The 1999 Atlantic hurricane season was a fairly active season, mostly due to a persistent La Niña that developed in the latter half of 1998. It had five Category4 hurricanes– the highest number recorded in a single season in the Atlantic basin, previously tied in 1933 and 1961, and later tied in 2005 and 2020. The season officially began on June1, and ended on November30. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin. The first storm, Arlene, formed on June11 to the southeast of Bermuda. It meandered slowly for a week and caused no impact on land. Other tropical cyclones that did not affect land were Hurricane Cindy, Tropical Storm Emily, and Tropical Depression Twelve. Localized or otherwise minor damage occurred from Hurricanes Bret, Gert, and Jose, and tropical storms Harvey and Katrina.
The most significant storm of the season was Hurricane Floyd, a strong Category4 hurricane that caused devastating flooding along the East Coast of the United States, especially in North Carolina. Damage from the storm totaled approximately $6.5billion (1999USD)[nb 1] and there were at least 77fatalities, making it the deadliest hurricane in the United States since Hurricane Agnes in 1972. Flooding from Floyd in North Carolina followed Hurricane Dennis, a slow and erratic–moving storm that dropped heavy rainfall in the eastern portion of the state. Tropical Depression Eleven in October contributed to extreme flooding in Mexico, which left 636people dead and caused $491.3million in damage, though impact could not be distinguished from the storm itself. Hurricane Irene caused extensive flooding in Cuba and Florida, with lesser effects in the Bahamas and North Carolina. Irene was the second–costliest storm of the season, with about $800million in damage. Hurricane Lenny was an unusual eastward–moving storm in the Caribbean Sea and a strong late–season storm. It caused extensive damage in the Lesser Antilles in the month of November. Collectively, the storms of the 1999Atlantic hurricane season caused at least 123fatalities and $8.328billion in losses.
Seasonal forecasts
Pre-season outlooks
Predictions of tropical activity in the 1999 season
† Most recent of several such occurrences. (See all)
Ahead of and during each hurricane season, various national meteorological services, scientific agencies, and noted hurricane experts issue forecasts of hurricane activity. These include forecasters from the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)'s National Hurricane and Climate Prediction Center's, William M. Gray and his associates at Colorado State University (CSU), as well as Weather Research Center (WRC) and Tropical Storm Risk (TSR), then known as TSUNAMI. The forecasts include weekly or monthly assessments of the significant factors that help determine the number of tropical storms, hurricanes, and major hurricanes within a particular year.[1]
Gray and his team at CSU issued their initial season outlook on December4, 1998, predicting fourteen named storms, nine hurricanes, and four major hurricanes. The three main factors for this above average season forecast cited included a continuation of abnormally warm sea surface temperatures, the probability that La Niña conditions would remain, and that the quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) winds would be in a westerly phase.[6] Early in 1999, WRC issued its forecast for the season, projecting ten named storms and six hurricanes, but no prediction on the number of major hurricanes.[4] In subsequent outlooks from Gray and his associates in April, June, and August, the predictions were unchanged.[3]
On April7, CSU noted that the probability of a major hurricane landfall in the United States was 72%, including a 54% chance on the East Coast and a 40% likelihood on the Gulf Coast.[7] In their outlook on May27, experts at NOAA noted that an above average season was a strong possibility. An addition to a La Niña, vertical wind shear would be decreased across much of the Caribbean Sea and tropical Atlantic Ocean, and a favorable jet pattern for tropical waves to develop into tropical cyclones.[8] On June1, TSR predicted that there would be 12named storms, 7hurricanes, and 2major hurricanes.[5]
As stated by NOAA and CSU, an average Atlantic hurricane season between 1981–2010 contains roughly 12tropical storms, 6hurricanes, 3major hurricanes, and an accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) Index of 66–103 units.[1] NOAA typically categorizes a season as either above-average, average, of below-average based on the cumulative ACE Index; however, the number of tropical storms, hurricanes, and major hurricanes within a hurricane season is considered occasionally as well.[9]
Hurricanes Floyd(left) and Gert(right) pictured on September 13
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1, 1999,[8] and the first tropical cyclone developed on June11.[10] It was an above–average season in which 16tropical cyclones formed.[11][12][13][14] Twelve depressions attained tropical storm status, and eight of these became hurricanes. Five hurricanes intensified further into major hurricanes.[11] The season featured a record-tying five Category4 hurricanes,[15] later tied again in 2005 and 2020.[16] These were Bret, Cindy, Floyd, Gert, and Hurricane Lenny.[11] The last storm of the season, Hurricane Lenny, dissipated on November23,[17] which was about a week before the official season ending on November30, 1999.[8]
A persistent La Niña that developed during the previous season was attributed to the above average activity.[18] Between August and October, there was very low wind shear over the Caribbean Sea and western Atlantic Ocean, attributed to a combination of abnormal upper-level easterly winds and low-level westerly winds.[19] Six hurricanes and two tropical storms made landfall during the season and caused at least 123deaths and approximately $8.19billion in damage. Hurricane Gert also caused damage and fatalities, despite not making landfall.[20]
Overall, the season's activity was reflected with a high cumulative accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) rating of 177.[21] ACE is, broadly speaking, a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed, so storms that last a long time, as well as particularly strong hurricanes, have high ACEs. It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots (39mph; 63km/h) or tropical storm strength.[22]
Along a diffuse front, a broad area of low pressure in association with an upper-level low was noted several hundred miles northeast of Puerto Rico on June8. After the circulation reformed within the area of stronger convection, the NHC estimated that Tropical Depression One developed at 18:00UTC on June11 about 535mi (861km) southeast of Bermuda. Initially, the system resembled a subtropical cyclone, due to its frontal characteristics. The nascent depression drifted northward for 24hours, and during this time, it strengthened and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Arlene at 12:00UTC on June12, based on Dvorak satellite classifications. The storm intensified further to its peak intensity at 00:00UTC on June13, with estimated maximum sustained winds of 60mph (97km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1,006mbar (29.7inHg), based on ship reports and satellite. Subsequently, weakening due to westerly wind shear, Arlene tracking westward on June13 and turned northwest the following day. Because the steering current became poorly defined, it drifted starting on June15, and executed a small cyclonic loop later that day. At 00:00UTC on June17, Arlene was downgraded to a tropical depression. Later that day, it passed about 115mi (185km) east of Bermuda,[10] where gale-force winds and abnormally high tides were observed.[23] The depression weakened further due to decreasing sea surface temperatures and dissipated early on June18.[10]
