The 1996 Atlantic hurricane season had the most major hurricanes since 1950, which are Category3 or higher on the Saffir-Simpson scale.[1] The season was above-average, featuring a total of thirteen named storms, nine hurricanes, and six major hurricanes. The season officially began on June1, 1996 and ended on November30, 1996, dates which conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin. The season's first tropical cyclone, Tropical Storm Arthur, developed on June17, while the final cyclone, Hurricane Marco dissipated on November26. The most intense hurricane, Edouard, was a powerful Cape Verde-type hurricane that affected portions of the Mid-Atlantic states and New England. The season featured nine tropical cyclone landfalls, including six hurricanes, one of which was a major hurricane. In total, six major hurricanes formed during the 1996Atlantic hurricane season—the highest number produced in a single season since 1950.
The four most notable tropical cyclones of the season were hurricanes Bertha, Cesar, Fran, and Hortense. Bertha made landfall as a Category2 hurricane on the coast of North Carolina, causing a total of 12deaths and $335million (1996USD) in damage. Hurricane Fran made landfall in the same general area a little over a month later as a Category3 hurricane, causing 37deaths and $5billion in damage. Hurricane Cesar developed in the east Caribbean during late-July, struck Nicaragua, then crossed into the Pacific as a tropical storm, at which time it was given the name Douglas. The system produced strong winds and flooding, leading to 113deaths and $202.96million in damage. Finally, Hurricane Hortense formed in the east Atlantic during the month of September and crossed Hispaniola and Puerto Rico, causing 39direct deaths and $158million in damage. Collectively, the tropical cyclones of the 1996Atlantic hurricane season caused $6.52billion in damage and 256deaths.
Seasonal forecasts
Pre-season forecasts
Predictions of tropical activity in the 1996 season
Forecasts of hurricane activity are issued before each hurricane season by noted hurricane experts such as Dr. William M. Gray and his associates at Colorado State University (CSU) and the Weather Research Center (WRC). A normal season, as defined by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), has 12.1named storms, of these 6.4reach hurricane strength, and 2.7major hurricanes, which are Category3 or higher on the Saffir–Simpson scale.[5] Additional, the 1950-2000 CSU average for a normal season is 9.6named storms, of these 5.9reach hurricane strength, and 2.3become major hurricanes.[6]
In December1995, CSU predicted that only 8named storms would form and 5of those would become hurricanes; no specific number of major hurricanes was given. However, in April1996, CSU revised their forecast, stating that 11named storms would develop, with seven of those intensifying into a hurricane, and three reaching major hurricane intensity. In June, CSU predicted 10named storms, 6hurricanes, and 2major hurricanes.[2] The forecast by the WRC in early 1996 was 10named storms and 6hurricanes, though there was no prediction on the number of major hurricanes.[3]
VISSR Imagery taken on September 2, 1996, of Edouard (top; off the coast of the Northeast U.S.), Fran (bottom left; north of Hispaniola), the remnants of Gustav (right of Fran; in the open Atlantic), and the disturbance that would become Hortense (bottom right; in the Main Development Region).
The 1996 Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June1,[7] but the first named storm did not form until seventeen days later. It was an above average season in which 13 tropical cyclones formed, with all cyclones attaining tropical storm status. Nine of these sixteen attained hurricane status and six of those reached major hurricane status,[8] which was well above the 1980–2010 average of 2.7per season.[5] Although there was neither an El Niño or a La Niña,[9] the above average activity in the season was likely due to abnormally warm sea surface temperatures.[8] Six hurricanes and three tropical storms made landfall during the season, causing 256deaths and $6.52billion in damage.[10]Hurricane Edouard and Hurricane Marco also caused damage and fatalities, but neither storm made an official landfall.[11][12] Additionally, the 1996 season was only the second on record in which more than one storm crossed between the Atlantic Pacific basins (Cesar and Dolly). This record would be tied again 26 years later in 2022.[13]
Tropical cyclogenesis in the 1996 Atlantic hurricane season began with the development of Tropical Storm Arthur on June17. In the month of July, two tropical cyclones formed, both of which later attained hurricane status. August was the most active month of the season, with a total of four storms developing in that period of time. The month of August also featured the strongest and costliest tropical cyclones of the season, Hurricane Edouard and Hurricane Fran, respectively.[8] Although September is the climatological peak of hurricane season,[14] only two tropical cyclones developed in that month. Despite this, both reached major hurricane status. Three tropical cyclones formed in October, with one attaining hurricane status. Finally, one tropical cyclone developed in November, Hurricane Marco. The storm lasted 10days before dissipating on November26.[8]
The season's activity was reflected with an Accumulated Cyclone Energy (ACE) index of 166.[1] ACE is, broadly speaking, a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed, so storms that last a long time, as well as particularly strong hurricanes, have high ACEs. It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39mph (63km/h), which is the threshold for tropical storm strength.[15]
An area of increasing convection, possibly associated with a tropical wave, developed into Tropical Depression One on June17 at 1800UTC, while located near Grand Bahama. Initially, the depression moved north-northwestward and then northward around the western periphery of an Atlantic subtropical ridge. Despite moderately strong wind shear, the depression strengthened and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Arthur while re-curving northeastward at 0000UTC on June19. About 24hours later, Arthur made landfall near Cape Lookout, North Carolina with winds of 45mph (72km/h). The storm weakened to a tropical depression early on June20, before becoming extratropical the next day.[16]
As the center of Arthur passed east of Cape Romain, South Carolina, minor increases in surf were reported.[17] Rainfall peaked at 5.85 inches (149mm) in Georgetown, South Carolina,[18] though because it fell gradually, no significant flooding was reported, other than minor ponding of water on roads.[16] In addition, Arthur also brought precipitation to Georgia and Virginia, though amounts rarely exceeded 3 inches (76mm).[18] In North Carolina, swells ranged as high as 7ft (2.1m). A C-Man station located about 35mi (56km) southeast of Cape Fear reported sustained winds of 39mph (63km/h) and gusts up to 45mph (72km/h).[16] Overall, damage caused by Arthur was minimal, totaling only $1million.[17]
