Asian arowana

Last updated

Asian arowana
Arowana.jpg
Super red arowana
CITES Appendix I (CITES) [2]
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Osteoglossiformes
Family: Osteoglossidae
Genus: Scleropages
Species:
S. formosus
Binomial name
Scleropages formosus
Arowana Range Voigtetal.png
The former primary range of the Asian arowana. The species is now extirpated from much of its former range.
Synonyms
  • Scleropages macrocephalusPouyaud et al., 2003
  • Scleropages aureusPouyaud et al., 2003
  • Scleropages legendreiPouyaud et al., 2003

The Asian arowana (Scleropages formosus) comprises several phenotypic varieties of freshwater fish distributed geographically across Southeast Asia. [3] While most consider the different varieties to belong to a single species, [4] [5] [6] [3] [7] work by Pouyaud et al. (2003) [8] differentiates these varieties into multiple species. They have several other common names, including Asian bonytongue, dragonfish, and a number of names specific to the different color varieties.

Contents

Native to Southeast Asia, Asian arowanas inhabit blackwater rivers, slow-moving waters flowing through forested swamps and wetlands. Adults feed on other fish, while juveniles feed on insects. [9]

These popular aquarium fish have special cultural significance in areas influenced by Chinese culture. The name 'dragonfish' stems from their resemblance to the Chinese dragon. This popularity has had both positive and negative effects on their status as endangered species.

Evolution and taxonomy

Like all members of the Osteoglossidae, Asian arowanas are highly adapted to fresh water and are incapable of surviving in the ocean. Therefore, their spread throughout the islands of southeast Asia suggests they diverged from other osteoglossids before the continental breakup was complete. Genetic studies have confirmed this hypothesis, showing the ancestor of the Asian arowanas diverged from the ancestor of the Australian arowanas, S. jardinii and S. leichardti , about 140 million years ago, during the Early Cretaceous period. This divergence took place in the eastern margin of Gondwanaland, with the ancestors of Asian arowanas carried on the Indian subcontinent or smaller landmasses into Asia. The morphological similarity of all Scleropages species shows little evolutionary change has taken place recently for these ancient fish. [10] [11]

The first description of this species was published in 1840 by German naturalists Salomon Müller and Hermann Schlegel, under the name Osteoglossum formosum, although later this species was placed in Scleropages with the name S. formosus. [12] [13]

Super red arowana in a public aquarium Red Arowana034.JPG
Super red arowana in a public aquarium
(video) Asian arowana swimming in a zoo in Japan

Several distinct, naturally occurring colour varieties are recognised as haplotypes, each found in a specific geographic region. They include:

In 2003, a study [8] proposed breaking S. formosus into four separate species. This classification was based on both morphometrics and a phylogenetic analysis using the cytochrome b gene, and includes these species:

The majority of researchers dispute this reclassification, arguing that the published data are insufficient to justify recognizing more than one Southeast Asian species of Scleropages, and that divergent haplotypes used to distinguish the color strains into isolated species were found within a single color strain, contradicting the findings. They are considered monotypic, consisting of closely related haplotypes. [3] [4] [5] [6] [7]

Description

Asian arowana scales are large (most over 2 cm in length) and have a delicate net pattern. Asian arowana scales.JPG
Asian arowana scales are large (most over 2 cm in length) and have a delicate net pattern.

Asian arowanas grow up to 90 cm (35 in) total length. [9] Like all Scleropages, Asian arowanas have long bodies; large, elongated pectoral fins, dorsal and anal fins located far back on the body; and a much larger caudal fin than that of their South American relative, the silver arowana, Osteoglossum bicirrhosum. The mouth is oblique with a very wide gape. The prominent lower jaw has two barbels at its tip. The gill rakers are stout. Asian arowanas bear teeth on many bones of the mouth, including the jaws, vomer, palatines, pterygoids, parasphenoid, and tongue. [8] [14]

Asian arowana scales are large, cycloid, and, in some varieties, metallic-coloured, with a distinctive mosaic pattern of raised ribs. [8] [14] The lateral scales are arranged in horizontal rows numbered from the most ventral (first level) to the most dorsal (fifth level), with dorsal scales designated the sixth level. [15] [16]