A tropical wave crossed the west coast of Africa on June20. As the wave moved into the western Caribbean Sea on June30, a broad cyclonic turning was noted. The system moved over the Yucatán Peninsula on July1, a day before emerging into the Bay of Campeche as a weak low pressure area. Later on July2, deep convection became more organized while the system was centered over the southwestern Gulf of Mexico. By 18:00UTC, the low developed into Tropical Depression Two. Around 04:00UTC on July3, the depression made landfall about 40mi (64km) south-southeast of Tuxpan, Veracruz, with winds of 35mph (56km/h). Eighthours later, it dissipated over the mountains of Mexico.[12] The depression dropped heavy rain on the area amounting to a maximum of 20.37in (517mm) at Tanzabaca, San Luis Potosí.[24] In some areas, up to 12.49in (317mm) of precipitation fell in 24hours.[12]
Late on August18, a tropical wave in the Bay of Campeche spawned Tropical Depression Three. The depression drifted and was initially hampered by wind shear. By late on August19, the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Bret amid more favorable atmosphere conditions. Bret then moved generally northward and strengthened into a hurricane early on August21. Bret strengthened significantly over the next 36hours, peaking as a 145mph (233km/h) Category4 hurricane with a minimum barometric pressure of 944mbar (27.9inHg) on August22. Thereafter, the storm began to weaken while curving west-northwestward. At 00:00UTC on August23, Bret made landfall in central Padre Island, Texas, as a Category3 hurricane with winds of 115mph (185km/h).[25] After moving inland, the storm weakened quickly, falling to tropical depression status on August24. Early the following day, Bret dissipated near the border of Coahuila and Chihuahua.[25]
Bret was a small tropical cyclone that made landfall in a sparsely–populated region of Texas, resulting in relatively little damage.[25] Heavy rainfall in the area peaked at 13.18in (335mm) in Sarita.[24] At least 200homes and large agricultural fields were flooded in Duval County.[26] Strong winds left approximately 64,000people without electricity in South Texas.[27] Four people died after a truck and a tractor collided near Laredo due to slick roads.[28] In Mexico, the storm brought flooding to Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas,[29] with an estimated 14in (360mm) of rain falling in Nuevo Leon.[25] Numerous homes in the affected regions were damaged or destroyed, leaving roughly 150people homeless.[30] Three people died in Mexico – one was trampled to death during evacuation, another was electrocuted, and the third drowned.[31][32] Overall, the storm caused $15million in damage.[33]
On August18, a tropical wave moved westward off the coast of Africa. With low pressures and gradually organizing convection, Tropical Depression Four developed west of Senegal early on August19.[34] Initially it failed to intensify due to wind shear,[34] and the center became ill-defined on August20.[35] After passing south of Cape Verde,[36] the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Cindy as the convection became concentrated around the center.[37] Due to a strong ridge, Cindy moved westward, before turning northwestward by August21.[38] Banding features gradually increased as outflow improved,[39] and late on August21, Cindy became a hurricane.[40] Afterward, increased wind shear dislocated the convection from the center,[41] which weakened Cindy to a tropical storm.[42]
By August23, high wind shear remained, and the storm's winds decreased to 60mph (97km/h).[43] The shear decreased on August24,[34] and the convection increased over the center.[44] By late on August25, Cindy regained hurricane status.[34] A ragged eye appeared on satellite imagery on August27,[45] and early the next day it attained major hurricane status.[46] Cindy turned north-northwestward, now showing a well-defined eye,[34] and reached Category4 intensity with winds of 140mph (230km/h) on August28.[47] Turning northward, the storm remained at peak intensity until August 30, when prominent wind shear weakened Cindy again.[34] On August31, Cindy was downgraded to a tropical storm,[48] and later that day it merged with a large extratropical storm northwest of the Azores.[34]
Tropical Depression Five developed from a tropical wave about 220mi (350km) east of the Turks Islands on August23. On the following day, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Dennis despite unfavorable westerly shear, which became a hurricane by August26. After striking the Abaco Islands in the Bahama, conditions improved, allowing for Dennis to strengthen into a Category2 by August28. Around this time, Dennis began to move parallel to the Southeastern United States. Early on August30, the storm peaked with maximum sustained winds of 105mph (169km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 962mbar (28.4inHg). By the following day, steering currents collapsed and the storm interacted with a cold front, causing Dennis to move erratically offshore North Carolina. Wind shear and cold air associated with the front weakened Dennis to a tropical storm on September1 and removed some of its tropical characteristics. Eventually, warmer ocean temperatures caused some re-strengthening. By September4, Dennis turned northwestward and made landfall in Cape Lookout, North Carolina, as a strong tropical storm. The storm slowly weakened inland, before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone over western New York on September7.[49]
In the Bahamas, Dennis produced moderate winds, rain, and storm surge on San Salvador, Crooked Island, Eleuthera, and Abaco Islands, resulting in damage to roofs and coastal properties.[50] Dennis brought 6–8ft (1.8–2.4m) waves to the east coast of Florida, causing minor erosion and four drowning deaths. The waves left severe erosion and coastal flooding along the Outer Banks of North Carolina.[49] An 8ft (2.4m) deep channel created along Highway 12 isolated three towns on Hatteras Island.[51] In Carteret, Craven, and Dare counties, the storm damaged at least 2,025homes and businesses to some degree.[52] Heavy rainfall, peaking at 19.91in (506mm) at Ocracoke, fell in eastern North Carolina.[24] Although the precipitation was generally beneficial due to drought conditions, it also damaged crops.[49] Two indirect deaths occurred in Richlands during a weather-related car accident.[53] Similar inland flooding occurred in northern and eastern Virginia,[49] with precipitation reaching 10.21in (259mm) near Lawrenceville.[54] A tornado in Hampton severely damaged five apartment complexes, three of which were condemned completely, as well an assisted living facility; about 460people were forced to evacuate from the buildings, and as many as 800vehicles may have been damaged.[55] Overall damage in North Carolina and Virginia totaled about $157million.[49] Generally minor flooding occurred in the Mid-Atlantic and New England.[55]
A tropical wave ahead of Hurricane Cindy exited the west coast of Africa on August15. Minimal development occurred initially, although the structure gradually organized as it approached the Windward Islands. By 06:00UTC on August24, the NHC estimated that a tropical depression developed about 470mi (760km) east-northeast of Tobago. The depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Emily six hours later. At 1800UTC on August24, Emily attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 50mph (80km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1,004mbar (29.6inHg).[56] The NHC did not initiate advisories until 2100UTC, when a reconnaissance aircraft observed winds of 63mph (101km/h) in association with the small circulation of Emily. The agency initially predicted that the storm would intensify into a hurricane near the Windward Islands.[57] Increased wind shear generated by Hurricane Cindy caused Emily to weaken slightly on August25. Emily began moving slowly northwestward and progressively became more influenced by Cindy, developing occasional convective bursts. Later on August26, the movement turned northward, well offshore the Lesser Antilles. Eventually, the storm no longer produced convective bursts, and by 12:00UTC on August28, Emily weakened to a tropical depression. Six hours later, the storm was absorbed into Cindy northeast of the Leeward Islands.[56]