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Two at 0000UTC on July5, while located about 575 miles (925km) east of Cape Verde. Twelve hours later, it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Bertha. Over the next few days, it continued to strengthen, becoming a hurricane on July7, prior to moving through the northern Leeward Islands. A period of rapid intensification began late on July8, with Bertha peaking as a Category3 hurricane with winds of 115mph (185km/h) on the following day. Moving around the western periphery of a subtropical ridge, Bertha passed north of the Bahamas as a weakening hurricane before turning towards the north-northeast and re-strengthened. Late on July12, Bertha made landfall between Wrightsville Beach and Topsail Beach, North Carolina with winds of 90mph (140km/h). Gradual weakening ensued the following day as Bertha moved up the Mid-Atlantic states and into New England before becoming extratropical on July14.[19]
In the United States Virgin Islands, heavy rainfall and hurricane-force winds damaged about 2,500homes, of which 43lost their roofs. Many boats were destroyed. Total damage was estimated near $7.5million.[20] The storm caused 3deaths in Puerto Rico.[19] Additionally, damage in Puerto Rico totaled $7.5million.[20] Two deaths were confirmed in Saint Martin.[19] The storm caused numerous power outages and damaged 10homes in Antigua and Barbuda.[21] Four deaths occurred in Florida, three of which due to rip currents.[20] North Carolina bore the brunt of the hurricane in the United States. Storm surge destroyed several fishing piers, marinas, and boats. A combination of storm surge and strong winds damaged over 5,000homes and buildings,[19] with at least 4destroyed.[20] There were 2deaths in the state. The remnants brought local flooding and minor wind damage to the Mid-Atlantic, New England,[19] and Atlantic Canada.[22] One surfer died in New Jersey.[19] Overall, the storm caused 12deaths and about $285million in damage, primarily in eastern North Carolina.[19][20]
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on July17. It developed into Tropical Depression Three near Isla Margarita of Venezuela on July24. The depression headed westward, steered by a strong high pressure area over the Bahamas. On July25, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Cesar. Around that time, it struck Curaçao.[23] Cesar caused minor damage in the ABC islands to roofs and trees; one person drowned in heavy surf on Curaçao.[24] An additional three people drowned offshore Venezuela.[25] In Colombia, heavy rainfall caused 3deaths,[26] 2of which were from a mudslide in Pueblo Bello.[27] Strong winds and significant amounts of precipitation lashed the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina, unroofing 60homes,[28] and resulting in 11fatalities,[29] and resulting in 800million COP ($440,00USD) in damage.[28] The storm continued westward and intensified into a hurricane on July27.[23]
At 0400UTC on July28, Cesar made landfall near Bluefields, Nicaragua, with winds of 85mph (137km/h). After weakening to a tropical storm later that day, Cesar moved into the Pacific and was reclassified as Tropical Storm Douglas on July29.[23] In Nicaragua, the storm wrought about $50.5million in losses. More than 2,500homes, 39bridges and 25 miles (40km) of roads were destroyed. The storm killed 42people and left an estimated 100,000homeless in Nicaragua.[30] In Costa Rica, river flooding damaged or destroyed 3,874homes; 150bridges were also destroyed. The road network was significantly damaged.[31] Across the country, at least 39people were killed and damage amounted to $151million.[32] Additionally, 12people died in El Salvador.[33] Overall, Cesar caused 113deaths and $202.96million in damage.[34]
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Four at 0600UTC on August19, while located west-southwest of Jamaica. The system strengthened into Tropical Storm Dolly about twelve hours later. Dolly headed westward and intensified into a Category1 hurricane late on August20. It then made landfall near Chetumal, Quintana Roo with winds of 75mph (121km/h). The system weakened to a tropical depression on August21. Later that day or early on August22, Dolly emerged into the Bay of Campeche and quickly re-strengthened into a tropical storm. The storm deepened further and was upgraded to a hurricane again at 1200UTC on August23; Dolly simultaneously peaked with winds of 80mph (130km/h). Around that time, it struck between Tuxpan, Veracruz and Tampico, Tamaulipas. Dolly quickly weakened to a tropical depression early on August24, but remained intact while crossing Mexico and dissipated over the eastern Pacific Ocean on August25.[35]
The storm brought heavy rainfall to much of Mexico, peaking at 37.41 inches (950mm).[36] In Quintana Roo, flooding destroyed a large amount of farmlands. Widespread flooding occurred after a river in the Pueblo Viejo area overflowed its banks. Hundreds of homes were destroyed, displacing about 35,000people. Large scale evacuations occurred in San Luis Potosí, while about 6,500fled their homes in the Tampico area. Communications and power outages were reported as far west as Mazatlán, Sinaloa. Throughout Mexico, there were fourteen fatalities reported, six in Veracruz, three in Nuevo León, and one in Monterrey. Additionally, two people were left missing in Nuevo León.[35] The outer bands of Dolly brought rainfall to southern Texas, which caused minor flooding, but was mostly beneficial due to drought conditions in the state.[37]
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Five on August19, while located about 345 miles (555km) southeast of Cape Verde. The depression moved westward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Edouard on August22. Further intensification occurred, with the storm being upgraded to a hurricane on the following day. Early on August24, the storm re-curved west-northwestward and began to undergo rapid deepening. At 0600UTC on August25, Edouard attained its maximum sustained winds of 145mph (233km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 933mbar (27.6inHg); it was the most intense tropical cyclone of the season. The storm remained a major hurricane for nearly eight days. Edouard passed well north of the Lesser Antilles and then began re-curving northward on August29. Later, the storm passed midway between Cape Hatteras and Bermuda on September1.[11]
