There were four particularly destructive hurricanes during the season, including Luis, Marilyn, Opal and Roxanne. Hurricanes Luis and Marilyn both caused catastrophic damage in the Leeward Islands and Virgin Islands. The former storm was the first hurricane to affect the islands since Hugo in 1989, while the latter was the most devastating cyclone on the Virgin Islands since Hugo as well. Opal, the strongest and most intense storm of the season, caused devastation along portions of the Gulf Coast of the United States. Roxanne, a rare late-season major hurricane,[nb 2] caused significant damage when it made landfall in Quintana Roo. All four aforementioned names were retired following the season. Additionally, Erin produced moderate damage in Florida and into Alabama. Felix generated strong waves, causing heavy beach erosion in the Northeastern United States and drowning nine people. Iris caused flooding that left five deaths in the Lesser Antilles. Collectively, the tropical cyclones of the season caused about $12.74billion (1995USD)[nb 3] in damage and at least 182deaths.
Seasonal forecasts
Pre-season forecasts
Predictions of tropical activity in the 1995 season
Forecasts of hurricane activity are issued before each hurricane season by noted hurricane experts such as Dr. William M. Gray and his associates at Colorado State University (CSU) and the Weather Research Center (WRC). A normal season, as defined by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), has 12.1named storms; of these, 6.4reach hurricane strength; and 2.7major hurricanes, which are Category3 or higher on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale.[6] Additionally, the 1950–2000 CSU average for a normal season is 9.6named storms, of these 5.9reach hurricane strength, and 2.3become major hurricanes.[7]
In December1994, CSU predicted that only 12named storms would form and 8of those would become hurricanes; 3major hurricanes were projected. CSU noted an above average season due to expectations that the existing El Niño would dissipate, while a La Niña would develop by the summer of 1995. Additionally, the western areas of the Sahara Desert were predicted to have the fourth or fifth rainiest season since 1970. A year with heavier precipitation in this region usually correlates with an active Atlantic hurricane season.[8] In April1995, CSU revised their forecast, decreasing the number of named storms to 10, hurricanes to 6, and major hurricanes to 2. However, in June, CSU reverted to their December forecast, which called for 12named storms, 8hurricanes, and 3major hurricanes.[3] The forecast by the WRC in early 1995 was 10named storms and 6hurricanes, with no prediction on the number of major hurricanes.[4]
A satellite image of the Atlantic Ocean on August 24 including 3 active tropical cyclones (from left to right), Tropical Storm Jerry, Hurricane Iris, Hurricane Humberto and two tropical waves that would ultimately become Karen and Hurricane Luis
Most intense Atlantic hurricane seasons (since 1850)[nb 4]
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1,[11] and activity in 1995 began on the next day with the formation of Hurricane Allison on June 2. It was a well-above average season in which 21 tropical depressions formed, 19 of which attained tropical storm status, and 11 of these attained hurricane status. In addition, five tropical cyclones reached major hurricane status,[12] which was well above the 1950–2005 average of two per season.[7] At the time, only 1933 surpassed the season's total storms, making the season the second most active in recorded history tying with 1887. [13][14][15][12] The 1995 season would be the beginning of an active period in the Atlantic basin, which has lasted for nearly 30 years. Collectively, the tropical cyclones of this season caused 182 deaths and $12.02billion in damage.[16] The last storm of the season, Hurricane Tanya, became extratropical on November 1,[12] over four weeks before the official end of the season on November 30.[11]
Tropical cyclogenesis in the 1995 Atlantic hurricane season began with the development of Hurricane Allison on June 2. The month of July was very active, with four tropical cyclones forming. This record of storms in July stood until the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season when five storms formed in July. A total of seven storms formed in August — Felix, Gabrielle, Humberto, Iris, Jerry, Karen, and Luis — tying the 1933 record for most in the month; this record was broken in the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season when eight named storms formed during August. Although September is the climatological peak of hurricane season, it was much less active than August. Four tropical cyclones developed in September, with Marilyn, Noel, and Opal eventually strengthening into hurricanes. Four tropical cyclones also formed in October; notably, Hurricane Roxanne developed in that month. The last storm of the season, Hurricane Tanya, developed later in October and eventually became extratropical on November 1.[12] This was the first time since forecasters began assigning given names to tropical storms in 1953 that names starting with the letters "O" through "T" were used.
The season's activity was reflected with a very high accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) rating of 228, the fifth highest value on record,[13] and far above the 1981–2010median of 92.[17] Broadly speaking, ACE is a measure of the power of a tropical or subtropical storm multiplied by the length of time it existed. Therefore, a storm with a longer duration or stronger intensity, such as Felix, Luis, Opal, or Roxanne will have high values of ACE. It is only calculated for full advisories on specific tropical and subtropical systems reaching or exceeding wind speeds of 39mph (63km/h). Accordingly, tropical depressions are not included here. After the storm has dissipated, typically after the end of the season, the NHC reexamines the data, and produces a final report on each storm. These revisions can lead to a revised ACE total either upward or downward compared to the operational value.[13]
A westward moving tropical wave reached the Caribbean Sea in late May and gradually organized over the next few days. Around 00:00UTC on June3, a tropical depression developed about 265 miles (426km) east of Belize City, Belize. The depression initially moved northwestward before recurving to the north. The depression entered the Gulf of Mexico and strengthened into Tropical Storm Allison by 12:00UTC. Despite unfavorable upper-level winds, the storm intensified into a hurricane about 24hours later. Allison then peaked with maximum sustained winds of 75mph (121km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 987mbar (29.1inHg). Increasing wind shear weakened it to a tropical storm early on June5. At 14:00UTC, Allison made landfall near Alligator Point, Florida, with winds of 70mph (110km/h). After briefly emerging over Apalachee Bay, Allison struck near St. Marks with winds of 65mph (105km/h). Early on June6, Allison weakened to a tropical depression, shortly before becoming extratropical. The remnants continued northeastward and later struck Newfoundland before dissipating near Greenland on June11.[18]
While brushing Cuba, Allison produced wind gusts up to 64mph (103km/h) and as much as 18in (460mm) of rainfall. A total of 32structures were damaged or destroyed, causing one death.[18] In Florida, storm surge heights of 6 to 8 feet (1.8 to 2.4m) were observed in Dixie and Wakulla counties and 2 to 6ft (0.61 to 1.83m) to the east, causing significant beach erosion and damaging 65homes, 3hotels, and a restaurant.[19] Elsewhere in Florida, damage was generally minor, totaling only about $860,000. In Georgia, there was minor flooding and tornadoes, one of which caused $800,000 in damage in St. Marys.[18] Some locations in Atlantic Canada reported tropical storm force winds and heavy rainfall.[20]