Interaction between a strong monsoon-type flow and a tropical wave in the Bay of Campeche resulted in the development of Tropical Depression Seven on September5. By 00:00UTC on September6, the depression attained maximum sustained winds of 35mph (56km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1,006mbar (29.7inHg).[13] Shortly thereafter, the center of circulation of the depression became difficult to locate, but was likely heading north-northwestward. Due to warm ocean temperatures, the SHIPS model predicted further intensification, despite the storm having almost no deep convection and being close to land.[58]
At 12:00UTC on September6, the depression made landfall near La Pesca, Tamaulipas, with winds of 35mph (56km/h). The depression quickly weakened inland, and dissipated about twenty-four hours after landfall. Due to forecasts that the depression would strengthen to a tropical storm, the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning for Tampico to Matamoros, Tamaulipas.[13] The storm caused heavy rainfall in Mexico, with as much as 17.43in (443mm) falling in Ciudad Mante in the state of Tamaulipas. In Texas, the depression produced light rainfall, peaking at 3.35in (85mm) in Harlingen.[59]
A westward moving tropical wave developed into a tropical depression while located about 1,000mi (1,600km) east of the Lesser Antilles on September7. The depression strengthened and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Floyd on the following day. Floyd became a hurricane on September10, while curving northwestward, before the storm resumed its initial west-northwestward course late on the following day. Significant intensification occurred on September12 and September13. At 12:00UTC on the latter date, Floyd peaked with maximum sustained winds of 155mph (249km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 921mbar (27.2inHg). Thereafter, the storm began weakening while approaching the Bahamas, decreasing to Category3 intensity at 06:00UTC on September14. Six hours later, Floyd made landfall near Alice Town on Eleuthera with winds of 120mph (190km/h), around the time that the cyclone began moving north-northwestward. Shortly before striking the Abaco Islands at 19:00UTC, the hurricane re-intensified into a Category4 hurricane. Early on September15, Floyd weakened to a Category3 hurricane and passed 110mi (180km) offshore Florida. Floyd weakened to a Category2 hurricane late on September15, while re-curving to the north-northeast. At 16:30UTC on September16, Floyd made landfall near Cape Fear, North Carolina, with winds of 105mph (169km/h). Thereafter, the storm rapidly weakened and was a tropical storm by early on the following day. Floyd moved along the coasts of the Delmarva Peninsula and New Jersey, before striking Long Island in New York early on September17. Shortly thereafter, Floyd transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while interacting with a frontal zone over Maine.[60]
In the Bahamas, a combination of strong winds and storm surge destroyed numerous restaurants, hotels, shops, and homes,[61] and left tens of thousands without water, electricity, and food. One death was reported.[62] Although millions of people in Florida evacuated, damage was relatively minor.[60] The outer bands of Floyd produced up to 3.2in (81mm) of rain and tropical storm force winds.[63] As a result, hundreds of trees were downed, which damaged at 467houses, and several hotels and businesses. Impact in Georgia and South Carolina was minor. North Carolina bore the brunt of the storm.[60] Heavy precipitation fell in the eastern portion of the state, peaking at 24.06in (611mm) near Southport.[24] Numerous rivers experienced at least 500-year floods, causing extensive flooding. About 7,000homes were destroyed and an additional 56,000suffered damage, of which 17,000houses were left uninhabitable. At the height of the storm, more than 500,000people lacked electricity. Thirty-five fatalities and about $4billion in damage occurred in North Carolina.[64]
Flooding in Virginia damaged about 182businesses and 9,250houses, and left about 12ft (3.7m) of standing water in Franklin. There were three deaths and $101million in losses.[65] In Maryland, flooding damaged at least 694homes, impacted numerous bridges and roads, and left over 250,000residents without power. Similar effects occurred in Delaware, with at least 171houses damaged and numerous roads being inundated or washed out.[55] In Pennsylvania, flash flooding affected over 10,000homes and left more than 500,000people without electricity.[64] Losses reached $60million and there were 13deaths in the state. The storm also caused significant impact in New Jersey, where 3,978homes, 1,358apartments, and 1,758businesses were destroyed or suffered major damage. Six deaths occurred in the state. New York, New England,[55] and Atlantic Canada also experienced flooding, but to a much lesser degree.[66] In New York City, Floyd dropped 5.02in (128mm) of rainfall at the Central Park observatory, setting a daily record for precipitation on September16.[67] Overall, Floyd caused about $6.5billion in damage and 73fatalities.[60][64]
On September10, a tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa. Due to the development of a low-level circulation and convective banding, the wave became a tropical depression at 12:00UTC on September11 to the south of the Cape Verde islands.[68] After increases in intensity, banding features, and outflow improvement,[69] the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Gert on September12 while moving west-northwestward to the south of a subtropical ridge.[68] Warm ocean temperatures and an anticyclone aloft allowed Gert to reach hurricane intensity by the following day.[68][70][71] Early on September15, Gert attained major hurricane strength. After reaching Category 4 status that day, Gert strengthened further, peaking with maximum sustained winds of 150mph (240km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 930mbar (27inHg) on September16.[68] An eyewall replacement cyclone, as well as increasing wind shear and an upper-level trough restricting outflow later on,[72][73] Gert weakened to a low-end Category3 on September18.[68]
Gert re-strengthened to a Category4 hurricane on September19.[68] However, dry air and colder sea surface temperatures began causing the storm to weaken,[74][75] with Gert falling to a Category3 hurricane on September20 and a Category2 hurricane on September21. That day, the hurricane passed about 135mi (217km) east of Bermuda.[68] Accelerating northeastward under the influence of an approaching trough,[76] Gert weakened to a tropical storm on September23 after convection decreased around the center.[68] By 12:00UTC on September23, convection diminished enough that the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while situated about 55mi (89km) southeast of Cape Race, Newfoundland.[68][77] About six hours later, the remnants of Gert were absorbed by a larger extratropical storm.[68] For several days, Gert threatened to strike Bermuda, prompting the evacuation of tourists.[78] Although Gert's center did not make landfall, it passed a short distance east of the island,[68] producing hurricane-force winds that left 11,000people without power.[79] High waves swept two people out to sea at Acadia National Park in Maine.[68] Later, strong waves struck Newfoundland and left heavy marine damage, with about $1.9million in damage done to a wharf along the Avalon Peninsula.[80]
A tropical wave that emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on September4 reached the Gulf of Mexico by September18. Following an increase in convection, the system became a tropical depression at 06:00UTC on September19. The depression initially tracked due northward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Harvey by early on September20. Harvey gradually intensified further and 24hours after the upgrade, the storm peaked with winds of 60mph (97km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 994mbar (29.4inHg). Thereafter, no significant change in intensity occurred before the storm made landfall in Everglades City, Florida, late on September21. Harvey then accelerated across Florida and by early on September22, merged with a developing extratropical low while located near Grand Bahama.[81] The remnants reached Atlantic Canada before dissipating on September24.[82]