Edouard approached Nantucket, Massachusetts, but turned to the east before reaching land. On September3, the storm weakened and became extratropical. It was absorbed by a larger system on September7.[11] Edouard brought rough seas and gusty winds along the East Coast of the United States from South Carolina northward. Strong waves in New Jersey drowned 2people. Minor erosion and coastal flooding also occurred in several states, especially in New York and Massachusetts.[37] In the latter, wind gusts up to 90mph (140km/h) left two-thirds of Nantucket, most of Cape Cod, and all of Martha's Vineyard without electricity. Gusty winds in Maine left about 1,900without power in Portland.[38] Damage in the United States totaled about $20million.[39] In Canada, the storm brought rainfall up to 5.35 inches (136mm) and gusts to 75mph (121km/h). Rough seas disrupted ferry service and caused the closure of several beaches.[40]
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Six on August23, while located southeast of Cape Verde. The depression moved westward for several days and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Fran on August27 while 1,035 miles (1,666km) east of the Lesser Antilles. Fran tracked west-northwestward and intensified into a hurricane on August29. However, Fran became less organized after a disruption to inflow due to Hurricane Edouard and weakened back to a tropical storm. Fran quickly re-intensified into a hurricane by August31. While moving west-northwestward and then north-northwestward, the storm slowly strengthened. At 0000UTC on September5, Fran peaked as a Category3 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 120mph (190km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 946mbar (27.9inHg). Early on the following day, the storm made landfall near Cape Fear, North Carolina at the same intensity. Fran weakened and moved inland, becoming extratropical over Ontario on September8. Its remnants moved over the Great Lakes and were absorbed by a front on September10.[41]
In South Carolina, the outer bands of Fran produced high winds and light to moderate rainfall, downing numerous trees and power lines. As a result, a number of cars were damaged and over 63,000people were left without electricity.[38] Damage in South Carolina reached about $40million. The state of North Carolina bore the brunt of the storm. Wind gusts as strong as 137mph (220km/h) were reported. Additionally, storm tide heights ranging from 8 to 12 feet (2.4 to 3.7m) lashed the coast.[41] Damage was most severe in the Raleigh area, exceeding $2billion. Several hundred thousand falling trees damaged at least 10,000homes. Throughout the state, approximately 1.7million people were left without electricity. Damage in North Carolina reached about $5.1billion, with about $2.3billion to homes and businesses, $1.1billion to public property, $1billion to forestry and timber, and $700million to agriculture.[42] Elsewhere, Fran brought flooding to several states, including Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, Ohio, and Pennsylvania, as well as Washington, D.C. Outside North Carolina, effects were worst in Virginia, where flooding and winds left 400,000people without electricity and caused about $350million in damage.[38][41] Hurricane Fran was responsible for 37deaths, with 24of them in North Carolina.[43] Property damage in the United States was estimated at $5billion.[44]
An area of disturbed weather, accompanied with a low-level circulation, emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on August24. It organized further over the next few days, becoming Tropical Depression Seven on August26, while located about 150 miles (240km) south of Cape Verde. With a ridge to its north, the system moved west-southwestward. Conditions were initially unfavorable for development due to outflow from Hurricane Fran. On August28, the depression began moving northwestward due to an approaching trough. Around the same time, the influence from Fran decreased, allowing it to intensify into Tropical Storm Gustav on August28.[45]
At 0000UTC on August29, Gustav reached its peak intensity as a 45mph (72km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1,005mbar (29.7inHg). Thereafter, the trough previously causing the storm's northwestward motion transitioned into an upper-level low, increasing shear across the region. As a result, the storm slowly weakened and was downgraded to a tropical depression late on September1. Gustav dissipated at 0600UTC on the following day, while situated about 1,015 miles (1,633km) east-northeast of the northernmost Lesser Antilles.[45]
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Eight on September3, while located about halfway between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde. The depression headed westward and barely strengthened until becoming Tropical Storm Hortense early on September7. Hortense passed over Guadeloupe on the following day and entered the Caribbean Sea. It strengthened into a hurricane on September9 and then curved northwestward. The storm intensified slightly further, before making landfall near Guánica, Puerto Rico with winds of 80mph (130km/h) at 0600UTC on September10. It soon moved back offshore and brushed Dominican Republic while crossing the Mona Passage. After re-entering the Atlantic, Hortense substantially strengthened and peaked as a 140mph (230km/h) Category4 hurricane early on September13. Thereafter, the storm weakened as it tracked rapidly north-northeastward. Early on September15, Hortense made landfall in Nova Scotia as a minimal Category1 hurricane. It quickly weakened further to a tropical storm before re-entering the Atlantic and became extratropical later that day.[46]
The storm produced heavy rainfall and gusty winds as it passed through the Lesser Antilles.[46] On Guadeloupe, damage was most significant to crops, with over 50% of banana plantains destroyed.[47][48] Localized flooding was reported on Martinique.[49] Impact was most significant in Puerto Rico. Across the island, 11,463houses were severely damaged.[46] About 1.4million people on Puerto Rico were left without electricity – equivalent to about 40% of the island's population.[50] Damage in Puerto Rico was estimated at $153.4million. There were also 19deaths, most of which due to drowning during flash floods.[38] In the Dominican Republic, strong winds damaged a number of buildings and houses, and downed several power lines. Flooding also forced the closure of several roads and impacted 80% of crops in Samaná Province. At least 3fatalities were confirmed in that country.[46] The storm brought strong winds to the Bahamas and Turks and Caicos Islands,[46][50] and lesser winds to Bermuda.[51][52] Later in its duration, Hortense struck Nova Scotia, bringing heavy rainfall and hurricane-force winds to isolated locations. There were many power outages, trees blown down, roofs torn away, and roads damaged in the province. New Brunswick, Newfoundland, and Prince Edward Island were also impacted, though not as severely as in Nova Scotia. Damage in Atlantic Canada reached approximately $3.64million.[53]