A frontal low situated between Bermuda and South Carolina developed into Tropical Depression Two late on July6.[21] Strong wind shear initially prevented significant strengthening,[22] though by early on July7, the depression became Tropical Storm Barry. A nearby trough enhanced convection and caused strengthening, with maximum sustained winds reaching 70mph (110km/h) later that day.[21] Later on July8, Barry weakened slightly, falling to winds of 50mph (80km/h), an intensity it would retain until landfall.[21] An approaching mid-level trough accelerated the storm as it traveled roughly along the Gulf Stream.[23] Early on July9, convection began to shift away from the storm's center. While moving rapidly northeastward, Barry made landfall in Hart Island, Nova Scotia, late on July9.[21]
It weakened slightly and made landfall on Cape Breton Island less than an hour later.[21] Cold water caused deep convection to diminish as it was making landfall, and the storm lost most remaining tropical characteristics as it tracked toward Newfoundland.[24] Barry was declared extratropical early on July10 near the west coast of Newfoundland. As a fast-moving and weakening extratropical cyclone, the system remained distinct until it passed across the east coast of Labrador, when it dissipated.[21] Tropical storm force winds were recorded at Fourchu, Nova Scotia, as well as wind gusts up to 62mph (100km/h) at Port aux Basques, Newfoundland. Barry dropped significant rainfall, peaking at 4.33in (110mm) in Nova Scotia, with lesser totals at several other locations.[25]
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on July5. During the next week, the wave improved on satellite imagery and developed into a tropical depression about 420mi (680km) east-northeast of Guadeloupe on July12. The depression quickly strengthened into Tropical Storm Chantal. Initially, Chantal threatened the Bahamas, and the Government of the Bahamas issued tropical storm watches and warnings, which were in effect for the southeast and central islands as well as the Turks and Caicos Islands. However, Chantal re-curved to the north and did not directly affect the Bahamas. After the cyclone turned northward, it threatened Bermuda, which prompted a tropical storm watch for the island on July16. The watch was canceled on July18 as the storm passed well northwest of the island.[26]
By early on July17, Chantal attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 70mph (110km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 991mbar (29.3inHg). Thereafter, the storm began weakening and slowly losing tropical characteristics. At 18:00UTC on July20, Chantal transitioned into an extratropical storm about 225mi (362km) east-southeast of Cape Race, Newfoundland. The remnants continued rapidly northeastward and later east-northeastward, before dissipating west of the British Isles on July22.[26] Although Chantal remained well offshore, the storm dropped heavy rainfall in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, peaking at 3in (76mm) on the Burin Peninsula. Further west in Nova Scotia, heavier precipitation was reported, peaking at 4.84in (123mm) near Barrington.[27]
A stationary front in the Gulf of Mexico developed an upper-level circulation. By July28, the system organized enough to be classified as Tropical Depression Four. Despite favorable conditions, the depression tracked westward without significantly intensifying, due to the poor organization of the storm itself. As the depression curved west-northwestward, it began to strengthen and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Dean while located only 70mi (110km) from the Texas coastline on July 30. The system made landfall early on July31 near Freeport with winds of 45mph (72km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 999mbar (999hPa; 29.5inHg). Shortly thereafter, Dean weakened back to a tropical depression. The storm continued to slowly weaken as it moved northwestward, dissipating on August2 near the Texas–Oklahoma border.[28]
Storm surge caused minor coastal flooding, especially on Galveston Island.[29] Dean produced a large swath of rainfall between 5 and 10in (130 and 250mm), while some areas received more than 17in (430mm).[30] Precipitation from the storm caused moderate localized flood damage. A total of 20families in Chambers County evacuated,[28] while 38houses in the southeastern portions of Texas were flooded.[29] Two tornadoes were also reported in the state, but neither caused significant damage.[29] In Oklahoma, heavy rainfall flooded more than 40houses and left about 24cars stranded. At least three highways suffered significant flooding, while other minor roads were closed for several days.[31] Outside of Oklahoma and Texas, the remnants of the storm dropped rainfall in several Midwestern states, though minimal damage occurred.[30] Despite the flooding, property damage estimates were only $500,000,[29] while one fatality occurred.[31]
A tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa on July22 and headed toward the Leeward Islands, where the system nearly developed into a tropical cyclone but was inhibited by vertical wind shear. By July31, the system was classified as Tropical Storm Erin while just west of the Turks and Caicos Islands. Despite effects from wind shear, Erin continued to strengthen as it moved northwestward and was upgraded to a hurricane later on July31. Further intensification occurred, and Erin reached winds of 85mph (137km/h) before making landfall near Vero Beach, Florida, on August1. The storm emerged over the Gulf of Mexico after weakening back to a tropical storm, though it quickly re-strengthened into a hurricane. Shortly before making landfall near Pensacola Beach, Florida on August 3, Erin briefly intensified into a Category2 hurricane. After moving inland, Erin slowly weakened as it tracked across the Southern United States and Midwestern United States. By August6, Erin merged with a frontal system over West Virginia.[32]
Erin was the first hurricane to strike the United States since Hurricane Andrew in 1992.[12] In Jamaica, the outer bands of Erin produced heavy rainfall on the island, which caused a plane crash, killing five people; two other fatalities occurred when two people were struck by lightning. Although many islands in the Bahamas experienced high winds and heavy rainfall, damage associated with Erin was fairly minor. Offshore of Florida, nine people drowned, three of which occurred after a cruise ship sunk. Over land, high winds produced by Erin damaged over 2,000houses, most of which were in the Florida Panhandle. In addition, strong winds left over one million people without electricity. Several tornadoes were spawned in the state, causing damage. In Alabama, more than 100houses were damaged by Erin.[32] Between 50 and 75 percent of the pecan crop in Baldwin County was lost. Similar impact also occurred in Mississippi, although to a lesser degree.[33] Elsewhere, some areas of the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern United States experienced heavy rainfall.[34] Overall, Erin caused 13fatalities and $700million in damage.[32]
The southern part of the tropical wave that spawned Hurricane Erin continued into the Caribbean Sea in late July. By August4, the system entered the Bay of Campeche and developed into Tropical Depression Six on August5. The depression moved slowly over Mexico and gradually intensified that day and August 6. Satellite intensity estimated showed the depression was likely just below the threshold of tropical storm status. However, late on August 6, the depression made landfall in Cabo Rojo, Veracruz. The depression slowly weakened inland and dissipated late on August 7.[35] The depression and the precursor tropical wave dropped heavy rainfall in some areas of Mexico. Precipitation from the precursor system peaked at 14.45in (367mm) in Escuintla, Chiapas, while rainfall from the depression itself peaked at 12in (300mm) in Tlaxco, Puebla.[36] Some localized flooding may have occurred near the path of the depression.[35]
A tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa on August6 developed into Tropical Depression Seven on August 8 while located about 460mi (740km) west-southwest of the Cape Verde Islands. The depression moved west-northwestward due to a subtropical ridge and deepened into Tropical Storm Felix later that day. Further intensification was slower, with Felix reaching hurricane status on August11. Due to warm sea surface temperatures and light wind shear, Felix began to rapidly strengthen as it was curving northwestward. Late on August12, Felix peaked with maximum sustained winds of 140mph (230km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 929mbar (27.4inHg). Felix weakened over the next few days back to a Category 1 hurricane on August14, after an eyewall replacement cycle and an increase in wind shear.[37]
The storm posed a significant threat to Bermuda, warranting a hurricane warning between August14 and August15. During the latter date, Felix passed only 75mi (121km) to the southwest of the island. Continuing on its northwest trek, the cyclone also temporarily prompted preparations along the East Coast of the United States. However, the storm curved northward and then east-northeastward while remaining offshore. Felix briefly threatened Bermuda again, but turned back to the northeast and weakened to a tropical storm on August20. It accelerated east-northeastward and passed a short distance offshore of Newfoundland, where it transitioned into an extratropical storm on August22. The remnants of Felix continued northeastward across the Atlantic until dissipating near Shetland on August25.[37]
Large waves in Puerto Rico caused minor coastal flooding in Cataño.[38] On Bermuda, the storm produced near-hurricane-force winds,[37] which downed trees and power lines, and left 20,000people without power. Rough surf was also reported on Bermuda, which damaged a few boats and hotels.[39] In addition, the passage of Felix postponed Bermuda's 1995 independence referendum. In the United States, Felix generated large waves from northeast Florida to Maine.[37] In New York, two houses were washed away in The Hamptons, while 20 to 30houses in North Carolina experienced minor damage from rough seas.[38] While passing southeast of Newfoundland, Felix produced moderate rainfall and large waves across the island, although damage was minimal.[40] Overall, Felix caused eight deaths due to drowning along the coasts of North Carolina and New Jersey, and $132,000 in damage.[37]
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa in late July 1995 and entered the Gulf of Mexico on August 8. On the following day, the system developed a weak low-level circulation and was declared Tropical Depression Eight while in the western Gulf of Mexico. The depression quickly intensified into Tropical Storm Gabrielle on August 10. Gabrielle continued to rapidly strengthen as it tracked toward the coast of Mexico, nearly becoming a hurricane late on August 11. However, Gabrielle made landfall near La Pesca, Tamaulipas, Mexico two hours later, which prevented further strengthening. Gabrielle rapidly weakened inland and dissipated early on August 12.[41]
Gabrielle dropped heavy rainfall in Mexico, where some areas possibly experienced more than 24in (610mm) of precipitation. However, according to the Weather Prediction Center (WPC), rainfall peaked at 19.44in (494mm) in southern Tamaulipas.[41][42] Despite the large amounts of precipitation, it was considered beneficial due to drought conditions in some areas, especially in Tamaulipas and Nuevo Leon.[41] However, in other nearby areas, the heavy rainfall flooded streets and destroyed roadways and bridges.[42] Further north, Gabrielle dropped light to moderate rainfall in Texas.[43] Gabrielle caused six fatalities in Mexico, while the damage figure is unknown.[41]
On August19, a tropical wave crossed over Dakar, Senegal, shortly before entering into the Atlantic Ocean. The wave quickly organized once in the Atlantic and developed into Tropical Depression Nine on August22.[44] Due to low wind shear and warm sea surface temperatures, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Humberto six hours later.[45] It continued west-northwestward and then westward under the influence of a mid-level trough. Early on August23, Humberto intensified into a hurricane.[44] By early on August24 the storm developed a well-defined eye after becoming a Category2 hurricane.[46]
After peaking with winds of 110mph (180km/h) on August24, Humberto began a fujiwhara interaction with Hurricane Iris.[44] This generated shear on Humberto, causing the storm to weaken back to a Category1 hurricane on August26.[47] Humberto continued to weaken until August28, when it was barely a hurricane.[44] Operationally, Humberto was erroneously downgraded to a tropical storm on that same day.[48] Thereafter, the storm began restrengthening and reached a secondary peak slightly below the threshold for a Category2 hurricane on August30.[44] While tracking northeastward, Humberto began weakening and acquiring extratropical characteristics starting on the following day.[49] Later on August31, Humberto weakened to a tropical storm. By 06:00UTC on September1, the storm was absorbed by an extratropical low while west of the Azores.[44] Humberto was the second of four tropical waves in quick succession in the tropical Atlantic that all eventually became tropical storms or hurricanes; it was preceded by the wave that became Iris, and followed by the waves that became Karen and Luis. It was also the first of three tropical cyclones to form within a 24-hour period on August 21 and 22; Iris formed 12hours later and Jerry formed 18hours later. It was also the first of five named storms to form within a seven-day period; Karen formed on August 26 and Luis on August 28.[12]
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on August16. It rapidly developed a closed circulation, though convection diminished a few days after the wave entered the Atlantic. However, convection began to re-develop and by 12:00UTC on August22, the system developed into Tropical Depression Ten. Six hours later, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Iris. Thereafter, Iris continued to intensify and became a hurricane later on August23. After reaching winds of 85mph (137km/h), the storm began to weaken during a Fujiwhara interaction with Hurricane Humberto, causing Iris to be downgraded to a tropical storm on August24. Iris continued to steadily weaken as it approached the Lesser Antilles. After making a direct hit on Saint Lucia and Martinique on August26, steering currents produced by a trough forced Iris north-northwestward; this caused it to brush Dominica and Guadeloupe and make landfall in Antigua and Barbuda on August27. Around the time, Iris began restrengthening due to a decrease in wind shear and became a hurricane again on August28.[50]
It is possible that the forward motion of the storm became slightly erratic after a Fujiwhara interaction began with Tropical Storm Karen. By September1, Iris peaked as a 110mph (180km/h) Category2 hurricane. After curving north-northeastward, Iris began to weaken after encountering increasing wind shear and decreasing sea surface temperatures. Nonetheless, it was still able to absorb Tropical Depression Karen on September3. By early on the following day, Iris weakened to a tropical storm, six hours before becoming extratropical, while centered southeast of Newfoundland.[50] While crossing through the Leeward Islands, Iris produced heavy rainfall. High waves in Trinidad caused coastal flooding and damage to boats.[51] In Martinique, significant amounts of precipitation led to flooding and landslides. Four fatalities were reported on that island,[50] two of which occurred after mudslides push a house off a cliff. Flooding was also reported in coastal areas, resulting in heavy damage in Le Vauclin.[52] On Guadeloupe, the only island to record tropical storm force winds, one fatality occurred after a person drowned in a flooded river. Rainfall in Antigua damaged banana trees and caused flooding in low-lying areas.[50]