In Florida, precipitation peaked at 10.24in (260mm) in Naples.[63] As a result, at least 34houses and businesses were flooded. There were sporadic reports of tropical storm-force winds throughout the state,[55] as well as two tornadoes, neither of which caused left severe impact. Damage estimates in Florida reached about $15million.[81] Throughout the rest of the United States, impact was limited, confined to light rainfall in Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina.[83] Heavy precipitation was reported in Atlantic Canada, with 11.89in (302mm) of rain falling in Oxford, Nova Scotia, making Harvey the wettest tropical cyclone or remnants on record in that country. Significant flooding, especially to roads and houses, was reported throughout Atlantic Canada, with damage totaling at least $7.6million.[82]
Until a westward moving tropical wave reached the western Caribbean Sea on September30, minimal organization occurred. The system eventually emerged into the Gulf of Mexico and developed into Tropical Depression Eleven on October4. Weak steering current caused the depression to drift slowly and erratically, with the depression initially heading southward, before curving northwest. A surface trough over the central and eastern Gulf of Mexico prevented significant strengthening. The depression remained below tropical storm intensity, attaining its peak intensity on October5, with maximum sustained winds of 35mph (56km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1,002mbar (29.6inHg).[84] While approaching the Gulf Coast of Mexico, the depression was absorbed by the surface trough at 18:00UTC on October6.[84]
The depression and its remnants contributed significantly to the October 1999 Mexico floods, bring up to 43.23in (1,098mm) of rain to Jalacingo, Veracruz.[85] Throughout Mexico, 90,000houses were damaged or destroyed,[86] leaving about 500,000people homeless.[87] and more than 400 people dead.[88][89] Flooding caused thousands of landslides and 39rivers to overflow, leading to the destruction of bridges, houses,[90] widespread crop fields,[91] schools,[92] and electrical networks.[93] Flooding also extended into Central America in late September through early October, causing $40million (385million pesos) in crop damage and 70deaths.[94] However, impact by the depression itself cannot be distinguished.[84]
On September30, a tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa. It slowly began to organize during the next several days and by early on October6, developed into Tropical Depression Twelve while located about 1,075mi (1,730km) east of Martinique.[14] Due to an anticyclone, conditions appeared favorable for significant strengthening, with the National Hurricane Center predicting the depression to be at least a strong tropical storm by October9.[95] However, wind shear began undercutting the anticyclone,[96] which prevented any significant intensification.[14] Later on October6, the low-level circulation became exposed to the west of the deep convection.[97] The depression never re-organized and instead deteriorated in structure due to shearing. Despite a burst in convection on October8,[98] the depression dissipated at 18:00UTC while located about 875mi (1,408km) east-northeast of Barbuda.[14]
A broad trough of low pressure developed into a tropical depression while south of the Isle of Youth on October 12. It headed north and soon intensified into Tropical Storm Irene. On October14, the storm passed over the Isle of Youth and western Cuba. While over the Straits of Florida, Irene reached hurricane strength. The next day, it made landfall in Key West, Florida, and again near Cape Sable. Later on October15, Irene moved back over water near Jupiter as a minimal hurricane. It slowly strengthened as it paralleled the East Coast of the United States. When Irene interacted with a trough from the west, while over the warm Gulf Stream waters, the hurricane rapidly intensified and attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds 110mph (180km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 958mbar (28.3inHg) on October18. However, after accelerating northeast, Irene weakened over the cooler waters of the North Atlantic. On October 19, the hurricane transitioned into an extratropical cyclone near Newfoundland and was absorbed by an extratropical low shortly thereafter.[99]
Irene dropped heavy rainfall throughout its path, especially in Cuba and Florida. Rainfall on Cuba peaked at 35.6in (900mm) in Manaca-Iznaga,[100] while the rest of the island reported more than 7in (180mm).[99] Flooding resulted from the heavy rains, damaging more than 27,000homes and causing significant effects to banana plantations and sugar cane fields.[101] Hurricane forces winds were also reported in Havana.[99] Four fatalities were reported.[102][103] The storm brought flooding to Florida, particularly the southern portion of the state, where 17.45in (443mm) of rain fell in Boynton Beach.[63] Hundreds were displaced from their homes and thousands were isolated. Five people died from walking through electrified water after a power line fell, while three others drowned after unintentionally driving their vehicle into a canal. Total damage in Florida was around $800million.[99] The hurricane left five deaths in the Bahamas, one direct and four indirect.[104][105] Irene also contributed slightly to ongoing flood problems in North Carolina in the aftermath of Hurricane Floyd.[99]
A tropical wave entered the Atlantic on October8 and developed into a tropical depression while located 700mi (1,100km) east of the Windward Islands on October17. The depression strengthened and by early on October18, it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Jose. Intensification continued as Jose tracked west-northwestward and Jose reached hurricane status late on October19. The storm became a Category2 hurricane, though unfavorable conditions weakened it back. Later on October21, Jose began moving through the Lesser Antilles as a Category1 and fell to tropical storm intensity before reentering the Atlantic later that day. While north of Puerto Rico on October22, Jose re-curved northeastward. The storm eventually began to accelerate and re-strengthen, reaching hurricane status again on October24. After twelve hours as a hurricane, colder sea surface temperatures weakened Jose to a tropical storm on October25, shortly before it became extratropical.[106]
The worst of the effects from Jose occurred in Antigua and Barbuda, as winds up to 102mph (164km/h) were reported. About 500houses and a newly built church were destroyed. About 50% of residents were left without water and 90% of people experienced power outages.[107] Overall, twelve people were injured, one fatality occurred, and an elderly blind man was listed as missing.[108] Flooding in Saint Kitts and Nevis washed out several major roads and caused landslides. Additionally, one person was killed during the storm. In Sint Maarten, mudslides and flooding damaged houses and roads, especially those in low-lying areas.[106] Nearly 15in (380mm) of rain and winds up to 100mph (160km/h) in Anguilla left roads impassable and power outages, and damaged houses, crops, and shipping facilities.[108][109] Strong winds and heavy rainfall in Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands caused extensive power outages and minor damage, estimated at $40,000. Overall, losses from the storm was less than $5million.[110]
A broad area of low pressure associated with remnants of a cold front developed into Tropical Depression Fifteen in the southwestern Caribbean Sea on October28. Twenty-four hours later, it strengthened into Tropical Storm Katrina. The storm made near landfall Puerto Cabezas, Nicaragua, on October30. Later that day, Katrina weakened back to a tropical depression. It continued northwestward across Nicaragua and Honduras, before reemerging into the Caribbean Sea off the coast of Honduras on October31. However, Katrina did not re-intensify and moved inland over the Yucatán Peninsula later that day. While approaching the Gulf of Mexico, Katrina was absorbed by a cold front on November1.[111]
