History of the Jews in Transnistria

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The location of Transnistria (red) in Europe

The history of the Jews in Transnistria is mainly connected to the history of the Jews in Moldova, the history of the Jews in Ukraine, the history of the Jews in Romania and the history of the Jews in the Soviet Union as well as to countries in several other neighboring areas.

Contents

Background

Transnistria, or Transdniestria, officially the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic, [a] is a primarily unrecognised state that split off from Moldova after the dissolution of the USSR and mostly consists of a narrow strip of land between the river Dniester and the territory of Ukraine. Transnistria has been recognised only by 3 other mostly non-recognised states: Abkhazia, Artsakh, and South Ossetia. [1] The region is considered by the UN to be part of Moldova.

On 30 May 2022, Aleksandr Rozenberg became the Prime Minister of Transnistria, being the first Jewish person to hold this position. [2]

Tiraspol mass graves

In 2022, 2 mass graves were discovered in Tiraspol, totaling over 200 victims. According to the sources, the victims were killed between 1917-1930, on the orders of Lenin and Stalin, most of them being anti-communist Jews. [3] [4]

Jews in Moldova

The history of the Jews in Moldova reaches back several centuries. Bessarabian Jews have been living in the area for some time. Today, the Jewish community living in Moldova number less than 4,000 according to one estimate, while local estimates put the number at 15–20,000 Jews and their family members. [5]

Jews in Romania

The history of the Jews in Romania concerns the Jews both of Romania and of Romanian origins, from their first mention on what is present-day Romanian territory. Jewish communities existed in Romanian territory in the 2nd century AD. Minimal until the 18th century, the size of the Jewish population increased after around 1850, and more especially after the establishment of Greater Romania in the aftermath of World War I. A diverse community, albeit an overwhelmingly urban one, Jews were a target of religious persecution and racism in Romanian society – from the late-19th century debate over the "Jewish Question" and the Jewish residents' right to citizenship, to the genocide carried out in the lands of Romania as part of the Holocaust. The latter, coupled with successive waves of aliyah , has accounted for a dramatic decrease in the overall size of Romania's present-day Jewish community.

Jews in Ukraine

The history of the Jews in Ukraine goes back over a thousand years. Jewish communities have existed in the territory of Ukraine from the time of Kievan Rus' (late 9th to mid-13th century) [6] [7] and developed many of the most distinctive modern Jewish theological and cultural traditions such as Hasidism. According to the World Jewish Congress, the Jewish community in Ukraine constitute the third biggest Jewish community in Europe and the fifth biggest in the world. [8]

Jews in Russia

The history of the Jews in Russia and on areas historically connected with it goes back at least 1500 years. The presence of Jewish people in the European part of Russia can be traced to the 7th–14th centuries CE. Jews in Russia have historically constituted a large religious diaspora; the vast territories of the Russian Empire at one time hosted the largest population of Jews in the world. [9] Within these territories the primarily Ashkenazi Jewish communities of many different areas flourished and developed many of modern Judaism's most distinctive theological and cultural traditions, while also facing periods of anti-Semitic discriminatory policies and persecutions. The largest group among Russian Jews are Ashkenazi Jews, but the community also includes a significant proportion of other non-Ashkenazi from other Jewish diaspora including Mountain Jews, Sephardic Jews, Crimean Karaites, Krymchaks, Bukharan Jews, and Georgian Jews.

Jews in Bessarabia

The history of the Jews in Bessarabia, a historical region in Eastern Europe, dates back hundreds of years. Jews are mentioned from very early in the Principality of Moldavia, but they did not represent a significant number. Their main activity in Moldavia was commerce, but they could not compete with Greeks and Armenians, who had knowledge of Levantine commerce and relationships.

Bukovinian, Bessarabian and Dorohoi Jews Deported to Transnistria between the Dniester and Bug Rivers (1941-1944)

About 57,000 Jews from Bukovina in its historical boundaries were deported to Transnistria by the Romanian authorities by November 1941 during World War II, when Romania was a part of the Axis. [10] [11] [12] The number of Jewish deportees to Transnistria sent there who reached the latter province included 110,033 people, including 55,867 from Bessarabia, 43,798 from Bukovina, 10,368 from Dorohoi (minus the Hertsa area); out of these, 50,741 still survived by September 1, 1943. [13] [14] A further 4,290 Chernivtsi Jews were deported to Transnistria in June 1942. [15] [16] About 16,794 of the Jews were allowed to stay in Chernivtsi, and 17,159 in Bukovina in its historical borders, after that. [17] [18]