A tropical wave with a well-defined circulation developed into Tropical Depression Nine at 1200UTC on September24, while located south of Cape Verde. Due to an anticyclone to its north, the depression initially moved west-northwestward. After convection wrapped around the circulation and banding features increased, the National Hurricane Center upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Isidore on September25. Isidore deepened further and began developing an eye feature. Early on September26, the storm was upgraded to a hurricane. About 24hours later, it reached Category2 intensity. At 0000UTC on September28, Isidore attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 115mph (185km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 960mbar (hPa; 28.35inHg).[54]
After reaching peak intensity on September28, steering current from a quasi-stationary mid- to upper-level low pressure area turned Isidore northward. Later that day, the eye feature disappeared and the storm began weakening due to strong upper-level winds. On September28, Isidore weakened to a Category2 hurricane. By the following day, it was downgraded to a Category1 hurricane. Early on September30, Isidore weakened to a tropical storm. The storm deteriorated further and was downgraded to a tropical depression at 1200UTC on the following day. Because much of the deep convection diminished, Isidore was declared extratropical at 0000UTC on October1, while located about 490 miles (790km) west-southwest of Flores Island in the Azores.[54]
Tropical Depression Ten developed from the remnants of a cold front in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico on October6. Moving generally eastward, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Josephine on October6. The next day, it peaked with winds of 70mph (110km/h). Josephine made landfall in Taylor County, Florida near peak intensity early on October8. Shortly after moving inland, the storm became extratropical.[55] Early in its duration, the system interacted with a ridge, resulting in strong winds and high tides in Texas. The outer bands caused flooding rainfall in southern Texas,[56] and in Louisiana, high tides flooded roads and stranded residents on Grand Isle.[57] In Florida, the storm produced a storm surge reaching 9.3 feet (2.8m) in Suwannee.[55] High tides flooded about 3,600houses along the west coast.[56] Strong winds left about 400,000people without power.[58] The storm also spawned at least 16tornadoes, one of which damaged 130homes.[56]
The extratropical remnants of Josephine moved along the eastern coast of the United States, producing wind gusts as strong as 77mph (124km/h) in St. Mary's County and in Ocean City, Maryland.[56] The winds caused widespread power outages, including 26,000 in Virginia and 31,000 in New Jersey.[56][59] Heavy rainfall flooded low-lying areas and rivers along the storm's path, including in North Carolina which had previously been affected by hurricanes Bertha and Fran earlier in the year.[56] In the Southeastern United States, the storm contributed to dozens of traffic accidents, which killed a person each in Georgia, North Carolina, and Virginia.[60] Damage throughout the United States totaled about $130million.[55] Josephine later moved offshore, and after passing southeast of Cape Cod, moved through Atlantic Canada with moderate rainfall and gusty winds.[61]
A tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa on September27 and crossed the Atlantic and Caribbean before eventually developing into Tropical Depression Eleven on October11. The depression drifted slowly southwestward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Kyle later that day. Slightly further intensification occurred and Kyle peaked as a 50mph (80km/h) tropical storm early on October12. However, upper-level southwesterly shear caused Kyle to quickly weaken back to a tropical depression later that day. At 1800UTC on October12, Kyle made landfall in eastern Guatemala with winds of 30mph (48km/h). By early on October13, the storm had completely dissipated inland.[62]
Portions of the coasts of Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and Mexico were under a tropical storm warning or hurricane watch as Kyle was approaching; however they were cancelled after Kyle weakened back to a tropical depression.[62] Impact from Kyle was minimal and limited to light rainfall in the countries of Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico. In Belize, rainfall peaked at 2.32 inches (59mm).[63] Rainfall to the northwest of the center of Kyle was heavier, with some areas of Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula receiving over 3 inches (76mm); precipitation peaked at 5.71 inches (145mm) in Tulum.[64]
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Twelve on October14. After the storm formed, further strengthening of Lili was gradual, first to tropical storm status on October 16 and then to hurricane status on October17. The next day, Lili made landfall in Matanzas Province, Cuba with winds of 100mph (160km/h) and moved across the central portion of the island;[65] it was first hurricane to hit the country since Kate in 1985.[66] After emerging into the Atlantic Ocean, the hurricane accelerated northeastward, briefly peaking as a Category3 hurricane with winds of 115mph (185km/h) near the Bahamas on October19. For almost an entire week, Hurricane Lili oscillated in intensity while fluctuating several times in forward speed. About two weeks passed before Lili transitioned into an extratropical storm north of the Azores on October27, which subsequently moved across Ireland and Great Britain.[65]
Early in its duration, Lili caused flooding in Central America that left thousands homeless and killed 14people.[65] In Cuba, 269,995people were evacuated in advance of Lili, resulting in no deaths in the country.[67] Damage was heaviest in Cuba, mostly due to the hurricane's heavy rainfall peaking at 29.41 inches (747mm).[68] The hurricane affected 11Cuban provinces, damaging 92,542houses and destroying another 6,369. The rains heavily damaged the sugar cane and banana crops.[69] Overall, damage in the country was estimated at $362million.[70] In nearby Florida, one person died after being swept into a drain during the storm's heavy rains.[71] Moisture from Lili also fueled a storm that struck the northeastern United States, which contributed indirectly to a death when a man in Maine tried to drive across a flooded roadway.[56] Damage in the Bahamas was not severe and was limited to some damaged roofs and downed trees.[72] When the remnants of Lili struck Ireland and the United Kingdom, it produced strong winds and high seas that damaged hundreds of houses, causing $300million in damage and six deaths.[73]