Asian arowanas are distinguished from Australian congenerics Scleropages jardinii and Scleropages leichardti by having fewer (21-26) lateral line scales (versus 32-36 for the Australian species), longer pectoral and pelvic fins, and a longer anterior snout. [8]

Green arowanas are dark green on the back, silvery or golden green on its sides, and silvery or whitish on the ventral surface, with dark greenish or bluish patches visible through the lateral scales. In mature fish, the top of the eye and the head behind the eye are bright emerald. [8]

Both grey-tailed and yellow-tailed silver Asian arowanas are dark grey on the back and silver on the sides, with dark ring patches on the lateral scales and a silvery or whitish belly. In yellow-tailed specimens, the fin membranes are yellowish with dark-grey rays. In grey-tailed specimens, the fins are uniformly dark grey. [8]

Red-tailed golden arowana: Although the scales are golden, the anal and caudal fins are reddish-brown. Gold Arowana035.JPG
Red-tailed golden arowana: Although the scales are golden, the anal and caudal fins are reddish-brown.

Mature red-tailed golden arowanas have brilliant metallic gold lateral scales, gill covers, bellies, and pectoral and pelvic fin membranes, although the back is dark. In juveniles, the areas destined to develop golden colour start out metallic silver. The anal fin and the bottom portion of the caudal fin are light brown to dark red. [8]

Mature gold crossback arowanas are distinguished from the red-tailed golden arowanas by having metallic gold crossing the back completely. This variety also lacks the reddish fins of the red-tailed golden. [17]

In mature super red arowanas, the gill covers, lateral scales, and fin membranes of these fishes are metallic red, with the exact hue varying from gold-tinged to deep red. The back is dark brown. In juveniles, the darker the dorsal colouration, the deeper the red will be on maturity. [8]

Biology

Reproduction

Unlike most fish, the Asian arowana reaches sexual maturity relatively late, after 3–4 yr. The females produce few eggs, 30-100, which are quite large. After the eggs are fertilized, the Asian arowana exhibits great parental care with paternal mouthbrooding. Both the fertilized eggs and larvae are brooded within the male's mouth. [5] [18]

Behavior

They spend the day in the protection of Pandanus roots or other structures, and feed at night. [18] It is normally seen alone or in small groups.

Relationship with humans

Cultural beliefs

In Prague sea aquarium Scleropages formosus Prague 2012 1.jpg
In Prague sea aquarium

Asian arowanas are considered to be symbols of good luck and prosperity, especially by those from Asian cultures. This reputation derives from the species' resemblance to the Chinese dragon, considered an auspicious symbol. [19] The large metallic scales and double barbels are features shared by the Chinese dragon, and the large pectoral fins are said to make the fish resemble "a dragon in full flight." [16]

In addition, positive feng shui associations with water and the colours red and gold make these fishes popular for aquaria. One belief is that while water is a place where chi gathers, it is naturally a source of yin energy and must contain an "auspicious" fish such as an arowana to have balancing yang energy. [17] Another is that a fish can preserve its owner from death by dying itself. [20]

Conservation

Asian arowanas are listed as endangered by the current IUCN Red List, with the most recent evaluation taking place in 2019. [1] International trade in these fishes is controlled under the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES), under which it was placed on Appendix I, the most restrictive category, in 1975. [21] S. formosus is one of only eight fish species listed on Appendix I. [22] A number of registered CITES breeders are in Asia, and the specimens they produce can be imported into several nations. Other nations restrict or prohibit possession of Asian arowanas; for example, the United States has listed this species under the Endangered Species Act, so it cannot be kept in that country without a permit. [23]

Declining habitat is a major threat. For example, Asian arowanas are now uncommon in the Malay Peninsula, where they were once widely distributed, due to environmental destruction. [14] Inclusion in the IUCN Red List was originally based not on biological reasons but on practical ones: though widely distributed throughout southeast Asia, they have been harvested heavily by aquarium collectors. However, habitat loss is likely a greater threat than aquarium collecting. [14]

Additionally, considering the current confusion as to number of species, as well as the wide distribution, conservation status should be reconsidered. All strains are probably endangered, but some (notably the super red and red-tailed golden) more critically than others. [8] The Asian arowana's high value as aquarium fish has impacted its conservation. Its popularity has soared since the late 1970s, and hobbyists may pay thousands of U.S. dollars for one of these animals. [14] [24] Certain color varieties are more endangered than others, since the red and gold varieties are both less common, and in higher demand in the aquarium trade. [7]