According to the Romanian gendarmerie, on September 1, 1943, 50,741 Jewish deportees survived in Transnistria, including 36,761 from Bukovina, including Dorohoi County (historically a part of the Old Kingdom of Romania, but administratively a part of Bukovina at that time), and 13,980 from Bessarabia. [19] [20] [21] According to the statistics from the office of the Romanian prime minister of November 15, 1943, by province of origin from Romania and of county of residence in Transnistria, in the latter area there were 49,927 Jewish deportees who had survived, including 31,141 from Bukovina (without Dorohoi County, but including Hotin County), 11,683 from Bessarabia (without Hotin County), 6,425 from Dorohoi County, and 678 from the rest of Romania. [22] [23] By the time Bukovina was retaken by Soviet forces in February 1944, some sources are suggesting that less than half of the entire Jewish population in the region had survived. According to the Shoah Resource Center of Yad Vashem, about half of the Jews of Bukovina died. [24] About 1,500 Jews from Chernivtsi converted to Christianity to be saved from deportation to Transnistria. [25]

Most of the survivors went to Romania after the war, where the more liberal policies allowed emigration to Israel. [10] The list of the Jewish deportees to Transnistria from Bukovina at a memorial dedicated to them in the city of Siret includes 51,089 names provided by Yad Vashem in 2024. [26] The number of Jews listed by name who died or were killed in the Holocaust or Soviet repression who had lived in (historical) northern and southern Bukovina before the war in the Yad Vashem database as of 2025 was 50,749, whereas 7 died indirectly died because of the Holocaust, and 1,707 were "registered following the evacuation/ in the Interior of the Soviet Union". [27] According to the Yad Vashem database, 26,387 Jews whose names are listed who had lived in Bukovina before the war died in Ukraine (including Transnistria) during the Holocaust. [28] The number of Bukovinian Jews whose death was caused by the Soviet authorities is unknown, but 86 died in Siberia [29] , while others died in Central Asia, etc. According to the Yad Vashem database, 60,732 Jews whose names are listed who had lived in Bessarabia before the war were killed during World War II, while 133 died indirectly in relation to the Holocaust. [30] The number of the Bessarabian Jewish victims of the Holocaust exceeded that of the Bukovinian ones.

According to the foremost Israeli scholarly study on the Holocaust by Leni Yahil, almost 60,000 Jewish deportees survived in Transnistria. [31] According to the Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, 55,000 to 60,000 of the Jewish deportees to Transnistria survived the Holocaust. [32] Another estimate of the total number of Bessarabian Jews who survived the deportations to Transnistria was 20,000, which also indicates that a large majority of the deportees died in Transnistria. [33] The ones who died did so in the most inhuman and horrible conditions. (In the same ghettos and camps there were many Jews from that region as well, responsibility for whose death lies on the Romanian authorities that occupied it in 1941–44.) According to Wolf Moskovich, Professor of Russian and Slavic Studies at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, in the article "Bessarabia", in The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, "Only a third of the deported Jews survived Transnistria." [34] According to Wolf Moskovich in the same article, "In all, some 100,000 Bessarabian Jews perished during World War II." [35]

There were significant differences in the survival rates in Transnistria depending on the place of origin in Bukovina. About 60% of the Jewish deportees to Transnistria from the city of Chernivtsi died there. [36] According to the Yad Vashem database, 19,424 Jews who had lived in Chernivtsi before the war whose names are listed died in the Holocaust. [37] In southern Bukovina, the area that was not annexed by the Soviet Union (but excluding Dorohoi County), there were 18,140 Jews according to the April 6, 1941 general population census; on May 20, 1942, on the day of the census of the Jews, after the deportations to Transnistria, there were 179 Jews. [38] According to a Romanian government report of November 20, 1943, more than 12,000 of them had survived; in addition to those, there were some southern Bukovinian orphans, who were treated as a part of a different category. [39] Thus, more than two-thirds of the southern Bukovinian Jewish deportees seem to have survived. In 1941-1944, Dorohoi County, historically a part of the Old Kingdom of Romania, was officially/administratively a part of Bukovina. Almost all the Jews who lived in the town of Hertsa (1,204) and in the rest of the Hertsa area (14), which were under Soviet rule in 1940-1941 and in 1944-1991, on September 1, 1941, were deported to Transnistria by the Romanian authorities, where most of them died; only 450 were alive in December 1943, when the repatriation of the Jews to Dorohoi County by the Romanian authorities started, while about 800 Jews died. [40] The Romanian army and authorities killed 100 Jews on July 5, 1941, before the deportation to Transnistria. [41] For the entire Dorohoi County ("Judet"), a large majority of which remained in Romania, 6,425 Jews survived the deportations to Transnistria, while 5,131 died between September 6, 1940, and August 23, 1944, during the Antonescu dictatorship, overwhelmingly due to the deportations of 1941 and 1942. [42] After the November 1941 deportations of Jews from Dorohoi County (9,367 Jews) and June 1942 (360 Jews), excluding the Jews from the Herta area that had been under Soviet occupation, 2,316 Jews were not deported. [43] There is a list of about 3,000 Jews deported from Dorohoi. [44] At the end of 1943, 6,053 Jews deported from Dorohoi County (excluding a large majority of the Jews from the Hertsa area) were returned by the Romanian authorities to the county. [45]