A cold front interacted with several tropical waves, eventually spawning Tropical Depression Thirteen late on November16, while southwest of Jamaica. Initially a tropical depression, it remained weak while tracking southwestward and eventually southward. On November19, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Marco. It re-curved eastward and continued to strengthen, briefly becoming a hurricane on November20. Marco weakened back to a tropical storm later that day. The storm turned northeastward toward Hispaniola, but later became stationary before curing eastward. Afterwards Marco doubled-back to the west. After weakening to a tropical depression on November23, Marco became a tropical storm again on the following day. Thereafter, it tracked northwestward while fluctuating in intensity, before dissipating on November26.[12]
Although it did not make landfall, Marco produced heavy rainfall in the Greater Antilles and Central America, which caused significant flooding in some areas.[12] In Honduras, 4,000homes were destroyed, 40bridges washed away,[74] and nearly 50,000acres of fruit plantations were flooded.[75] Nine deaths were also reported.[74] Flood damage in other Central American countries was also reported, though affects were less severe.[12] Heavy rainfall was also reported in Cuba.[76] Marco also contributed to an ongoing flood in Jamaica and caused three additional fatalities in Dominican Republic.[77][78] Overall, Marco caused 15fatalities and approximately $8.2million in damage.[74][77][78][79][80]
On September 13, a rare low-pressure area moved into Lake Huron where it gained subtropical characteristics. It reached its peak intensity of 73mph (117km/h) and a central pressure of 993 millibars (29.3inHg), before making landfall in southwestern Ontario and dissipating soon afterward. The cyclone was dubbed "Hurricane Huron", as it maintained subtropical characteristics while situated over Lake Huron. The Lake Huron cyclone caused heavy rainfall and flooding across Michigan and Eastern Canada, as well as parts of Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, and the Northeast Coast.[81][82]
The following list of names was used for named storms that formed in the North Atlantic in 1996.[83][84] This is the same list used for the 1990 season,[85] with the exceptions of Dolly and Kyle, which replaced Diana and Klaus, respectively.[86] The name Dolly was previously used under the old naming convention.[87] A storm was named Kyle for the first time this year.
In the spring of 1997, the World Meteorological Organization retired the names Cesar, Fran, and Hortense from the Atlantic hurricane name lists. They were replaced with Cristobal, Fay, and Hanna for the 2002 season.[88]
Season effects
This is a table of all of the storms that formed in the 1996 Atlantic hurricane season. It includes their name, duration (within the basin), peak classification and intensities, areas affected, damage, and death totals. Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect (an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident), but were still related to that storm. Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical, a wave, or a low, and all of the damage figures are in 1996 USD.
The 1995 Atlantic hurricane season was a very active Atlantic hurricane season, and is considered to be the start of an ongoing era of high-activity tropical cyclone formation. The season produced twenty-one tropical cyclones, nineteen named storms, as well as eleven hurricanes and five major hurricanes. The season officially began on June 1 and ended on November 30, dates which conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones develop in the Atlantic basin. The first tropical cyclone, Hurricane Allison, developed on June 2, while the season's final storm, Hurricane Tanya, transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on November 1. The very active Atlantic hurricane activity in 1995 was caused by La Niña conditions, which also influenced an inactive Pacific hurricane season. It was tied with 1887 Atlantic hurricane season with 19 named storms, which was later equalled by the 2010, 2011, and 2012 seasons.
The 2004 Atlantic hurricane season was a very deadly, destructive, and active Atlantic hurricane season, with over 3,200 deaths and more than $61 billion in damage. More than half of the 16 tropical cyclones brushed or struck the United States. Due to the development of a Modoki El Niño – a rare type of El Niño in which unfavorable conditions are produced over the eastern Pacific instead of the Atlantic basin due to warmer sea surface temperatures farther west along the equatorial Pacific – activity was above average. The season officially began on June 1 and ended on November 30, though the season's last storm, Otto, dissipated on December 3, extending the season beyond its traditional boundaries. The first storm, Alex, developed offshore of the Southeastern United States on July 31, one of the latest dates on record to see the formation of the first system in an Atlantic hurricane season. It brushed the Carolinas and the Mid-Atlantic, causing one death and $7.5 million (2004 USD) in damage. Several storms caused only minor damage, including tropical storms Bonnie, Earl, Hermine, and Matthew. In addition, hurricanes Danielle, Karl, and Lisa, Tropical Depression Ten, Subtropical Storm Nicole and Tropical Storm Otto had no effect on land while tropical cyclones. The season was the first to exceed 200 units in accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) since 1995, mostly from Hurricane Ivan, which produced the highest ACE out of any storm this season. Ivan generated the second-highest ACE in the Atlantic, only behind the 1899 San Ciriaco Hurricane.
The 2002 Atlantic hurricane season was a near-average Atlantic hurricane season. It officially started on June 1, 2002, and ended on November 30, dates which conventionally limit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones develop in the Atlantic Ocean. The season produced fourteen tropical cyclones, of which twelve developed into named storms; four became hurricanes, and two attained major hurricane status. While the season's first cyclone did not develop until July 14, activity quickly picked up: eight storms developed in the month of September. It ended early however, with no tropical storms forming after October 6—a rare occurrence caused partly by El Niño conditions. The most intense hurricane of the season was Hurricane Isidore, a Category 3 storm with a minimum central pressure of 934 mbar; however, Hurricane Lili, with a minimum pressure of 938 mbar, attained higher winds and peaked at Category 4.