In Prague sea aquarium Scleropages formosus Prague 2012 2.jpg
In Prague sea aquarium

Beginning in 1989, CITES began allowing Asian arowanas to be traded, provided certain criteria were met, most notably that they were bred in captivity on a fish farm for at least two generations. [25] The first of these farms was in Indonesia. [24] Later, the Singapore government's Agri-food and Veterinary Authority (then called the Primary Production Department) and a local fish exporter collaborated in a captive breeding program. Asian arowanas legally certified by CITES for trade became available from this program in 1994. [22]

Captive-bred arowanas that are legal for trade under CITES are documented in two ways. First, fish farms provide each buyer with a certificate of authenticity and a birth certificate. Second, each specimen receives an implanted microchip, called a passive integrated transponder, which identifies individual animals. [24]

Genetic fingerprinting has been used to assess the genetic diversity of a captive population at a Singapore fish farm to improve the management of this species. [21] DNA markers that distinguish among different strains and between sexes have been identified, allowing aquaculturists to identify these characteristics in immature animals. [26]

According to author Emily Voigt, the arowana has been cause for kidnappings, canings and even murder. [27]

In Prague sea aquarium Scleropages formosus Prague 2012 3.jpg
In Prague sea aquarium

Care in captivity

Because they can grow up to 90 cm (35 in) long, Asian arowanas require large aquaria. They are territorial and may be kept with other Scleropages only in a very large aquarium, provided all fish are of similar size. Like other arowanas, they need a tight-fitting cover to prevent escape. [22] The water should be well-filtered, soft, and slightly acidic, and maintained at a temperature of 24–30 °C (75–86 °F). [22]

Asian arowanas are carnivorous and should be fed a high-quality diet of meaty food, such as shrimp and crickets. They are surface feeders and prefer to take food in the upper parts of the water column. Aquarists recommend live foods and meaty prepared foods. Examples of appropriate live foods include scorpions, centipedes, mealworms, crickets, shrimps, feeder fish, small frogs, and earthworms. Prepared foods include prawns (shrimp), lean pork, frozen fish food, and pelleted food. [28] Some captive arowanas are fed Koi fry in an attempt to increase the vibrancy of their natural coloration. [29] [30]

There are over 150 CITES-registered Asian arowana farms in Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia and other Southeast Asia countries, producing Asian arowana for commercial purpose. But the actual number of Asian arowana farms in the world could be much higher than that, and probably over 350, of which most may not be registered in CITES yet. The total annual revenue of the Asian arowana sector was estimated at over US$200 million globally.[ citation needed ]

Possession of Scleropages formosus by private citizens is prohibited in Florida and New Mexico. [31]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Koi</span> Colored varieties of Amur carp

Koi, or more specifically nishikigoi, are colored varieties of the common carp that are kept for decorative purposes in outdoor koi ponds or water gardens.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arowana</span> Family of fish

Arowanas are freshwater bony fish of the subfamily Osteoglossinae, also known as bony tongues. In this family of fish, the head is bony and the elongated body is covered by large, heavy scales, with a mosaic pattern of canals. The dorsal and anal fins have soft rays and are long based, while the pectoral and ventral fins are small. The name "bonytongues" is derived from a toothed bone on the floor of the mouth, the "tongue", equipped with teeth that bite against teeth on the roof of the mouth. The arowana is a facultative air breather and can obtain oxygen from air by sucking it into its swim bladder, which is lined with capillaries like lung tissue.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Silver arowana</span> Species of fish

The silver arowana is a South American freshwater bony fish of the family Osteoglossidae. Silver arowanas are sometimes kept in aquariums, but they are predatory and require a very large tank.