Katrina dropped heavy rainfall across, which was reported between 10 and 15in (250 and 380mm) throughout Nicaragua and Honduras.[112] As a result of the flooding, roughly 1,200people were evacuated to emergency shelters in Honduras. Flooding also damage five bridges in Honduras, and the cities of Tocoa and Trujillo were isolated as the Aguán and Siline rivers overflowed their banks.[113] Katrina also destroyed water pipes that were replaced shortly after destruction from Hurricane Mitch.[114] Shortly before dissipating, Katrina dropped moderate rainfall across the Yucatán Peninsula and eastern Mexico, peaking at 6.32in (161mm) in Cunduacán.[24]
A low pressure area developed into a tropical depression about 175mi (282km) south of the Cayman Islands at 18:00UTC on November13. The depression began to move in an unusual eastward track across the Caribbean Sea along the southern periphery of a trough and strengthened into Tropical Storm Lenny on the following day. It attained hurricane status south of Jamaica on November15 and passed south of Hispaniola and Puerto Rico over the next few days. Beginning on November16, Lenny underwent rapid deepening, becoming a major hurricane early on November17 while south of the Mona Passage. Later that day, Lenny peaked as a Category4 hurricane with winds of 155mph (249km/h) and a minimum pressure of 933mbar (27.6inHg) while near Saint Croix. It gradually weakened due to wind shear while moving through the Leeward Islands, where it struck Saint Martin, Anguilla, and Saint Barthélemy. The system weakened to a tropical storm on November19. After clearing the islands, Lenny deteriorated to a tropical depression on November21 and dissipated on November 23, while located about 690mi (1,110km) east of the Lesser Antilles.[17]
Before moving through the Lesser Antilles, Lenny produced rough surf that killed two people in northern Colombia.[17] Strong winds and rainfall resulted in heavy crop damage in southeastern Puerto Rico. Lenny brought more heavy rains to areas in the Leeward Islands that had been affected by Hurricane Jose just one month earlier, and brought more damage to areas struck by Hurricane Georges in 1998.[115] Despite the hurricane's passage near Saint Croix at peak intensity,[17] damage on the small island was only described as "moderate", although there was widespread flooding and erosion.[17][115] Damage in the United States territories totaled about $330million.[17] The highest precipitation total was 34.12in (867mm) at the police station on the French side of Saint Martin.[24] On the island, the hurricane killed three people and destroyed more than 200properties.[17][116] In nearby Antigua and Barbuda, the hurricane killed one person;[117] torrential rainfall there contaminated the local water supply. Significant storm damage occurred as far south as Grenada, where high surf isolated towns from the capital city.[118]
The following list of names was used for named storms that formed in the north Atlantic in 1999.[119][120] This was the same list used for the 1993 season.[121] A storm was named Lenny for the first (and only) time in 1999.
The World Meteorological Organization retired the names Floyd and Lenny in the spring of 2000 from the Atlantic hurricane name lists on account of their destructiveness. They were replaced with Franklin and Lee for the 2005 season.[122]
Season effects
This is a table of all of the storms that formed in the 1999 Atlantic hurricane season. It includes their name, duration, peak classification and intensities, areas affected, damage, and death totals. Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect (an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident), but were still related to that storm. Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical, a wave, or a low, and all of the damage figures are in 1999 USD.
↑ All damage figures are in 1999 USD, unless otherwise noted
Related Research Articles
The 1995 Atlantic hurricane season was a very active Atlantic hurricane season, and is considered to be the start of an ongoing era of high-activity tropical cyclone formation. The season produced twenty-one tropical cyclones, nineteen named storms, as well as eleven hurricanes and five major hurricanes. The season officially began on June 1 and ended on November 30, dates which conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones develop in the Atlantic basin. The first tropical cyclone, Hurricane Allison, developed on June 2, while the season's final storm, Hurricane Tanya, transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on November 1. The very active Atlantic hurricane activity in 1995 was caused by La Niña conditions, which also influenced an inactive Pacific hurricane season. It was tied with 1887 Atlantic hurricane season with 19 named storms, which was later equalled by the 2010, 2011, and 2012 seasons.
The 2004 Atlantic hurricane season was a very deadly, destructive, and active Atlantic hurricane season, with over 3,200 deaths and more than $61 billion in damage. More than half of the 16 tropical cyclones brushed or struck the United States. Due to the development of a Modoki El Niño – a rare type of El Niño in which unfavorable conditions are produced over the eastern Pacific instead of the Atlantic basin due to warmer sea surface temperatures farther west along the equatorial Pacific – activity was above average. The season officially began on June 1 and ended on November 30, though the season's last storm, Otto, dissipated on December 3, extending the season beyond its traditional boundaries. The first storm, Alex, developed offshore of the Southeastern United States on July 31, one of the latest dates on record to see the formation of the first system in an Atlantic hurricane season. It brushed the Carolinas and the Mid-Atlantic, causing one death and $7.5 million (2004 USD) in damage. Several storms caused only minor damage, including tropical storms Bonnie, Earl, Hermine, and Matthew. In addition, hurricanes Danielle, Karl, and Lisa, Tropical Depression Ten, Subtropical Storm Nicole and Tropical Storm Otto had no effect on land while tropical cyclones. The season was the first to exceed 200 units in accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) since 1995, mostly from Hurricane Ivan, which produced the highest ACE out of any storm this season. Ivan generated the second-highest ACE in the Atlantic, only behind the 1899 San Ciriaco Hurricane.
The 2000 Atlantic hurricane season was a fairly active hurricane season, but featured the latest first named storm in a hurricane season since 1992. The hurricane season officially began on June 1, and ended on November 30. It was slightly above average due to a La Niña weather pattern although most of the storms were weak. It was also the only season to have two of the storms affect Ireland. The first cyclone, Tropical Depression One, developed in the southern Gulf of Mexico on June 7 and dissipated after an uneventful duration. However, it would be almost two months before the first named storm, Alberto, formed near Cape Verde; Alberto also dissipated with no effects on land. Several other tropical cyclones—Tropical Depression Two, Tropical Depression Four, Chris, Ernesto, Nadine, and an unnamed subtropical storm—did not impact land. Five additional storms—Tropical Depression Nine, Florence, Isaac, Joyce, and Leslie—minimally affected land areas.
The 1998 Atlantic hurricane season was a catastrophic and deadly Atlantic hurricane season, which had the highest number of storm-related fatalities in over 218 years and some of the costliest ever at the time. The season had above average activity, due to the dissipation of an El Niño event and transition to La Niña conditions. It officially began on June 1 and ended on November 30, dates which conventionally delimit the period during which most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic Ocean. The season had a rather slow start, with no tropical cyclones forming in June. The first tropical cyclone, Tropical Storm Alex, developed on July 27, and the season's final storm, Hurricane Nicole, became extratropical on December 1.