A tropical wave which emerged off of Africa began convective organization in the vicinity of the Bahamas. On August23, the system was declared Tropical Depression Eleven while located between Florida and Andros Island. The depression strengthened as it headed north-northwestward, despite only marginally favorable conditions. On the following day, the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Jerry while located only 33mi (53km) offshore Florida. At 18:00UTC on August23, the storm made landfall later near Jupiter, Florida, as a minimal tropical storm with winds of 40mph (64km/h). Jerry slowly weakened and was downgraded to a tropical depression late on August24. After drifting across Florida, the cyclone briefly emerged over the Gulf of Mexico, but then headed northward and back inland. Jerry meandered over Georgia and eventually dissipated on August 28.[53]
Jerry dropped heavy rainfall in Florida, especially in the southern portion of the state, where 16.8in (430mm) of precipitation fell in Golden Gate.[54] Although the storm struck the east coast of the state, much of the damage in Florida occurred in Collier County. In that county, 340houses were damaged and 12others were destroyed due to flooding. Other nearby counties also reported flood damage, albeit less severe. Agricultural damage was also reported in southwest Florida, primarily to citrus crops. The storm also spawned two tornadoes in West Central Florida, though neither caused any damage.[53] Heavy rainfall also occurred in Georgia, with some areas experiencing over 12 inches (300mm) of rain. The remnants of Jerry produced heavy precipitation in North and South Carolina, with 18.51in (470mm) observed in Antreville, South Carolina.[54] In both states, many roads were flooded and numerous buildings and houses were damaged, especially in the Charlotte and Raleigh areas of North Carolina. Overall, there were eight fatalities and $40million in damage associated with Jerry.[38][53]
On August23, a tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa. Shortly after entering the Atlantic, the tropical wave developed into a low-pressure area. Over the next few days, the cloud pattern associated with the system fluctuated in organization and a tropical depression may have developed as early as August24. Two days later, satellite imagery indicated a well-defined low-level cloud center. As a result, it is estimated that Tropical Depression Twelve developed at 12:00UTC on August26. The depression slowly intensified as it tracked west-northwestward under the influence of low- to mid-level flow.[55] Although sea surface temperatures were warm, outflow from Hurricane Humberto may have slowed further strengthening of the depression.[56]
The depression finally began to develop bands north of the center on August27,[57] though overall, the deep convection remained disorganized; the circulation of the depression also became elongated.[58] Around 06:00UTC on August28, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Karen. Early on the following day, Karen peaked with maximum sustained winds of 50mph (80km/h). By August31, Karen north-northwestward around the circulation of Hurricane Iris and thus, a Fujiwhara interaction began.[55] As the storm was approaching Iris, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) began predicting on September1 that Karen would merge with the former.[59] On the following day, Karen weakened to a tropical depression. Early on September3, Karen lost its well-defined center and merged with Iris at 06:00UTC, while centered near Bermuda.[55]
A westward-moving tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Thirteen at 18:00UTC on August28. Initially, strong vertical shear hindered the depression from strengthening significantly; by early on August29, however, it acquired sufficient organization to be named Tropical Storm Luis. The storm continued to strengthen slowly until wind shear decreased on August30, causing Luis to become a hurricane later that day. By September1, Luis became a major hurricane after it reached Category3 intensity. Later that day, Luis was further upgraded to a Category4 hurricane. Early on September3, maximum sustained winds reached 150mph (240km/h), though the lowest pressure in relation to Luis was not recorded until September8. After weakening slightly, Luis passed near Antigua and made landfall in Barbuda early on September5, before brushing Saint Barthélemy, Saint Martin, and Anguilla. After remaining a major hurricane for a week, Luis weakened to a Category2 hurricane while northeast of the Bahamas on September8;[60] the weakening was possibly as a result of the storm crossing over decreasing ocean temperature due to upwelling from Hurricane Felix.[61][62] On September10, Luis rapidly accelerated northeastward and weakened to a Category1 hurricane. Luis made landfall on the Avalon Peninsula of Newfoundland early on September11.[60] While crossing the island, cold, dry air began impacting the storm, causing it to rapidly become extratropical and merge with a frontal zone shortly after reentering the Atlantic Ocean.[60][63]
Strong winds and high waves wreaked havoc on several islands in the Lesser Antilles. In Antigua and Barbuda, winds reaching 141mph (227km/h) damaged numerous houses on Barbuda and destroyed nearly 45% of residences on Antigua.[60] An estimated 1,700people were forced to flee to shelters and about 3,200others were left homeless. Within Antigua and Barbuda alone, three fatalities occurred, 165people were injured, and damage totaled to $350million.[64] Strong winds in Guadeloupe caused moderate damage to homes and trees, especially in the Grande-Terre region. At Basse-Terre, nearly 100% of the banana crop was destroyed. Heavy rainfall in this portion of the island caused significant damage to roads. High waves also caused significant coastal flooding on the west coast of the island.[65] About $50million in damage was reported and one fatality occurred.[60][66] The most significant effects occurred in the Netherlands Antilles, especially on Saint Martin – including both the French and Dutch side of the island. Approximately 60% of buildings were damaged to some degree.[60] Additionally, severe disruption to utility services was reported, including water, electricity, and telephone service.[67] Nine deaths and $1.8billion in damage was reported on the island.[60]
In Dominica, storm surge left 1,000people homeless and $47million in property losses.[68] Winds exceeding 100mph (160km/h) caused severe impact in eastern Puerto Rico, especially Culebra. The area was left without electricity and 350houses were extensively damaged or destroyed. On the main island, effects were primarily limited to downed trees and power lines on highways and electrical outages at about 200,000houses. Throughout Puerto Rico, damaged reached $200million and there were two deaths. Similarly strong winds lashed the United States Virgin Islands. Saint Thomas suffered the worst, where 75%–80% of houses were severely damaged or destroyed. The island's hospital was flooded. Damage in the United States Virgin Islands was estimated at $300million.[69] Lesser effects occurred in the British Virgin Islands. Several homes were deroofed, especially on Anegada and Virgin Gorda. There were a number of telephone and electrical outages after a number of poles were toppled.[70] In the United States, storm surge and high tides were reported along the East Coast, leading to two drowning deaths—one in North Carolina and the other in New York. In the former state, eight homes were swept into the ocean and damage reached $1.9million.[71] The storm also brought minor flooding to Newfoundland, with one death and $500,000 in damage.[72] In addition, Luis was the earliest twelfth-named storm on record at the time. However, this record has since been broken by Hurricane Laura in 2020.[73]