<i>Scleropages jardinii</i> Species of fish

Scleropages jardinii, the Gulf saratoga, Australian bonytongue, Pearl arowana or northern saratoga, is a freshwater bony fish native to Australia and New Guinea, one of two species of fishes sometimes known as Australian arowana, the other being Scleropages leichardti. It has numerous other common names, including northern saratoga, toga and barramundi. It is a member of the subfamily Osteoglossinae, a (basal) teleost group. Its scientific name is sometimes spelled S. jardini.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Barramundi</span> Species of fish

The barramundi, Asian sea bass, or giant sea perch is a species of catadromous fish in the family Latidae of the order Perciformes. The species is widely distributed in the Indo-West Pacific, spanning the waters of the Middle East, South Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia, and Oceania.

<i>Pterophyllum</i> Genus of fish

Pterophyllum is a small genus of freshwater fish from the family Cichlidae known to most aquarists as angelfish. All Pterophyllum species originate from the Amazon Basin, Orinoco Basin and various rivers in the Guiana Shield in tropical South America. The three species of Pterophyllum are unusually shaped for cichlids being greatly laterally compressed, with round bodies and elongated triangular dorsal and anal fins. This body shape allows them to hide among roots and plants, often on a vertical surface. Naturally occurring angelfish are frequently striped transversely, colouration which provides additional camouflage. Angelfish are ambush predators and prey on small fish and macroinvertebrates. All Pterophyllum species form monogamous pairs. Eggs are generally laid on a submerged log or a flattened leaf. As is the case for other cichlids, brood care is highly developed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Osteoglossidae</span> Family of fishes

Osteoglossidae is a family of large freshwater fish, which includes the arowanas and arapaima. The family contains two extant subfamilies Arapaiminae and Osteoglossinae, with a total of five living genera. The extinct Phareodontinae are known from the Late Cretaceous and Paleogene.

<i>Osteoglossum</i> Genus of fishes

Osteoglossum is a genus of fish in the family Osteoglossidae. They reach about 1 m (3.3 ft) in length and are restricted to freshwater habitats in tropical South America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">African arowana</span> Species of ray-finned fish

The African arowana or Nile arowana is a species of bonytongue. Despite being called an "arowana", the African arowana is more closely related to arapaimas, the only other members in the subfamily Arapaiminae, than the South American, Asian, and Australian arowanas in the subfamily Osteoglossinae. Compared to these, the African arowana has a more terminal mouth and is the only one that feeds extensively on plankton.

<i>Scleropages</i> Genus of fishes

Scleropages is a genus of fish in the family Osteoglossidae found in Asia and Australia. All of these species are carnivorous and have great jumping ability. These species are highly valued as aquarium fish, particularly by those from Asian cultures. In 2003, a study redescribed several naturally occurring color varieties of S. formosus into four separate species. The majority of researchers dispute these redescriptions, arguing that the published data are insufficient to justify recognizing more than one Southeast Asian species of Scleropages and that divergent haplotypes used to distinguish the color strains into isolated species were found within a single color strain, contradicting the findings. They are considered monotypic, consisting of closely related haplotypes based on color. The ancestor of the Australian arowanas: S. jardinii and S. leichardti, diverged from the ancestor of the Asian arowanas about 140 million years ago, during the Early Cretaceous period. The morphological similarity of all seven species shows that little evolutionary change has taken place recently for these ancient fish. The genus had a much wider distribution during the early Cenozoic, with fossil remains known from the Paleocene of Niger and Belgium, and from the Eocene of China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black arowana</span> Species of fish

The black arowana is a South American freshwater bony fish of the family Osteoglossidae. Black arowanas are sometimes kept in aquariums, but they are predatory and require a very large tank. It is generally common, but large numbers are caught as food and for the aquarium fish trade.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Southern saratoga</span> Species of fish

The southern saratoga, also known as the spotted bonytongue, spotted saratoga, or simply saratoga, is a freshwater bony fish native to Australia. It belongs to the subfamily Osteoglossinae, or arowanas, a primitive group of teleosts. Like all arowanas, it is a carnivorous mouthbrooder. Along with the gulf saratoga, the saratoga is also known as the Australian arowana and barramundi, although the latter name is nowadays reserved in Australia for the unrelated Lates calcarifer.