The 1993 Atlantic hurricane season was a deadly, though below average Atlantic hurricane season that produced ten tropical cyclones, eight tropical storms, four hurricanes, and one major hurricane. It officially started on June 1 and ended on November 30, dates which conventionally delimit the period during which most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic Ocean. The first tropical cyclone, Tropical Depression One, developed on May 31, while the final storm, Tropical Depression Ten, dissipated on September 30, well before the average dissipation date of a season's last tropical cyclone; this represented the earliest end to the hurricane season in ten years.
The 1960 Atlantic hurricane season was the least active season since 1952. The season officially began on June 15, and lasted until November 15. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin. The first system, an unnamed storm, developed in the Bay of Campeche on June 22. It brought severe local flooding to southeastern Texas and was considered the worst disaster in some towns since a Hurricane in 1945. The unnamed storm moved across the United States for almost a week before dissipating on June 29. In July, Hurricane Abby resulted in minor damage in the Leeward Islands, before impacting a few Central American counties — the remnants of the storm would go on to form Hurricane Celeste in the East Pacific. Later that month, Tropical Storm Brenda caused flooding across much of the East Coast of the United States. The next storm, Hurricane Cleo, caused no known impact, despite its close proximity to land.
The 1961 Atlantic hurricane season was a very active Atlantic hurricane season, with an accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) total of 189, the highest since 1950 and until being surpassed by 1995. The season, however, was an average one in terms of named storms. The season featured eight hurricanes and a well above average number of five major hurricanes. It was previously thought that the season had a record-tying seven major hurricanes, before the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project downgraded two storms in 2019. Two Category 5 hurricanes were seen in 1961, making it one of only eight Atlantic hurricane seasons to feature multiple Category 5 hurricanes in one season. The season started on June 15, and ended on November 15. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin. The first system, an operationally unclassified tropical depression, formed offshore east Central Florida on June 10, but dissipated a few days later. Next, Hurricane Anna developed in the eastern Caribbean Sea near the Windward Islands on July 20. It brought minor damage to the islands in, as well as wind and flood impacts to Central America after striking Belize as a hurricane. Anna caused one death and about $300,000 (1961 USD) in damage. Activity went dormant for nearly a month and a half, until Hurricane Betsy developed on September 2. Betsy peaked as a Category 4 hurricane, but remained at sea and caused no impact.
The 1968 Atlantic hurricane season was a below average hurricane season during which only nine nameable storms developed. The season officially began on June 1 and lasted until November 30, dates which conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin. Of the named storms, five strengthened into hurricanes; none however intensified into a major hurricane. Only four other seasons since the start of the satellite era—1972, 1986, 1994, and 2013—did not feature a major hurricane. The first system, Hurricane Abby, developed in the northwestern Caribbean on June 1. Abby moved northward and struck Cuba, bringing heavy rainfall and flooding to western portions of the island. Making landfall in Florida on June 4, Abby caused flooding and spawned four tornadoes, but left behind little damage. Overall, the hurricane resulted in six deaths and about $450,000 (1968 USD) in damage. In late June, Tropical Storm Candy brought minor flooding and spawned several tornadoes across portions of the Southern United States. Overall damage from the cyclone reached approximately $2.7 million. 1968 featured two simultaneously active tropical storms during the month of June, a phenomenon that would not occur again until 2023.
The 1969 Atlantic hurricane season was the most active Atlantic hurricane season since the 1933 season, and was the final year of the most recent positive Atlantic multidecadal oscillation (AMO) era. The hurricane season officially began on June 1, and lasted until November 30. Altogether, 12 tropical cyclones reached hurricane strength, the highest number on record at the time; a mark not surpassed until 2005. The season was above-average despite an El Niño, which typically suppresses activity in the Atlantic Ocean, while increasing tropical cyclone activity in the Pacific Ocean. Activity began with a tropical depression that caused extensive flooding in Cuba and Jamaica in early June. On July 25, Tropical Storm Anna developed, the first named storm of the season. Later in the season, Tropical Depression Twenty-Nine caused severe local flooding in the Florida Panhandle and southwestern Georgia in September.
The 1992 Atlantic hurricane season was a significantly below average season for overall tropical or subtropical cyclones as only ten formed. Six of them became named tropical storms, and four of those became hurricanes; one hurricane became a major hurricane. The season was, however, near-average in terms of accumulated cyclone energy. The season officially started on June 1 and officially ended on November 30. However, tropical cyclogenesis is possible at any time of the year, as demonstrated by formation in April of an unnamed subtropical storm in the central Atlantic.
The 1978 Atlantic hurricane season was a slightly above average hurricane season in terms of number of named storms. Eleven tropical cyclones were named in all, and five of these became hurricanes; two of the five became a major hurricane. This was also the last Atlantic hurricane season to use an all-female naming list. The season officially began on June 1, 1978, and ended on November 30, 1978. These dates, adopted by convention, denote the period in each year when most tropical cyclogenesis occurs in the Atlantic basin. However, the formation of subtropical or tropical cyclones is possible at any time of the year, as shown by the formation of an unnamed subtropical storm on January 18.
The 1981 Atlantic hurricane season featured direct or indirect impacts from nearly all of its 12 tropical or subtropical storms. Overall, the season was fairly active, with 22 tropical depressions, 12 of which became named storms. 7 of those reached hurricane status and a further 3 intensified into major hurricanes. The season officially began on June 1, 1981, and lasted until November 30, 1981. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin. However, tropical cyclogenesis can occur before these dates, as demonstrated with the development of two tropical depressions in April and Tropical Storm Arlene in May. At least one tropical cyclone formed in each month between April and November, with the final system, Subtropical Storm Three, becoming extratropical on November 17, 1981.
The 1985 Atlantic hurricane season was an average, yet destructive year that experienced a near-record number of hurricanes strikes in the United States. It is tied with 2020 and only surpassed by 1886. The season officially began on June 1 and lasted until November 30. This was partially attributed to a La Niña – a meteorological phenomenon that produces favorable conditions across the Atlantic basin, such as lower wind shear and higher sea surface temperatures. The first storm, Ana, developed on July 15 near Bermuda and caused minor effects in Canada while transitioning into an extratropical cyclone. Three other tropical cyclones – Claudette, Henri, and Isabel – did not significantly affect land. Claudette developed offshore of the Southeastern United States and brushed Bermuda and the Azores. Henri and Isabel were dissipating as they approached land. However, the precursor of the latter caused a severe flood in Puerto Rico that killed 180 people. Additionally, Tropical Storm Fabian and three tropical depressions did not have any known impact on land.