A tropical wave exited the coast of Africa on September4 and tracked westward across the Atlantic. The system gradually organized and became a tropical depression on September9.[74] However, the NHC did not operationally declare the system as Tropical Depression Fourteen until September11, while the system was centered 950mi (1,530km) southeast of Bermuda.[75] Although the National Hurricane Center predicted that it would intensify into a tropical storm, it was also noted shortly after advisories were initiated that "this might have been the only opportunity to name this depression."[76] The depression moved toward the northwest and encountered strong upper-level winds which removed the convection from the low-level center on September13, causing the storm to dissipate.[74]
A tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa and entered into the Atlantic Ocean between September7 and September8. Although it had a large circulation, deep convection was minimal. After tracking steadily westward over the next few days, the system began developing convection. By 18:00UTC on September12, the system became Tropical Depression Fifteen, while centered about 585mi (941km) east-southeast of Barbados. The depression strengthened and became Tropical Storm Marilyn six hours later. Early on September14, Marilyn further intensified to a hurricane. Later that day, Marilyn made landfall near Jenny Point, Dominica, with winds of 80mph (130km/h) at 21:00UTC. Shortly thereafter, Marilyn entered the Caribbean Sea. While approaching the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico, the storm became a Category2 hurricane. After avoiding landfall, Marilyn re-entered into the Atlantic Ocean on September16. The storm continued to intensify and early on September17, it peaked as a minimal Category3 hurricane. While curving northward, Marilyn fluctuated in intensity until beginning a weakening trend on September20. The storm turned east-northeastward, and by the following day, it weakened to a tropical storm. By 06:00UTC on September22, Marilyn became extratropical while about 315mi (507km) southeast of Sable Island. The remnants of Marilyn lasted until merging with a cold front on October1.[77]
Throughout the Lesser Antilles, the storm produced high winds and heavy rainfall.[77] After Hurricane Luis destroyed 90% of Dominica's banana crop, Marilyn ruined the remaining 10%. In addition, a roof was torn off an emergency shelter.[78] On Martinique, moderate rainfall and tropical storm force winds were recorded, though no damage or fatalities occurred. Effects in Guadeloupe were similar, but more intense. In Saint-Claude, 20in (510mm) of rain fell, which was the highest precipitation total associated with Marilyn. Wind speeds measured on Guadeloupe were also tropical storm force, with sustained winds of 59mph (95km/h) in Marie-Galante. Similar but lesser winds and rain occurred in Saint Barthélemy and Sint Maarten. However, the United States possessions, were, by far, suffered the most damage. Strong winds damaged or destroyed at least 80% of buildings on St. Thomas, which left 10,000people homeless.[77] Storm surge in the Charlotte Amalie harbor beached the USCGC Point Ledge and damaged many smaller boats.[79] Moderate to severe damage was also reported on St. Croix and St. John,[77] where 20–30% of houses were damaged.[80] On Culebra, an offshore island of Puerto Rico, wind gusts as high as 125mph (201km/h) were reported.[77] As a result, light planes were overturned and 250homes were either damaged or destroyed. Large waves also caused street flooding on the island. Flash floods on the main island of Puerto Rico sent rivers above their banks.[80] Moderate winds and rainfall on Antigua caused extensive damage to banana crops. While the storm bypassed Bermuda, tropical storm force winds were reported but no damage occurred.[77] Overall, Marilyn caused at least 13fatalities and $2.1billion in damage.[66][77][81]
A tropical wave exited Africa on September 22 and within three days began to develop organized convection. After a low-level circulation formed, the system developed into Tropical Depression Sixteen late on September26.[82] Despite the presence of wind shear, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Noel on September27.[83] Moving northwestward, it gradually intensified to hurricane status by September28, with peak winds of 75mph (121km/h). After remaining a hurricane for 42hours, during which it turned to the northeast, Noel weakened to tropical storm strength due to increased wind shear.[82][84]
Although forecast to weaken to a tropical depression,[85] Noel maintained minimal tropical storm intensity as it curved to the northwest. Following a decrease in shear, Noel regained hurricane status on October5 about 950mi (1,530km) west-southwest of the Azores. It turned to the east,[82] and the return of unfavorable conditions caused it to weaken to a tropical storm by October6.[86] A day later, Noel weakened below tropical storm strength as it transitioned to an extratropical cyclone. The remnants lasted until late on October7 until they were absorbed by a cold front.[82]
On September11, a tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa. The wave remained disorganized until nearing the Yucatán Peninsula, where it became a tropical depression on September27 while 80mi (130km) south-southeast of Cozumel. The depression slowly moved over the Yucatán Peninsula for a few days, eventually emerging off the north coast, where it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Opal on September30. After becoming a hurricane on October2, the cyclone rapidly intensified and began moving north across the Gulf of Mexico. At 10:00UTC on October4, Opal peaked as a Category4 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 150mph (240km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 916mbar (27.0inHg). Shortly thereafter, the storm began weakening. Upon making landfall in Pensacola Beach, Florida, around 22:00UTC on October4, winds had decreased to 115mph (185km/h), which is Category3 intensity. Opal weakened rapidly after moving inland, deteriorating to a tropical storm early on October5 and then to a tropical depression about six hours later. At 18:00UTC on October5, Opal became extratropical over Kentucky. The extratropical storm dissipated over Ontario on October6.[87]
The precursor and initial stages of Opal brought heavy rainfall and flooding to Guatemala and Mexico. In the former, rivers near the border with Mexico overflowed, resulting in the evacuation of 110 families in Tecún Umán. Approximately 34,000people were left homeless. Landslides left damage to infrastructure and agriculture, with about $17million in crop damage alone. Thirty-one deaths occurred in Guatemala.[88] In Mexico, more than 42,000 people were forced to evacuate as rivers overtopped their banks in Campeche and Tabasco,[89] while an estimated 100,000people evacuated due to the storm.[90] Around 500,000acres of crops had been destroyed by the floods.[89] Agricultural losses in Campeche alone were estimated in the hundreds of millions of dollars.[91] Nineteen fatalities were reported in Mexico.[87] In Florida, strong winds and storm surge left severe damage in the panhandle. From Wakulla County westward, many structures including homes and buildings were swept away or suffered some degree of damage. In Escambia, Okaloosa, and Santa Rosa counties, nearly 300homes were destroyed and 1,000others suffered major damage. The storm left at least $2.1billion in damage in Florida.[92]