<i>Xenentodon cancila</i> Species of fish

Xenentodon cancila, the freshwater garfish, is a species of needlefish found in freshwater and brackish habitats in South and Southeast Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Buenos Aires tetra</span> Species of fish

The Buenos Aires tetra is a tropical fish from South America. It was first observed in the wild in 1907, by Carl H. Eigenmann.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blackline rasbora</span> Species of fish

The blackline rasbora is a fish of the family Cyprinidae found in Asia in the Mekong, Chao Phraya, and Mae Klong basins, and also the northern Malay Peninsula. In the aquarium trade, it is known by a variety of other names, including red-tailed rasbora, bora bora rasbora, and brilliant rasbora.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Taraporewala Aquarium</span> Aquarium in Marine Drive, Mumbai

Taraporewala Aquarium or Taraporevala Aquarium is India's oldest aquarium and one of Mumbai's main attractions. It hosts marine and freshwater fish. The aquarium is located on Marine Drive.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rainbow shark</span> Species of fish

The rainbow shark is a species of Southeast Asian freshwater fish from the family Cyprinidae. It is also known as the ruby shark, red-fin shark, red-finned shark, rainbow sharkminnow, green fringelip labeo, whitefin shark and whitetail sharkminnow. It is a popular, semi-aggressive aquarium fish. Unlike true sharks, which belong to the Chondrichthyes lineage, the rainbow shark is an actinopterygiian.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Myanmar arowana</span> Aquarium fish from Myanmar

The Batik Arowana or Myanmar arowana(Scleropages inscriptus), is a large, bony-tongued fish native to Myanmar. The species is found in the Tanintharyi River basin on the Indian Ocean coast of peninsular Myanmar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arapaiminae</span> Subfamily of ray-finned fishes

Arapaiminae is a subfamily of freshwater osteoglossiform (bony-tongued) fishes belonging to the family Osteoglossidae. It includes the South American arapaimas of the Amazon and Essequibo basins and the African arowana from the watersheds of the Sahelo-Sudanese region, Senegal, Gambia, and parts of Eastern Africa. This subfamily is sometimes raised to the rank of family, as Arapaimidae. A commonly used synonym is Heterotidinae, but according to the ICZN, Arapaiminae has priority.