The 2001 Atlantic hurricane season was a fairly active Atlantic hurricane season that produced 17 tropical cyclones, 15 named storms, nine hurricanes, and four major hurricanes. The season officially lasted from June 1, 2001, to November 30, 2001, dates which by convention limit the period of each year when tropical cyclones tend to form in the Atlantic Ocean basin. The season began with Tropical Storm Allison on June 4, and ended with Hurricane Olga, which dissipated on December 6.
The 2000 Atlantic hurricane season was a fairly active hurricane season, but featured the latest first named storm in a hurricane season since 1992. The hurricane season officially began on June 1, and ended on November 30. It was slightly above average due to a La Niña weather pattern although most of the storms were weak. It was also the only season to have two of the storms affect Ireland. The first cyclone, Tropical Depression One, developed in the southern Gulf of Mexico on June 7 and dissipated after an uneventful duration. However, it would be almost two months before the first named storm, Alberto, formed near Cape Verde; Alberto also dissipated with no effects on land. Several other tropical cyclones—Tropical Depression Two, Tropical Depression Four, Chris, Ernesto, Nadine, and an unnamed subtropical storm—did not impact land. Five additional storms—Tropical Depression Nine, Florence, Isaac, Joyce, and Leslie—minimally affected land areas.
The 1999 Atlantic hurricane season was a fairly active season, mostly due to a persistent La Niña that developed in the latter half of 1998. It had five Category 4 hurricanes – the highest number recorded in a single season in the Atlantic basin, previously tied in 1933 and 1961, and later tied in 2005 and 2020. The season officially began on June 1, and ended on November 30. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin. The first storm, Arlene, formed on June 11 to the southeast of Bermuda. It meandered slowly for a week and caused no impact on land. Other tropical cyclones that did not affect land were Hurricane Cindy, Tropical Storm Emily, and Tropical Depression Twelve. Localized or otherwise minor damage occurred from Hurricanes Bret, Gert, and Jose, and tropical storms Harvey and Katrina.
The 1998 Atlantic hurricane season was a catastrophic and deadly Atlantic hurricane season, which had the highest number of storm-related fatalities in over 218 years and some of the costliest ever at the time. The season had above average activity, due to the dissipation of an El Niño event and transition to La Niña conditions. It officially began on June 1 and ended on November 30, dates which conventionally delimit the period during which most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic Ocean. The season had a rather slow start, with no tropical cyclones forming in June. The first tropical cyclone, Tropical Storm Alex, developed on July 27, and the season's final storm, Hurricane Nicole, became extratropical on December 1.
The 1960 Atlantic hurricane season was the least active season since 1952. The season officially began on June 15, and lasted until November 15. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin. The first system, an unnamed storm, developed in the Bay of Campeche on June 22. It brought severe local flooding to southeastern Texas and was considered the worst disaster in some towns since a Hurricane in 1945. The unnamed storm moved across the United States for almost a week before dissipating on June 29. In July, Hurricane Abby resulted in minor damage in the Leeward Islands, before impacting a few Central American counties — the remnants of the storm would go on to form Hurricane Celeste in the East Pacific. Later that month, Tropical Storm Brenda caused flooding across much of the East Coast of the United States. The next storm, Hurricane Cleo, caused no known impact, despite its close proximity to land.
The 1961 Atlantic hurricane season was a very active Atlantic hurricane season, with an accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) total of 189, the highest since 1950 and until being surpassed by 1995. The season, however, was an average one in terms of named storms. The season featured eight hurricanes and a well above average number of five major hurricanes. It was previously thought that the season had a record-tying seven major hurricanes, before the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project downgraded two storms in 2019. Two Category 5 hurricanes were seen in 1961, making it one of only eight Atlantic hurricane seasons to feature multiple Category 5 hurricanes in one season. The season started on June 15, and ended on November 15. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin. The first system, an operationally unclassified tropical depression, formed offshore east Central Florida on June 10, but dissipated a few days later. Next, Hurricane Anna developed in the eastern Caribbean Sea near the Windward Islands on July 20. It brought minor damage to the islands in, as well as wind and flood impacts to Central America after striking Belize as a hurricane. Anna caused one death and about $300,000 (1961 USD) in damage. Activity went dormant for nearly a month and a half, until Hurricane Betsy developed on September 2. Betsy peaked as a Category 4 hurricane, but remained at sea and caused no impact.
The 1964 Atlantic hurricane season featured the highest number of U.S.-landfalling hurricanes since 1933. The season officially began on June 15, and lasted until November 30. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin. The season was above average, with thirteen named storms, seven hurricanes, and five major hurricanes. The first system, an unnamed tropical storm, developed on June 2, almost two weeks before the official start of the season. Striking Florida on June 6, the storm brought localized flooding to portions of Cuba and the Southeastern United States, leaving about $1 million in damage. The next storm, also unnamed, developed near the end of July; it did not impact land.
The 1968 Atlantic hurricane season was a below average hurricane season during which only nine nameable storms developed. The season officially began on June 1 and lasted until November 30, dates which conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin. Of the named storms, five strengthened into hurricanes; none however intensified into a major hurricane. Only four other seasons since the start of the satellite era—1972, 1986, 1994, and 2013—did not feature a major hurricane. The first system, Hurricane Abby, developed in the northwestern Caribbean on June 1. Abby moved northward and struck Cuba, bringing heavy rainfall and flooding to western portions of the island. Making landfall in Florida on June 4, Abby caused flooding and spawned four tornadoes, but left behind little damage. Overall, the hurricane resulted in six deaths and about $450,000 (1968 USD) in damage. In late June, Tropical Storm Candy brought minor flooding and spawned several tornadoes across portions of the Southern United States. Overall damage from the cyclone reached approximately $2.7 million. 1968 featured two simultaneously active tropical storms during the month of June, a phenomenon that would not occur again until 2023.