In Alabama, storm surge ranging from 4 to 7ft (1.2 to 2.1m) left significant damage in coastal counties. Inland, tropical storm force winds gusts were observed as far north as Huntsville. Numerous trees and power lines were downed in several counties, leaving 2.6million people across the state without electricity at the height of the storm. Downed trees also damaged some dwellings, primarily mobile homes. Several short-lived tornadoes destroyed over 125homes, while 150others suffered major damage. It was estimated that the storm caused over $182million in damage in Alabama.[92] Strong wind gusts were reported in northern Georgia, with a gust of 69mph (111km/h) at Marietta.[93] There were more than 1,200telephone poles knocked down and almost 5,000power lines snapped. Wind damage in Rabun County alone reached about $5million, while the pecan crop suffered around $50million in damage. Several other states reported lesser wind damage and flooding.[92] Throughout the United States, Opal caused approximately $4.7billion in damage and 27fatalities, including 14in Georgia, 6in Alabama, 5in Florida, and 2in North Carolina.[93][94]
A tropical wave crossed the west coast of Africa and entered into the Atlantic Ocean on October3. It quickly acquired a low-level circulation and by the following day, it developed into Tropical Depression Eighteen. Under the influence of deep easterlies, the storm tracked west-northwest and westward across the southern portions of the Atlantic Ocean.[95] At 12:00UTC on October5, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Pablo.[95] After becoming a tropical storm, Pablo developed well-defined outflow and the possibility of it strengthening into a hurricane seemed likely.[96]
Although strong upper-level westerlies were ahead of the storm, it was still predicted that Pablo would reach hurricane status.[97] By 12:00UTC on October6, Pablo peaked as a 60mph (97km/h) tropical storm.[95] However, shortly thereafter, strong vertical shear then diminished much of the deep convection associated with the storm.[98] Early on October7, Pablo managed to re-develop some deep convection, though it did not restrengthen.[99] Later that day, the low level circulation became indiscernible on infrared imagery.[100] By 12:00UTC on October8, Pablo weakened to a tropical depression. Six hours later, Pablo dissipated while approaching the Windward Islands.[95]
A tropical wave merged with a broad low pressure area and an upper trough near Honduras. The system quickly organized into Tropical Depression Nineteen on October7. The depression brushed Central America before curving northward, where it strengthened into Tropical Storm Roxanne on October9. Roxanne posed a threat to Cuba and the Cayman Islands, which briefly prompted the issuance of a tropical storm warning and a hurricane watch. However, a high pressure system forced Roxanne to tracked generally westward, which prevented it from significantly affecting the aforementioned islands. After becoming a hurricane on October10, Roxanne began to rapidly strengthen. Later that day, the storm peaked as a minimal Category3 hurricane, with winds of 115mph (185km/h).[101]
By 02:00UTC on October11, Roxanne made landfall just north of Tulum, Quintana Roo, on the Yucatán Peninsula with winds of 115mph (185km/h). The storm significantly weakened inland and emerged into the Bay of Campeche as a tropical storm. Several shortwave troughs and ridges caused Roxanne to track aimlessly through the southern Gulf of Mexico. By October14, it re-strengthened into a hurricane. After making a close approach to the Yucatán Peninsula while heading southeastward, Roxanne weakened to a tropical storm on October17 as it doubled back to the northwest. A cold front forced Roxanne westward on October19, and it simultaneously weakened to a tropical depression. The cyclone curved abruptly southward and dissipated just offshore of Veracruz on October21.[101]
In the Gulf of Mexico, a petroleum work barge with 245people on board capsized, causing five people to drown. Due to its erratic movement, Roxanne dropped heavy rainfall in many areas of southern Mexico, and some areas reported over 25 inches (640mm) of precipitation.[102] Extensive flooding occurred as a result, which destroyed crops, washed out roads, and damaged at least 40,000homes. In addition, significant coastal flooding also occurred, as storm surge for nearly a week caused water to travel inland for hundreds of yards. High winds also occurred over the Yucatán Peninsula, with one station reporting hurricane-force winds on October11. Unconfirmed reports also indicated that many hotel lobbies in Cancun and Cozumel were damaged from pounding waves. Overall, Roxanne caused $1.5billion in damage and 29fatalities. However, not all damage could be distinguished from Hurricane Opal.[101][81]
A tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa on October 13 and moved across the Atlantic. On October20, it was declared a depression after shower activity increased. Twelve hours after forming, the depression became Tropical Storm Sebastien.[103] It organized and developed good outflow.[104] Although wind shear was expected to limit intensification,[105] the storm instead intensified and peaked with maximum sustained winds of 65mph (105km/h) late on October22, based on a ship report.[103] At the time, most of the convection was sheared away from the center, and the storm was interacting with a low pressure area near Puerto Rico. The storm initially moved northwestward, before turning to the southwest along the low-level flow and into an area of increasing shear. On October24, Sebastien weakened into a tropical depression, and it maintained this intensity until landfall on Anguilla. The next day, the system dissipated near the United States Virgin Islands, although the remnants continued westward.[103]
As it turned towards the Caribbean, the NHC issued a tropical storm watch for the United States Virgin Islands and the British Virgin Islands.[103] Other islands were on alert as the NHC stated that the watch area may need to be expanded.[106] Still recovering from Hurricane Marilyn less than a month prior, residents living in damaged homes reportedly evacuated their homes.[107] However, the watch was discontinued 24hours later after the storm weakened to a tropical depression.[103] The remnants of Sebastien produced moderate rainfall across parts of Puerto Rico, peaking at 3.53in (90mm) in Quebradillas.[54]
Early on October27, a tropical wave developed into a tropical depression. The system strengthened into Tropical Storm Tanya later that day. Tanya initially tracked northeastward due to a shortwave trough, though an upper-level cyclone soon turned the storm toward eastward. Early on October29, Tanya was upgraded to a hurricane. On the following day, a cold front to the west forced the cyclone to accelerate northeastward.[108] Despite slightly cooler water,[109] Tanya strengthened a bit more that afternoon, reaching its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 85mph (137km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 972 millibars (28.7inHg).[108] That intensity was maintained until late on October31, when the storm weakened as it traveled over cooler waters.[110] Early on November1, Tanya began to lose tropical characteristics while heading rapidly northeast towards the Azores. The system was downgraded to a tropical storm on November1. That evening, Tanya became extratropical near the central Azores. The remnants turned northward and were absorbed by another extratropical cyclone early on November3.[108]
In the Azores, Tanya tore roofs off houses and downed trees, and light posts flew through houses and buildings. One death by drowning was reported, as well as several injuries. The islands of Faial, Pico, São Jorge, and Terceira were hardest hit, where the storm sank numerous boats and knocked down trees and power lines, which severely disrupted electricity and telecommunications. Additionally, several houses were damaged and moderate crop losses were reported.[111]
The following list of names was used for named storms that formed in the north Atlantic in 1995.[112][113] This is the same list used for the 1989 season,[114] except for Humberto, which replaced Hugo.[115] Storms were named Humberto, Luis, Marilyn, Noel, Opal, Pablo, Roxanne, Sebastien, and Tanya for the first (and in the cases of Luis, Marilyn, Opal, and Roxanne, only) time in 1995.
