny it. She planned her own funeral. [32] [33]

Non-profit

In 2017 the only US non-profit began distributing grants to those with SMAS. They are registered to the IRS under the name Superior Mesenteric Artery Syndrome Research, Awareness and Support, but also work under the DBA of SMAS Patient Assistance. They offer several resources on their website smasyndrome.com and their Facebook business page. SMAS Patient assistance works to disprove inaccurate information, educate on better diagnostic testing, and more successful surgeries such as Duodenal Deroation with LADDS. [ citation needed ]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Duodenum</span> First section of the small intestine

The duodenum is the first section of the small intestine in most higher vertebrates, including mammals, reptiles, and birds. In mammals it may be the principal site for iron absorption. The duodenum precedes the jejunum and ileum and is the shortest part of the small intestine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vascular surgery</span> Medical specialty, operative procedures for the treatment of vascular disorders

Vascular surgery is a surgical subspecialty in which vascular diseases involving the arteries, veins, or lymphatic vessels, are managed by medical therapy, minimally-invasive catheter procedures and surgical reconstruction. The specialty evolved from general and cardiovascular surgery where it refined the management of just the vessels, no longer treating the heart or other organs. Modern vascular surgery includes open surgery techniques, endovascular techniques and medical management of vascular diseases - unlike the parent specialities. The vascular surgeon is trained in the diagnosis and management of diseases affecting all parts of the vascular system excluding the coronaries and intracranial vasculature. Vascular surgeons also are called to assist other physicians to carry out surgery near vessels, or to salvage vascular injuries that include hemorrhage control, dissection, occlusion or simply for safe exposure of vascular structures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Abdominal pain</span> Stomach aches

Abdominal pain, also known as a stomach ache, Is a symptom associated with both non-serious and serious medical issues. Since the abdomen contains most of the body's vital organs, it can be an indicator of a wide variety of diseases. Given that, approaching the examination of a person and planning of a differential diagnosis is extremely important.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pancreaticoduodenectomy</span> Major surgical procedure involving the pancreas, duodenum, and other organs

A pancreaticoduodenectomy, also known as a Whipple procedure, is a major surgical operation most often performed to remove cancerous tumours from the head of the pancreas. It is also used for the treatment of pancreatic or duodenal trauma, or chronic pancreatitis. Due to the shared blood supply of organs in the proximal gastrointestinal system, surgical removal of the head of the pancreas also necessitates removal of the duodenum, proximal jejunum, gallbladder, and, occasionally, part of the stomach.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Suspensory muscle of duodenum</span> Muscle between the duodenum and jejunum

The suspensory muscle of duodenum is a thin muscle connecting the junction between the duodenum and jejunum, as well as the duodenojejunal flexure to connective tissue surrounding the superior mesenteric and coeliac arteries. The suspensory muscle most often connects to both the third and fourth parts of the duodenum, as well as the duodenojejunal flexure, although the attachment is quite variable.

Intestinal malrotation is a congenital anomaly of rotation of the midgut. It occurs during the first trimester as the fetal gut undergoes a complex series of growth and development. Malrotation can lead to a dangerous complication called volvulus, in which cases emergency surgery is indicated. Malrotation can refer to a spectrum of abnormal intestinal positioning, often including:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Superior mesenteric artery</span> Artery which supplies blood to the intestines and pancreas

In human anatomy, the superior mesenteric artery (SMA) is an artery which arises from the anterior surface of the abdominal aorta, just inferior to the origin of the celiac trunk, and supplies blood to the intestine from the lower part of the duodenum through two-thirds of the transverse colon, as well as the pancreas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gastrointestinal perforation</span> Medical condition

Gastrointestinal perforation, also known as gastrointestinal rupture, is a hole in the wall of the gastrointestinal tract. The gastrointestinal tract is composed of hollow digestive organs leading from the mouth to the anus. Symptoms of gastrointestinal perforation commonly include severe abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting. Complications include a painful inflammation of the inner lining of the abdominal wall and sepsis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intestinal pseudo-obstruction</span> Medical condition

Intestinal pseudo-obstruction (IPO) is a clinical syndrome caused by severe impairment in the ability of the intestines to push food through. It is characterized by the signs and symptoms of intestinal obstruction without any lesion in the intestinal lumen. Clinical features mimic those seen with mechanical intestinal obstructions and can include abdominal pain, nausea, abdominal distension, vomiting, dysphagia and constipation depending upon the part of the gastrointestinal tract involved.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nutcracker syndrome</span> Medical condition