The 1989 Atlantic hurricane season was an average hurricane season with 11 named storms. The season officially began on June 1, and ended on November 30. The first tropical cyclone, Tropical Depression One, developed on June 15, and dissipated two days later without any effects on land. Later that month, Tropical Storm Allison caused severe flooding, especially in Texas and Louisiana. Tropical Storm Barry, Tropical Depressions Six, Nine, and Thirteen, and Hurricanes Erin and Felix caused negligible impact. Hurricane Gabrielle and Tropical Storm Iris caused light effects on land, with the former resulting in nine fatalities from rip currents offshore the East Coast of the United States and Atlantic Canada, while the latter produced minor flooding in the United States Virgin Islands.
The 2013 Pacific hurricane season was an above average Pacific hurricane season with 21 tropical cyclones forming. Of these, 20 became named storms – 18 in the Eastern Pacific basin, and 2 in the Central Pacific basin. Of the 18 named storms in the east, 9 became hurricanes, with one, Raymond, becoming the season's only major hurricane. In the central, neither named storm became a hurricane. It was also a below-normal season in terms of Accumulated cyclone energy (ACE), as many of its systems were weak and short-lived. The season officially began on May 15 in the Eastern Pacific and started on June 1 in the Central Pacific; both ended on November 30. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical development occurs in these North Pacific basins. The first cyclone, Tropical Storm Alvin, formed on May 15, and the last, Tropical Storm Sonia, dissipated on November 4. It was below average only Category 3 storm was since 1981.
The 2014 Pacific hurricane season was one of the busiest and costliest Pacific hurricane seasons since the keeping of reliable records began in 1949. The season officially started on May 15 in the East Pacific Ocean, and on June 1 in the Central Pacific; they both ended on November 30. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in these regions of the Pacific.
The 2012 Atlantic hurricane season was the final year in a string of three consecutive very active seasons since 2010, with 19 tropical storms. The 2012 season was also a costly one in terms of property damage, mostly due to Hurricane Sandy. The season officially began on June 1 and ended on November 30, dates that conventionally delimit the period during each year in which most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic Ocean. However, Alberto, the first named system of the year, developed on May 19 – the earliest date of formation since Subtropical Storm Andrea in 2007. A second tropical cyclone, Beryl, developed later that month. This was the first occurrence of two pre-season named storms in the Atlantic basin since 1951. It moved ashore in North Florida on May 29 with winds of 65 mph (105 km/h), making it the strongest pre-season storm to make landfall in the Atlantic basin. This season marked the first time since 2009 where no tropical cyclones formed in July. Another record was set by Hurricane Nadine later in the season; the system became the fourth-longest-lived tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Atlantic, with a total duration of 22.25 days. The final storm to form, Tony, dissipated on October 25, and the season came to a close when Hurricane Sandy became extratropical on October 29.
The 2017 Atlantic hurricane season was a devastating and extremely active Atlantic hurricane season that became the costliest on record, with a damage total of at least $294.92 billion (USD). The season featured 17 named storms, 10 hurricanes, and 6 major hurricanes. Most of the season's damage was due to hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria. Another notable hurricane, Nate, was the worst natural disaster in Costa Rican history. These four storm names were retired following the season due to the number of deaths and amount of damage they caused. Collectively, the tropical cyclones were responsible for at least 3,364 deaths. The season also had the highest accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) since 2005 with an approximate index of 224 units, with a record three hurricanes each generating an ACE of over 40: Irma, Jose, and Maria. This season featured two Category 5 hurricanes, and the only season other than 2007 with two hurricanes making landfall at that intensity. The season's ten hurricanes occurred one after the other, the greatest number of consecutive hurricanes in the satellite era, and tied for the highest number of consecutive hurricanes ever observed in the Atlantic basin.
Hurricane Marie is tied as the seventh-most intense Pacific hurricane on record, attaining a barometric pressure of 918 mbar in August 2014. The fourteenth named storm, ninth hurricane, and sixth major hurricane of the season, Marie began as a tropical wave that emerged off the west coast of Africa over the Atlantic Ocean on August 10. Some organization of shower and thunderstorm activity initially took place, but dry air soon impinged upon the system and imparted weakening. The wave tracked westward across the Atlantic and Caribbean for several days. On August 19, an area of low pressure consolidated within the wave west of Central America. With favorable atmospheric conditions, convective activity and banding features increased around the system and by August 22, the system acquired enough organization to be classified as Tropical Depression Thirteen-E while situated about 370 mi (595 km) south-southeast of Acapulco, Mexico. Development was initially fast-paced, as the depression acquired tropical storm-force winds within six hours of formation and hurricane-force by August 23. However, due to some vertical wind shear its intensification rate stalled, and for a time it remained a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale.
During 1999, tropical cyclones formed within seven different bodies of water called basins. To date, 142 tropical cyclones formed in bodies of water known as tropical cyclone basins, of which 72 were given names by various weather agencies. The strongest tropical cyclone of the year was Gwenda, attaining maximum sustained winds of 120 knots and a pressure of 900 hPa (26.58 inHg), later tied with Inigo in 2003. Floyd was the costliest tropical cyclone of the year, with around $6.5 billion worth of damages as it affected the Bahamas, the East Coast of the United States, and the Atlantic Canada. The deadliest cyclone of this year was the 1999 Odisha cyclone, which was blamed for over 9,667 deaths as it devastated India. It was also the strongest Northern Hemisphere cyclone of the year with the pressure of 912 hPa (26.93 inHg) and third most intense tropical cyclone worldwide next to Cyclone Gwenda and Cyclone Vance. Three Category 5 tropical cyclones were formed in 1999. The accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) index for the 1999, as calculated by Colorado State University was 606.4 units.
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 John L. Guiney (February 22, 2000). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Lenny(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 20, 2015.
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Climate-Watch, September 1999(PDF). National Climatic Data Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. March 2, 2000. pp.2–3. Retrieved July 20, 2015.
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John L. Guiney (December 9, 1999). Preliminary Report: Tropical Storm Harvey(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 20, 2015.
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Lixion A. Avila (November 12, 1999). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Irene(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 20, 2015.
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Richard J. Pasch (December 22, 1999). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Jose(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 20, 2015.
John L. Guiney (February 22, 2000). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Lenny(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 20, 2015.
↑ David Levinson (August 20, 2008). 2005 Atlantic Ocean Tropical Cyclones. National Climatic Data Center (Report). Asheville, North Carolina: National Hurricane Center. Archived from the original on December 1, 2005. Retrieved May 9, 2013.
1 2 3 4 Miles B. Lawrence; Todd B. Kimberlain (February 26, 2001). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Bret(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 10, 2015.
↑ "Vive Matamoros alerta permanente". El Norte (in Spanish). August 24, 1999. p.16.