The World Meteorological Organization retired the names Luis, Marilyn, Opal, and Roxanne from the Atlantic hurricane name lists following the 1995 season due to their destructiveness. They were replaced for the 2001 season by Lorenzo, Michelle, Olga, and Rebekah.[116][117] As of 2024, the 1995 season is one of four seasons to have four storm names retired, along with: 1955, 2004, and 2017; only the 2005 season had more–with five names retired.[118][119]
Season effects
This is a table of all of the storms that formed in the 1995 Atlantic hurricane season. It includes their name, duration, peak classification and intensities, areas affected, damage, and death totals. Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect (an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident), but were still related to that storm. Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical, a wave, or a low, and all of the damage figures are in 1995 USD.
↑ All damage figures are in 1995 USD, unless otherwise noted
↑ There is an undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 and zero to four per year between 1886 and 1910, due to the lack of modern observation techniques, see Tropical cyclone observation. This may have led to significantly lower ACE ratings for hurricane seasons prior to 1910.[9][10]
Related Research Articles
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↑ Richard J. Pasch (January 29, 1996). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Allison(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 10, 2016.
Gene Hafele (August 4, 1995). Summary of Tropical Storm Dean. National Weather Service Houston, Texas (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. p.2. Retrieved August 12, 2016.
August 1995 Storm Data. National Weather Service Norman, Oklahoma (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. August 1995. Archived from the original on 8 October 2006. Retrieved November 29, 2008.
Edward N. Rappaport (November 26, 1995). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Erin(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 12, 2016.
B. Max Mayfield; Jack L. Beven (November 19, 1995). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Felix(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 10, 2016.
Miles B. Lawrence (December 1, 1995). Preliminary Report: Tropical Storm Gabrielle(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 12, 2016.
Edward N. Rappaport (November 2, 2000). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Iris(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 12, 2016.
Richard J. Pasch (January 31, 1996). Preliminary Report: Tropical Storm Jerry(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 29, 2016.
1995-Luis (Report). Environment Canada. September 14, 2010. Archived from the original on March 13, 2013. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
Edward N. Edward (January 17, 1996). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Marilyn(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 29, 2016.
Neal Lott; Tom Ross (2007). Billion Dollar U.S. Weather Disasters(PDF). National Climatic Data Center (Report). Asheville, North Carolina. Archived from the original(PDF) on November 22, 2006. Retrieved September 27, 2016.
Hurricane Opal Preliminary Report(PDF) (NOAA Technical Memorandum 95-02). National Climatic Data Center. November 1995. pp.4, 9. Retrieved September 26, 2016.
Lixion A. Avila (November 29, 1995). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Roxanne(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
1 2 3 Richard J. Pasch (January 29, 1996). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Allison(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 10, 2016.
↑ 1995-Allison (Report). Environment Canada. September 14, 2010. Archived from the original on March 13, 2013. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
1 2 3 4 5 6 B. Max Mayfield (November 19, 1995). Preliminary Report: Tropical Storm Barry(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 10, 2016.
↑ B. Max Mayfield (July 6, 1995). Tropical Depression Two Discussion Number 2. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 10, 2016.
↑ Lixion A. Avila (July 8, 1995). Tropical Storm Barry Discussion Number 9. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 10, 2016.
↑ B. Max Mayfield (July 9, 1995). Tropical Storm Barry Discussion Number 13. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 10, 2016.
1 2 Miles B. Lawrence (November 17, 1995). Preliminary Report: Tropical Storm Chantal(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 10, 2016.
↑ 1995-Chantal (Report). Environment Canada. September 14, 2010. Archived from the original on March 13, 2013. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
1 2 Lixion A. Avila (November 14, 1995). Preliminary Report: Tropical Storm Dean(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 12, 2016.
1 2 3 4 Gene Hafele (August 4, 1995). Summary of Tropical Storm Dean. National Weather Service Houston, Texas (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. p.2. Retrieved August 12, 2016.
1 2 August 1995 Storm Data. National Weather Service Norman, Oklahoma (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. August 1995. Archived from the original on 8 October 2006. Retrieved November 29, 2008.
1 2 3 Edward N. Rappaport (November 26, 1995). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Erin(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 12, 2016.
1 2 Richard J. Pasch (January 10, 1996). Brief Information about Tropical Depression Six(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 10, 2016.
↑ David M. Roth (October 8, 2008). Tropical Depression Six - August 3-7, 1995. Weather Prediction Center (Report). College Park, Maryland: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 10, 2016.
1 2 3 4 5 B. Max Mayfield; Jack L. Beven (November 19, 1995). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Felix(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 10, 2016.
↑ 1995-Felix (Report). Environment Canada. September 14, 2010. Archived from the original on March 13, 2013. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
1 2 3 4 Miles B. Lawrence (December 1, 1995). Preliminary Report: Tropical Storm Gabrielle(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 12, 2016.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Lixion A. Avila (November 15, 1995). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Humberto(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 12, 2016.