About 3,000 Jews who resided in Mohyliv-Podilskyi were sent in May-June 1942 to the nearby concentration camp in Skazinets, and about half of them died in there. [46] All of the 560 Jews who died in the Skazinets concentration camp in the summer and early fall of 1942 after being deported there in late May and early June 1942 whose names appear in the Yad Vashem database had been sent there from Mohyliv-Podilskyi. [47] [48] While a large majority of the Jews who died in the Pechora concentration camp (discussed in the next section) were native Ukrainian Jews, 523 of the dead Jews listed in the Yad Vashem database had lived in Romania before the war; [49] among these, 271 had lived in Bukovina [50] and 128 had lived in Bessarabia [51] . Moreover, 82 had lived in Dorohoi and the neighboring localities [52] .

According to Julius Fisher, the Germans executed numerous other Jews in northern Transnistria, overwhelmingly deportees from Romania, including 12,000 at Bar, 1,230 at Garisin, 3,000 in Ladjin/Ladyzhyn, and 200 in Tulcin. [53]

One of the ghettos with a mostly Bukovinian Jewish population about which there is the most information in Wikipedia is Shargorod. The largest ghetto, about which there is also a great deal of information in Wikipedia, was the one in Mogilev-Podolski/Mohyliv-Podilskyi.

The Transnistrian Jewish Victims of the Holocaust

According to Julius Fisher, "Of the local Jewish population, the data show that 130,000 died the death of martyrs", out of which 70,000 were murdered by the Romanian forces (the Romanian incomplete official statistics indicate a minimum number of 68,866) and 40,000 by the Germans, who also murdered at least 18,800 Jews deported to Transnistria. [54] [55]

While the number of the dead in the Odessa massacre of October 22-24, 1941, was larger, according to Julius Fisher, Transnistria, The Forgotten Cemetery, 20,000 Jews were killed in the massacre. [56] According to the Yad Vashem data base, the number of Jews killed in the city of Odessa whose names are known was 20,334. [57] Given that about 25,000 individuals were executed in Odessa, the difference between that number and the number of Jews who were executed were individuals of other ethnicities. [58]

In December 1941, a few cases of typhus, which is a disease spread by lice and fleas, broke out in the Bogdanovka concentration camp. [59] A decision was made by the German adviser to the Romanian administration of the district, and the Romanian District Commissioner to murder all the inmates. The Aktion began on 21 December, and was carried out by Romanian soldiers, gendarmes, Ukrainian police, civilians from Golta, [60] and local ethnic Germans under the commander of the Ukrainian regular police, Kazachievici. [61] Thousands of disabled and ill inmates were forced into two locked stables, which were doused with kerosene and set ablaze, burning alive all those inside. Other inmates were led in groups to a ravine in a nearby forest and shot in their necks. The remaining Jews dug pits with their bare hands in the bitter cold, and packed them with frozen corpses. Thousands of Jews froze to death. A break was made for Christmas, but the killing resumed on 28 December. By 31 December, over 40,000 Jews had been killed. [62] Overall, at least 40,000-48,000, and perhaps as many as 54,000, Jews were killed in the Bogdanovka concentration camp. [63] [64] [65] [66] [67] A large majority of the Jews who were killed were originally from Transnistria, but 7,000 or more were from Bessarabia. [68] Perhaps only 50 Jews who burned the bodies of the massacred Jews survived. [69]

During World War II, 14,000-18,000 overwhelmingly local Jews were murdered on the spot in Domanivka the winter of 1941-1942, until February 1942. [70] [71] [72] [73] [74] A minority of the Jews who were killed were Bessarabian Jews. [75] The victims were killed, mainly by the Romanian constabulary, the Romanian army supported by Ukrainian militia and the Sonderkommando. [76] The camp was liberated on March 28, 1944, by the Red Army. According to Jean Ancel, "about five hundred Jews were still alive, mostly expellees from Romania." [77]