The nutcracker syndrome (NCS) results most commonly from the compression of the left renal vein (LRV) between the abdominal aorta (AA) and superior mesenteric artery (SMA), although other variants exist. The name derives from the fact that, in the sagittal plane and/or transverse plane, the SMA and AA appear to be a nutcracker crushing a nut.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ischemic colitis</span> Medical condition

Ischemic colitis is a medical condition in which inflammation and injury of the large intestine result from inadequate blood supply. Although uncommon in the general population, ischemic colitis occurs with greater frequency in the elderly, and is the most common form of bowel ischemia. Causes of the reduced blood flow can include changes in the systemic circulation or local factors such as constriction of blood vessels or a blood clot. In most cases, no specific cause can be identified.

An acute abdomen refers to a sudden, severe abdominal pain. It is in many cases a medical emergency, requiring urgent and specific diagnosis. Several causes need immediate surgical treatment.

Postcholecystectomy syndrome (PCS) describes the presence of abdominal symptoms after a cholecystectomy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intestinal atresia</span> Medical condition

Intestinal atresia is any congenital malformation of the structure of the intestine that causes bowel obstruction. The malformation can be a narrowing (stenosis), absence or malrotation of a portion of the intestine. These defects can either occur in the small or large intestine.

Abdominal angina is abdominal pain after eating that occurs in individuals with ongoing poor blood supply to their small intestines known as chronic mesenteric ischemia. Although the term angina alone usually denotes angina pectoris, angina by itself can also mean "any spasmodic, choking, or suffocative pain", with an anatomic adjective defining its focus; so, in this case, spasmodic pain in the abdomen. Stedman's Medical Dictionary Online defines abdominal angina as "intermittent abdominal pain, frequently occurring at a fixed time after eating, caused by inadequacy of the mesenteric circulation resulting from arteriosclerosis or other arterial disease. Synonym: intestinal angina."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bowel resection</span> Surgical procedure in which a part of an intestine is removed

A bowel resection or enterectomy is a surgical procedure in which a part of an intestine (bowel) is removed, from either the small intestine or large intestine. Often the word enterectomy is reserved for the sense of small bowel resection, in distinction from colectomy, which covers the sense of large bowel resection. Bowel resection may be performed to treat gastrointestinal cancer, bowel ischemia, necrosis, or obstruction due to scar tissue, volvulus, and hernias. Some patients require ileostomy or colostomy after this procedure as alternative means of excretion. Complications of the procedure may include anastomotic leak or dehiscence, hernias, or adhesions causing partial or complete bowel obstruction. Depending on which part and how much of the intestines are removed, there may be digestive and metabolic challenges afterward, such as short bowel syndrome.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mitochondrial neurogastrointestinal encephalopathy syndrome</span> Medical condition

Mitochondrial neurogastrointestinal encephalopathy syndrome (MNGIE) is a rare autosomal recessive mitochondrial disease. It has been previously referred to as polyneuropathy, ophthalmoplegia, leukoencephalopathy, and intestinal pseudoobstruction. The disease presents in childhood, but often goes unnoticed for decades. Unlike typical mitochondrial diseases caused by mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutations, MNGIE is caused by mutations in the TYMP gene, which encodes the enzyme thymidine phosphorylase. Mutations in this gene result in impaired mitochondrial function, leading to intestinal symptoms as well as neuro-ophthalmologic abnormalities. A secondary form of MNGIE, called MNGIE without leukoencephalopathy, can be caused by mutations in the POLG gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intestinal ischemia</span> Restriction of blood flow to the small intestine resulting in injury

Intestinal ischemia is a medical condition in which injury to the large or small intestine occurs due to not enough blood supply. It can come on suddenly, known as acute intestinal ischemia, or gradually, known as chronic intestinal ischemia. The acute form of the disease often presents with sudden severe abdominal pain and is associated with a high risk of death. The chronic form typically presents more gradually with abdominal pain after eating, unintentional weight loss, vomiting, and fear of eating.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Median arcuate ligament syndrome</span> Medical condition

In medicine, the median arcuate ligament syndrome is a rare condition characterized by abdominal pain attributed to compression of the celiac artery and the celiac ganglia by the median arcuate ligament. The abdominal pain may be related to meals, may be accompanied by weight loss, and may be associated with an abdominal bruit heard by a clinician.

Megaduodenum is a congenital or acquired dilation and elongation of the duodenum with hypertrophy of all layers that presents as a feeling of gastric fullness, abdominal pain, belching, heartburn, and nausea with vomiting sometimes of food eaten 24 hours prior.

References

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