The 1969 Atlantic hurricane season was the most active Atlantic hurricane season since the 1933 season, and was the final year of the most recent positive Atlantic multidecadal oscillation (AMO) era. The hurricane season officially began on June 1, and lasted until November 30. Altogether, 12 tropical cyclones reached hurricane strength, the highest number on record at the time; a mark not surpassed until 2005. The season was above-average despite an El Niño, which typically suppresses activity in the Atlantic Ocean, while increasing tropical cyclone activity in the Pacific Ocean. Activity began with a tropical depression that caused extensive flooding in Cuba and Jamaica in early June. On July 25, Tropical Storm Anna developed, the first named storm of the season. Later in the season, Tropical Depression Twenty-Nine caused severe local flooding in the Florida Panhandle and southwestern Georgia in September.
The 1978 Atlantic hurricane season was a slightly above average hurricane season in terms of number of named storms. Eleven tropical cyclones were named in all, and five of these became hurricanes; two of the five became a major hurricane. This was also the last Atlantic hurricane season to use an all-female naming list. The season officially began on June 1, 1978, and ended on November 30, 1978. These dates, adopted by convention, denote the period in each year when most tropical cyclogenesis occurs in the Atlantic basin. However, the formation of subtropical or tropical cyclones is possible at any time of the year, as shown by the formation of an unnamed subtropical storm on January 18.
The 1979 Atlantic hurricane season was the first Atlantic hurricane season to include both male and female names on its list of tropical cyclone names. The season officially began on June 1, and lasted until November 30. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin. It was slightly below average, with nine systems reaching tropical storm intensity. The first system, an unnumbered tropical depression, developed north of Puerto Rico on June 9. Two days later, Tropical Depression One formed and produced severe flooding in Jamaica, with 41 deaths and about $27 million (1979 USD) in damage. Tropical Storm Ana caused minimal impact in the Lesser Antilles. Hurricane Bob spawned tornadoes and produced minor wind damage along the Gulf Coast of the United States, primarily in Louisiana, while the remnants caused flooding, especially in Indiana. Tropical Storm Claudette caused extensive flooding in Texas due to torrential rainfall, resulting in two deaths and about $750 million in damage.
The 1986 Atlantic hurricane season was a very inactive season that produced 10 depressions, 6 named storms, 4 hurricanes, and no major hurricanes. The season officially began on June 1, 1986, and lasted until November 30, 1986. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin. During the 1986 season, the first subtropical depression formed in the first week of June, while the last tropical cyclone dissipated at the end of the third week of November. The 1986 season had lower than average activity because of an ongoing El Niño event, and was the least active season in the North Atlantic since the 1983 Atlantic hurricane season. This was also the first season since 1972 to have no major hurricanes.
The 1985 Atlantic hurricane season was an average, yet destructive year that experienced a near-record number of hurricanes strikes in the United States. It is tied with 2020 and only surpassed by 1886. The season officially began on June 1 and lasted until November 30. This was partially attributed to a La Niña – a meteorological phenomenon that produces favorable conditions across the Atlantic basin, such as lower wind shear and higher sea surface temperatures. The first storm, Ana, developed on July 15 near Bermuda and caused minor effects in Canada while transitioning into an extratropical cyclone. Three other tropical cyclones – Claudette, Henri, and Isabel – did not significantly affect land. Claudette developed offshore of the Southeastern United States and brushed Bermuda and the Azores. Henri and Isabel were dissipating as they approached land. However, the precursor of the latter caused a severe flood in Puerto Rico that killed 180 people. Additionally, Tropical Storm Fabian and three tropical depressions did not have any known impact on land.
The 1989 Atlantic hurricane season was an average hurricane season with 11 named storms. The season officially began on June 1, and ended on November 30. The first tropical cyclone, Tropical Depression One, developed on June 15, and dissipated two days later without any effects on land. Later that month, Tropical Storm Allison caused severe flooding, especially in Texas and Louisiana. Tropical Storm Barry, Tropical Depressions Six, Nine, and Thirteen, and Hurricanes Erin and Felix caused negligible impact. Hurricane Gabrielle and Tropical Storm Iris caused light effects on land, with the former resulting in nine fatalities from rip currents offshore the East Coast of the United States and Atlantic Canada, while the latter produced minor flooding in the United States Virgin Islands.
The 1990 Atlantic hurricane season was the most active Atlantic hurricane season since 1969, with a total of 14 named storms. The season also featured eight hurricanes, one of which intensified into a major hurricane. It officially began on June 1, 1990, and lasted until November 30, 1990. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin. However, tropical cyclogenesis can occur prior to the start of the season, as demonstrated with Tropical Depression One, which formed in the Caribbean Sea on May 24.
The 1996 Pacific hurricane season had below normal tropical cyclone activity, producing 9 tropical storms, of which 5 became hurricanes, with 2 of those intensifying into major hurricanes. With an Accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) index of 53.9, the season ranks among the least intense Pacific hurricane seasons on record. It officially began May 15, 1996, in the eastern north Pacific and on June 1, 1996, in the central north Pacific. It ended on November 30, 1996. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean. The season slightly exceeded these bounds when tropical storm One-E formed on May 13.