References

  1. 1 2 Larson, H.; Vidthayanon, C. (2019). "Scleropages formosus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2019: e.T152320185A89797267. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T152320185A89797267.en . Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  2. ↑ "Appendices | CITES". cites.org. Retrieved 2022-01-14.
  3. 1 2 3 Mu, Xi-dong; Hong-mei Song; Xue-jie Wang; Ye-xin Yang; Du Luo; Gand-en Gu; Jian-ren Luo; Yin-chang Hu (2012). "Genetic variability of the Asian arowana, Scleropages formosus, based on mitochondrial DNA genes". Biochemical Systematics and Ecology. 44: 141–148. doi:10.1016/j.bse.2012.04.017.
  4. 1 2 Yue, Genhua; Li, Yang; Chen, Fan; Cho, Serena; Lim, Lian Chuan; Orban, Laszlo (2002). "Comparison of three DNA marker systems for assessing genetic diversity in Asian arowana (Scleropages formosus)". Electrophoresis. 23 (7–8): 1025–1032. doi:10.1002/1522-2683(200204)23:7/8<1025::AID-ELPS1025>3.0.CO;2-Y. PMID   11981849. S2CID   32510100.
  5. 1 2 3 Hua Yue, Gen; Li, Yang; Lim, Lian Chuan; Orban, Laszlo (2004). "Monitoring the genetic diversity of three Asian arowana (Scleropages formosus) captive stocks using AFLP and microsatellites". Aquaculture. 237 (1–4): 89–102. doi:10.1016/j.aquaculture.2004.04.003.
  6. 1 2 Kottelat, M.; E. Widjanarti (2005). "The fishes of Danau Sentarum National Park and the Kapuas Lakes Area, Kalimantan Barat, Indonesia". The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology : 139–173. Archived from the original on 2013-10-20. Retrieved 2013-04-21.
  7. 1 2 3 Mohd-Shamsudin, Maizatul Izzah; Fard, Maryam Zahedi; Mather, Peter B.; Suleiman, Zaini; Hassan, Rosly; Othman, Rofina Yasmin; Bhassu, Subha (2011). "Molecular characterization of relatedness among colour variants of Asian Arowana (Scleropages formosus)". Gene. 490 (1–2): 47–53. doi:10.1016/j.gene.2011.08.025. PMID   21945689.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Pouyaud, L.; Sudarto, Guy G. Teugels (2003). "The different colour varieties of the Asian arowana Scleropages formosus (Osteoglossidae) are distinct species: morphologic and genetic evidences". Cybium. 27 (4): 287–305.
  9. 1 2 "Fishbase - Scleropages formosus food items".
  10. ↑ Kumazawa, Y; M. NISHIDA (2000). Iwatsuki, K. (ed.). "Molecular phylogenetic analysis of vertebrate radiations". IIAS International Symposium on Biodiversity (IIAS Reports No. 1999-003). Kyoto, Japan: International Institute for Advanced Studies: 137–143.
  11. ↑ Kumazawa, Yoshinori. "The reason the freshwater fish arowana live across the sea". Biohistory Journal. Retrieved 22 April 2013.
  12. ↑ "Catalog of Fishes" . Retrieved 22 April 2013.
  13. ↑ van Oijen, M.J.P; S.E.T. van der Meij (2013). "The types of Osteoglossum formosum Müller & Schlegel, 1840 (Teleostei, Osteoglossidae)". Zootaxa. 3722: 361–71. doi: 10.11646/zootaxa.3722.3.5 . PMID   26171532.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 Ismail, M. (1989). Systematics, Zoogeography, and Conservation of the Freshwater Fishes of Peninsular Malaysia (Doctoral Dissertation ed.). Colorado State University.
  15. ↑ West & NSK (Arowana Club.com), 2003.
  16. 1 2 West; N.K. "General Parts of an Asian Arowana". Archived from the original on 2006-06-25. Retrieved 2006-09-02.
  17. 1 2 Unoaquatic Arowana Group, 1999.
  18. 1 2 Scott, D.B.C.; J.D. Fuller (1976). "The reproductive biology of Scleropages formosus (Muller & Schlegel) (Osteoglossomorpha, Osteoglossidae) In Malaya, and the morphology of its pituitary gland". Journal of Fish Biology. 8: 45–53. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1976.tb03906.x.
  19. ↑ "Chinese Belief". Archived from the original on 2006-03-11. Retrieved 2006-05-10.
  20. ↑ "Superstitious Bangaloreans eat Arowana fish". Hindustan Times. Archived from the original on May 17, 2006. Retrieved 10 May 2006.
  21. 1 2 Fernando, A.A.; Lim L.C.; Jeyaseelan K.; Teng S.W.; Liang M.C.; Yeo C.K. (1997). "DNA fingerprinting: application to conservation of the CITES-listed dragon fish, Scleropages formosus (Osteoglossidae)". Aquarium Sciences and Conservation. 1 (2): 91–104. doi:10.1023/A:1018387601905. S2CID   83450429.
  22. 1 2 3 4 Dawes, John (2001). Complete Encyclopedia of the Freshwater Aquarium. New York, NY: Firefly Books Ltd. ISBN   1-55297-544-4.
  23. ↑ "United States Fish and Wildlife Service Threatened and Endangered Species System" . Retrieved 22 April 2013.
  24. 1 2 3 Lee, Cheng. "The fate of the Asian arowana in the hands of the aquarium industry". Archived from the original on October 20, 2009. Retrieved 25 October 2009.
  25. ↑ Dawes, John (2001). Complete Encyclopedia of the Freshwater Aquarium. New York, NY: Firefly Books Ltd. p. 22. ISBN   1-55297-544-4.
  26. ↑ Yue, G H; Ong, D; Wong, C C; Lim, L C; Orban, L (September 2003). "A strain-specific and a sex-associated STS marker for Asian arowana (Scleropages formosus, Osteoglossidae)". Aquaculture Research. 34 (11): 951–957. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2109.2003.00949.x.
  27. ↑ "The fish people kill to own". USA TODAY. Retrieved 2016-05-25.
  28. ↑ Anglo Aquarium (n.d.); Shin Min Daily News, 2005
  29. ↑ "Koi Family". www.bernds-pond.com. Retrieved 2017-04-06.
  30. ↑ "Good article on Arowana feeding." MonsterFishKeepers.com. Retrieved 2017-04-06.
  31. ↑ "Asian Bonytongue (Scleropages formosus)" (PDF). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 16 December 2019. Retrieved 18 March 2021.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.