↑ "Pierden todo en una hora". El Norte (in Spanish). August 27, 1999. p.18.
↑ "Mata a 3 coletazo de ' Bret '". El Norte (in Spanish). August 25, 1999. p.1.
↑ "Evacuan a 7 familias en Apodaca". El Norte (in Spanish). August 26, 1999. p.16.
↑ Hurricane Bret (August 1999). National Weather Service in Houston-Galveston, Texas (Report). Houston, Texas: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. June 20, 2008. Archived from the original on April 11, 2008. Retrieved June 12, 2009.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 John L. Guiney (December 9, 1999). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Cindy(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 13, 2015.
↑ Brian R. Jarvinen (August 20, 1999). Tropical Depression Four Discussion Number 6(TXT). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 14, 2011.
↑ Brian R. Jarvinen (August 20, 1999). Tropical Depression Four Advisory Number 6(TXT). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 14, 2011.
↑ Jack L. Beven (August 20, 1999). Tropical Storm Cindy Discussion Number 8(TXT). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 14, 2011.
↑ Richard J. Pasch (August 21, 1999). Tropical Storm Cindy Discussion Number 10(TXT). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 14, 2011.
↑ B. Max Mayfield (August 21, 1999). Tropical Storm Cindy Discussion Number 11(TXT). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 14, 2011.
↑ Brian R. Jarvinen (August 22, 1999). Hurricane Cindy Advisory Number 13(TXT). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 14, 2011.
↑ Brian R. Jarvinen (August 22, 1999). Hurricane Cindy Discussion Number 14(TXT). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 14, 2011.
↑ Lixion A. Avila (August 22, 1999). Tropical Storm Cindy Discussion Number 16(TXT). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 14, 2011.
↑ James L. Franklin (August 23, 1999). Tropical Storm Cindy Discussion Number 17(TXT). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 14, 2011.
↑ B. Max Mayfield (August 25, 1999). Tropical Storm Cindy Discussion Number 25(TXT). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 14, 2011.
↑ James L. Franklin (August 27, 1999). Hurricane Cindy Discussion Number 35(TXT). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 14, 2011.
↑ Brian R. Jarvinen (August 28, 1999). Hurricane Cindy Discussion Number 37(TXT). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 14, 2011.
↑ James L. Franklin (August 28, 1999). Hurricane Cindy Discussion Number 40(TXT). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 14, 2011.
↑ Brian R. Jarvinen (August 30, 1999). Tropical Storm Cindy Advisory Number 50(TXT). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 14, 2011.
1 2 3 4 5 Jack L. Beven (January 10, 2000). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Dennis(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 20, 2015.
↑ Estes Thompson (September 1, 1999). "Dennis Forcing Residents To Flee". The Columbian. Nags Head, North Carolina. Associated Press. Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved March 11, 2016.
↑ Elizabeth A. Davis (September 6, 1999). "Governor, officials view storm's damage firsthand". The Herald-Sun. Buxton, North Carolina. Associated Press. p.A1 – via NewsBank.com.
1 2 Lixion A. Avila (September 30, 1999). Preliminary Report: Tropical Storm Emily(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 13, 2015.
↑ Lixion A. Avila (August 24, 1999). Tropical Storm Emily Advisory Number 1(TXT). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved May 10, 2016.
↑ Miles B. Lawrence (September 5, 1999). Tropical Depression Seven Discussion Number 2(TXT). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 14, 2011.
1 2 3 4 Richard J. Pasch; Todd B. Kimberlain; Stacy R. Stewart (September 9, 2014). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Floyd(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 20, 2015.
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↑ David M. Roth; Hugh Cobb (March 1, 2007). Late Twentieth Century Virginia Hurricanes. National Weather Service Office Wakefield, Virginia (Report). Camp Springs, Maryland: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 3, 2014.
↑ 1999-Floyd (Report). Environment Canada. September 14, 2010. Archived from the original on June 11, 2013. Retrieved May 12, 2021.
↑ Lixion A. Avila (September 12, 1999). Tropical Storm Gert Discussion 5. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 11, 2016.
↑ Lixion A. Avila (September 12, 1999). Tropical Storm Gert Discussion 6. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 11, 2016.
↑ Richard J. Pasch (September 13, 1999). Tropical Storm Gert Discussion 7. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 11, 2016.
↑ Jack L. Beven (September 16, 1999). Hurricane Gert Discussion 20. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 11, 2016.
↑ Richard J. Pasch (September 18, 1999). Hurricane Gert Discussion 27. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 11, 2016.
↑ James L. Franklin (September 20, 1999). Hurricane Gert Discussion 36. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 11, 2016.
↑ James L. Franklin (September 22, 1999). Hurricane Gert Discussion 44. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 11, 2016.
↑ Richard J. Pasch (September 21, 1999). Hurricane Gert Discussion 42. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 11, 2016.
↑ Richard J. Pasch (September 23, 1999). Tropical Storm Gert Discussion 49. National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 11, 2016.
↑ "Hurricane Gert batters Bermuda". USA Today. September 22, 1999.
↑ Gert-1999 (Report). Environment Canada. September 14, 2010. Archived from the original on September 1, 2012. Retrieved May 12, 2021.
1 2 John L. Guiney (December 9, 1999). Preliminary Report: Tropical Storm Harvey(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 20, 2015.
1 2 1999-Harvey (Report). Environment Canada. September 14, 2010. Archived from the original on September 1, 2012. Retrieved May 12, 2021.
↑ Lixion A. Avila (October 6, 1999). Tropical Depression Twelve Discussion Number 1(TXT). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 7, 2012.
↑ Jack L. Beven (October 6, 1999). Tropical Depression Twelve Discussion Number 3(TXT). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 7, 2012.
↑ Jack L. Beven (October 6, 1999). Tropical Depression Twelve Discussion Number 4(TXT). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 7, 2012.
↑ James L. Franklin (October 8, 1999). Tropical Depression Twelve Discussion Number 11(TXT). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved December 18, 2012.
1 2 3 4 5 Lixion A. Avila (November 12, 1999). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Irene(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 20, 2015.
1 2 Richard J. Pasch (December 22, 1999). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Jose(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 20, 2015.
↑ Miles B. Lawrence (November 30, 1999). Preliminary Report: Tropical Storm Katrina(PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 20, 2015.
↑ Atlantic Hurricane 1999 Season Summary (Report). Silver Springs, Maryland: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. May 10, 2000. Archived from the original on July 16, 2011. Retrieved July 14, 2011.
↑ National Hurricane Operations Plan(PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: NOAA Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research. May 1999. p.3-7. Retrieved January 19, 2024.
↑ National Hurricane Operations Plan(PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: NOAA Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research. April 1993. p.3-6. Retrieved January 19, 2024.
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