The 1899 Atlantic hurricane season featured the longest-lasting tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin on record. There were nine tropical storms, of which five became hurricanes. Two of those strengthened into major hurricanes, which are Category 3 or higher on the modern day Saffir–Simpson scale. The first system was initially observed in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico on June 26. The tenth and final system dissipated near Bermuda on November 10. These dates fall within the period with the most tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic. In post-season analysis, two tropical cyclones that existed in October were added to HURDAT – the official Atlantic hurricane database. At one point during the season, September 3 through the following day, a set of three tropical cyclones existed simultaneously.
↑ Storm Data and Unusual Weather Phenomena(PDF). National Climatic Data Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. June 1996. Archived from the original(PDF) on May 13, 2021. Retrieved May 13, 2021.
Storm Data and Unusual Weather Phenomena(PDF). National Climatic Data Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 1996. pp.39–40, 194–195. Archived from the original(PDF) on May 13, 2021. Retrieved May 13, 2021.
Miles B. Lawrence (November 9, 1996). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Bertha(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
Richard J. Quirk III (October 15, 1999). Annex B to USCINCSO FuncPlan 6150-98 (Report). Center for Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance. Archived from the original(DOC) on July 25, 2011. Retrieved September 26, 2010.
International Disaster Database (Report). Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters. 2013. Archived from the original on September 6, 2016. Retrieved January 14, 2013.
Hurricane Cesar Nicaragua 1996 (Report). Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery. 2013. Archived from the original on February 1, 2014. Retrieved January 14, 2013.
"Three dead after Cesar storms Caracas". Hamilton Spectator. July 27, 1996.
Edward N. Rappaport (October 3, 1996). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Dolly(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
Richard J. Pasch (December 20, 1996). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Edouard(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
Storm Data and Unusual Weather Phenomena(PDF). National Climatic Data Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. August 1996. Archived from the original(PDF) on May 13, 2021. Retrieved May 13, 2021.
Storm Data and Unusual Weather Phenomena(PDF). National Climatic Data Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. September 1996. Archived from the original(PDF) on May 13, 2021. Retrieved May 13, 2021.
B. Max Mayfield (October 10, 1996). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Fran(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
Lixion A. Avila (October 23, 1996). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Hortense(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
Richard J. Pasch (February 21, 1997). Preliminary Report: Tropical Storm Josephine(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
Storm Data and Unusual Weather Phenomena(PDF). National Climatic Data Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. October 1996. Archived from the original(PDF) on May 13, 2021. Retrieved May 13, 2021.
1 2 3 Richard J. Pasch (December 20, 1996). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Edouard(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
1 2 3 4 Lixion A. Avila (December 3, 1996). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Marco(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
↑ David Levinson (August 20, 2008). 2005 Atlantic Ocean Tropical Cyclones. National Climatic Data Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on December 1, 2005. Retrieved July 23, 2011.
1 2 3 B. Max Mayfield (August 19, 1996). Preliminary Report: Tropical Storm Arthur(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Miles B. Lawrence (November 9, 1996). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Bertha(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
1 2 3 Miles B. Lawrence (August 27, 1996). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Cesar(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
↑ "Three dead after Cesar storms Caracas". Hamilton Spectator. July 27, 1996.
↑ Richard J. Quirk III (October 15, 1999). Annex B to USCINCSO FuncPlan 6150-98 (Report). Center for Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance. Archived from the original(DOC) on July 25, 2011. Retrieved September 26, 2010.
"Three dead after Cesar storms Caracas". Hamilton Spectator. July 27, 1996.
Richard J. Quirk III (October 15, 1999). Annex B to USCINCSO FuncPlan 6150-98 (Report). Center for Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance. Archived from the original(DOC) on July 25, 2011. Retrieved September 26, 2010.
1 2 Edward N. Rappaport (October 3, 1996). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Dolly(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
1 2 Storm Data and Unusual Weather Phenomena(PDF). National Climatic Data Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. August 1996. Archived from the original(PDF) on May 13, 2021. Retrieved May 13, 2021.
↑ 1996-Edouard (Report). Environment Canada. September 14, 2010. Archived from the original on March 13, 2013. Retrieved May 13, 2021.
1 2 3 B. Max Mayfield (October 10, 1996). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Fran(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
1 2 Miles B. Lawrence (November 28, 1996). Preliminary Report: Tropical Storm Gustav(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
1 2 3 4 5 Lixion A. Avila (October 23, 1996). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Hortense(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
↑ 1996-Hortense (Report). Environment Canada. September 14, 2010. Archived from the original on March 13, 2013. Retrieved May 13, 2021.
1 2 Edward N. Rappaport (November 1, 1996). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Isidore(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
1 2 3 Richard J. Pasch (February 21, 1997). Preliminary Report: Tropical Storm Josephine(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
↑ 1996-Josephine (Report). Environment Canada. September 14, 2010. Archived from the original on March 13, 2013. Retrieved May 13, 2021.
1 2 B. Max Mayfield (November 5, 1996). Preliminary Report: Tropical Storm Kyle(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
1 2 3 Miles B. Lawrence (November 18, 1996). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Lili(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
↑ Hurricane Lili Situation Report No. 2. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (Report). ReliefWeb. March 4, 1997. Retrieved August 3, 2013.
↑ Pablo Alfonso; Peter Whoriskey; Cyril T. Zaneski (October 19, 1996). "S. Florida dodges another one". The Miami Herald. Archived from the original on September 19, 2012. Retrieved August 3, 2013.
↑ National Hurricane Operations Plan(PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: NOAA Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research. May 1996. p.3-7. Retrieved January 19, 2024.
↑ "Storm Names". The Philadelphia Inquirer. June 3, 1996. p.F12. Retrieved May 13, 2021– via Newspapers.com.
↑ National Hurricane Operations Plan(PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: NOAA Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research. May 1990. p.3-6. Retrieved January 19, 2024.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