Out of about 4,000 in the camp at Akmetchetka in April 1942, only a few hundred were still alive in May 1942; the rest died of hunger and poor quality food (raw potatoes), exhaustion and poor living conditions (they lived in pigsties and warehouses). [78] [79] According to the newer research in the Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, 1933-1945 from 2018, 4,000 Jews died in the Pechora concentration camp in Tulcin Judet County in northern Transnistria in 1941-1944, whereas about 200 died from February 1944 and March 1944, when the Soviets returned to the area; this excludes about 1,250 Jews who were handed over to the Germans, who exterminated them elsewhere. [80] The Yad Vashem database lists the names of 4,554 Jews who died in the camp. [81] Out of these, 2,651 were Ukrainian Jews according to the Yad Vashem database. [82]

About 30,000 Jews from Odessa and thousands of Jews from Berezovka County and elsewhere, mainly from other places in southern Transnistria (perhaps 10,000), were evacuated by the Romanian authorities to various localities in Berezovka Judet/County (unless they were from there) and were executed by the Germans. [83]

After the arrival of the Jewish deportees from Romania in 1941, at least 45,000 Jews Jews of northern and central Transnistria were alive, out of which more than 10,000 were killed by the Germans, which left 35,000 Jews alive. [84] According to Jean Ancel, 20,000-22,000 local (Transnistrian) Jews survived the Holocaust. [85] Up to 13,000-15,000 local Jews from northern and central Transnistria died because of typhus and other causes related to the poor treatment of the Jews, excluding the executions. [86]

The Jews from the Rest of Romania and the Vapniarka Concentration Camp

In October 1941, the Romanians established a detention camp in Vapniarka. [87] (By that time, the 700 local Jewish inhabitants had fled or had been killed by the Nazi German or Romanian troops. [88] ) One thousand Jews were brought to the site that month, mostly from the city of Odessa. [89] Some 200 died in a typhus epidemic; the others were taken out of the camp in two batches, guarded by soldiers of the Romanian Gendarmerie, and shot to death. [90] [91] In 1942, 150 Jews from Bukovina were brought to Vapniarka. [92] On September 16 of that year, 1023 Jews [93] from the Old Kingdom of Romania and southern Transylvania were also brought to the camp. [94] About half had been banished from their homes on suspicion of being communists, but 554 had been included without any specific charges being brought against them. [95] By keeping the camp meticulously clean, the prisoners were able to overcome the typhus epidemic, [96] but they suffered from the poor quality of the food, which included Lathyrus sativus , a species of pea that was normally used to feed livestock, and barley bread that had a 20% straw content. [97] A team of doctors among the inmates, led by Dr. Arthur Kessler of Cernăuţi, reached the conclusion that the disease presented all the symptoms of lathyrism, [98] [96] [99] a spastic paralysis caused by the oxalyldiaminopropionic acid present in the pea fodder. Within a few weeks, the first symptoms of the disease appeared, affecting the bone marrow of prisoners and causing paralysis. [100] By January 1943, hundreds of prisoners were suffering from lathyrism. [101] The inmates declared a hunger strike and demanded medical assistance. [102] As a result, the authorities allowed the Jewish Aid Committee in Bucharest to supply them with medicine, and the prisoners' relatives were allowed to send them parcels. [103] It was only at the end of January that the prisoners were no longer fed with the animal fodder that had caused the disease, but 117 Jews were paralyzed for life. [104] [105]

In March 1943, it was found that 427 Jews had been imprisoned for no reason whatsoever. [106] They were moved to various ghettos in Transnistria, but were sent back to Romania and released only in December 1943–January 1944. [107] In October 1943, when the Soviet Red Army was approaching the region, it was decided to liquidate the camp. [108] 80 Jews were sent to ghettos in Transnistria [109] . 54 Communists were taken to a prison in Rîbnița, Transnistria, where they were killed in their cells by SS men on March 19, 1944. [110] [111] A third group, which included most of the prisoners (565 persons), was moved to Romania in March 1944 and imprisoned in the camp for political prisoners in Târgu Jiu, until after the fall of the Antonescu government in August. [112] According to the Yad Vashem database, the number of Jews who lived in Vapniarka whose names are available, including the deportees, who died in the Holocaust was 92. [113] Julius Fisher indicates that the number of survivors of the Vapniarka concentration camp was 1,656. [114]

Out of 598 Jews of Bessarabian and northern Bukovinian origin from Romania who in 1940 had petitioned to migrate to the Soviet Union, but did not have the opportunity to do so, 582 were killed by the German Nazi SS in Rastadt, after being handed over by the Romanian gendarmes in Mostovoi, both in Berezovka County, in September 22, 1942; only 16 survived. [115] [116]