↑ Richard J. Pasch; B. Max Mayfield (August 22, 1995). Tropical Storm Humberto Discussion Number 3. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 12, 2016.
↑ Edward N. Rappaport (August 24, 1995). Hurricane Humberto Discussion Number 10. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 12, 2016.
↑ Edward N. Rappaport (August 25, 1995). Hurricane Humberto Discussion Number 15. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 12, 2016.
↑ B. Max Mayfield (August 28, 1995). Hurricane Humberto Discussion Number 25. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 29, 2016.
↑ Steve Lyons (August 31, 1995). Hurricane Humberto Discussion Number 38. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 29, 2016.
1 2 3 4 Edward N. Rappaport (November 2, 2000). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Iris(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 12, 2016.
1 2 3 Richard J. Pasch (January 31, 1996). Preliminary Report: Tropical Storm Jerry(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 29, 2016.
1 2 3 B. Max Mayfield (November 19, 1995). Preliminary Report: Tropical Storm Karen(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 29, 2016.
↑ B. Max Mayfield (August 27, 1995). Tropical Depression Twelve Discussion Number 4. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 29, 2016.
↑ Steve Lyons (August 27, 1995). Tropical Depression Twelve Discussion Number 5. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 29, 2016.
↑ Steve Lyons (August 27, 1995). Tropical Depression Twelve Discussion Number 6. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 29, 2016.
↑ Miles B. Lawrence (September 1, 1995). Tropical Storm Karen Discussion Number 5. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 29, 2016.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Miles B. Lawrence (January 8, 1996). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Luis(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 29, 2016.
↑ Edward N. Rappaport (September 8, 1995). Hurricane Luis Discussion Number 46. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 29, 2016.
↑ Lixion A. Avila (September 9, 1995). Hurricane Luis Discussion Number 48. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 29, 2016.
↑ Richard J. Pasch (September 11, 1995). Hurricane Luis Discussion Number 56. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 29, 2016.
↑ Dominica - Hurricane Situation Report No.4. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (Report). ReliefWeb. October 12, 1995. Retrieved September 25, 2016.
1 2 Lixion A. Avila (January 8, 1996). Preliminary Report: Tropical Depression Fourteen(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 29, 2016.
↑ Jerry D. Jarrell (September 11, 1995). Tropical Depression Discussion Number 1. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 29, 2016.
↑ Jerry D. Jarrell (September 11, 1995). Tropical Depression Discussion Number 2. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 29, 2016.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Edward N. Edward (January 17, 1996). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Marilyn(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 29, 2016.
1 2 Preliminary Storm Report - Hurricane Marilyn. National Weather Service San Juan, Puerto Rico (Report). San Juan, Puerto Rico: National Hurricane Center. October 31, 1995. p.3. Retrieved May 4, 2012.
1 2 3 4 Richard J. Pasch (February 1, 1996). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Noel(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 29, 2016.
↑ Lixion A. Avila (September 27, 1995). Tropical Storm Noel Discussion Number 3. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 29, 2016.
↑ Miles B. Lawrence (September 29, 1995). Hurricane Noel Discussion Number 10. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 29, 2016.
↑ Edward N. Rapport (September 30, 1995). Hurricane Noel Discussion Number 17. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 29, 2016.
↑ Miles B. Lawrence (October 6, 1995). Tropical Storm Noel Discussion Number 38. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
1 2 B. Max Mayfield (September 9, 2014). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Opal(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
1 2 Sara Silver (October 1, 1995). "Opal Floods Yucatan Peninsula". Mexico City, Mexico: Associated Press. (Accessed through LexisNexis)
↑ Joseph B. Frazier (October 3, 1995). "At Least Seven Dead as Hurricane Heads North Toward U.S". Veracruz, Mexico: Associated Press. (Accessed through LexisNexis)
↑ "Yucatan peninsula cut off by floods". Campeche, Mexico: United Press International. October 3, 1995. (Accessed through LexisNexis)
1 2 3 "Storm Data and Unusual Weather Phenomena"(PDF). Storm Data. 37 (10). Asheville, North Carolina: National Climatic Data Center: 12, 14, 24–26, 31–33, 36, 38, 40–42, 45–46, 49–51, 53–55, 57, 59–60, 64–65, 67–68. October 1995. ISSN0039-1972. Archived from the original(PDF) on September 26, 2016. Retrieved September 26, 2016.
1 2 Hurricane Opal Preliminary Report(PDF) (NOAA Technical Memorandum 95-02). National Climatic Data Center. November 1995. pp.4, 9. Retrieved September 26, 2016.
1 2 3 4 Miles B. Lawrence (December 4, 1995). Preliminary Report: Tropical Storm Pablo(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
↑ Richard J. Pasch (October 5, 1995). Tropical Storm Pablo Discussion Number 4. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
↑ Miles B. Lawrence (October 6, 1995). Tropical Storm Pablo Discussion Number 6. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
↑ Edward N. Rappaport (October 6, 1995). Tropical Storm Pablo Discussion Number 7. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
↑ Lixion A. Avila (October 7, 1995). Tropical Storm Pablo Discussion Number 9. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
↑ Miles B. Lawrence (October 7, 1995). Tropical Storm Pablo Discussion Number 10. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
1 2 3 Lixion A. Avila (November 29, 1995). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Roxanne(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
↑ David M. Roth (January 27, 2007). Hurricane Roxanne - October 9-21, 1995. Weather Prediction Center (Report). Camp Springs, Maryland: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
1 2 3 4 5 Edward N. Rapport (December 4, 1995). Preliminary Report: Tropical Storm Sebastien(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
↑ Lixion A. Avila (October 20, 1995). Tropical Storm Sebastien Discussion Number 2. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
↑ Lixion A. Avila (October 22, 1995). Tropical Storm Sebastien Discussion Number 8. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
1 2 3 Richard J. Pasch (February 1, 1996). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Tanya(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
↑ Edward N. Rappaport (October 30, 1995). Hurricane Tanya Discussion Number 14. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
↑ Richard J. Pasch (November 1, 1995). Hurricane Tanya Discussion Number 19. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
↑ National Hurricane Operations Plan(PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: NOAA Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research. May 1995. p.3-7. Retrieved January 19, 2024.
↑ National Hurricane Operations Plan(PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: NOAA Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research. April 1989. p.3-7. Retrieved January 17, 2024.
↑ National Hurricane Operations Plan(PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: NOAA Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research. May 2001. p.3-7. Retrieved January 19, 2024.
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