After the Holocaust

According to Nikolai Bougai, in March 1945, 12,852 Jews from 5,420 families with Romanian passports living in Ukraine were relocated (as Jews) by the NKVD to the Soviet north and east. [117] Those Jews who survived the forced labor in the Soviet camps who had been sent there from Mohyliv-Podilskyi returned to Romania in 1947. [118] According to the Yad Vashem data, 232 Jews sent there from Mohyliv-Podilskyi whose names are known died in the Arkhangelsk basin. [119]

References

  1. ↑ About Abkhazia – Abkhazia.info Archived 21 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine . English translation: Google translator. Link was not available/working 21 December 2014.
  2. ↑ "ראש הממשלה היהודי של המדינה המוז". 28 January 2024.
  3. ↑ https://www.jdn.co.il/j_world/jworld/1856500/
  4. ↑ https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/2022-11-14/ty-article/.premium/mass-grave-of-jews-murdered-a-century-ago-by-communists-discovered-in-moldova/00000184-76a6-ddae-abbd-ffbf00fa0000
  5. ↑ "Introduction and History of the Jews in Moldova".
  6. ↑ Between Lviv Square and Yevbaz
  7. ↑ Kipiani, V. "Interesting Books": Jewish addresses of Kyiv . News Broadcasting Service (TSN). 6 April 2012
  8. ↑ Ukraine. World Jewish Congress.
  9. ↑ "Table of Ratios of Jewish to Total Population in the Principal Countries and Cities of the World". Jewish Encyclopedia . 1901–1906. Archived from the original on March 28, 2007. Retrieved September 13, 2016.
  10. 1 2 "Bukovina", at Shoah Resource Center of Yad Vashem in Israel at "Shoah Resource Center - Bukovina" (PDF).
  11. ↑ The same figure (57,000 deportees) appears in Dr. Costiner, "Situatia Numerica Aproximativa a Evreilor Deportati in Transnistria" ("The Numerical Situation of the Jews Deported to Transnistria"), in Centrul Pentru Studiul Istoriei Evreilor din Romania ("The Centre for the Study of the History of Romanian Jewry), Martiriul Evreilor din Romania, 1940-1944, Documente si Marturii ("The Martyrdom of the Jews in Romania, 1940-1944: Documents and Testimonies"), with a foreword by Dr. Moses Rosen (Bucuresti: Editura Hasefer, 1991), p. 192 (the photocopy) and p. 193 (the transcribed document).
  12. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Bukovina", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 1, p. 263.
  13. ↑ See Radu Ioanid, The Holocaust in Romania: The Destruction of the Jews and Gypsies Under the Antonescu Regime (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2000), p. 174.
  14. ↑ Excerpts from the (Romanian) Ministry of Internal Affairs document ("Referat") that provide these numbers may be found iin Centrul Pentru Studiul Istoriei Evrilor din Romania ("The Centre for the Study of the History of Romanian Jewry), Martiriul Evreilor din Romania, 1940-1944, Documente si Marturii ("The Martyrdom of the Jews in Romania, 1940-1944: Documents and Testimonies"), with a foreword by Dr. Moses Rosen (Bucuresti: Editura Hasefer, 1991), p. 231-232.
  15. ↑ See Jean Ancel, The History of the Holocaust in Romania (Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press and Jerusalem, Yad Vashem, 2011), p. 541.
  16. ↑ Yad Vashem, the World Holocaust Remembrance Center (in Israel), at https://wwv.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%206091.pdf [ bare URL PDF ]
  17. ↑ For the same data in English, see Jean Ancel, The History of the Holocaust in Romania (Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press and Jerusalem, Yad Vashem, 2011), p. 541, 543.
  18. ↑ See "Chernivtsi", by Andrei Corbea-Hoisie, in The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, at https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article/914
  19. ↑ See Radu Ioanid, The Holocaust in Romania: The Destruction of the Jews and Gypsies Under the Antonescu Regime (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2000), p. 205.
  20. ↑ For a detailed breakdown of the survivors by province of origin (Bessarabia and Bukovina) and county in Transnistria, with data available for all counties of Transnistria except for Odessa, see Jean Ancel, Transnistria (Bucuresti: Atlas, 1998), vol. 3 (in Romanian), p. 290-291. Odessa County was missing.
  21. ↑ For the same data in English, see Jean Ancel, The History of the Holocaust in Romania (Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press and Jerusalem, Yad Vashem, 2011), p. 549.
  22. ↑ See Jean Ancel, Transnistria (Bucuresti: Atlas, 1998), vol. 3 (in Romanian), p. 290-291. The data from three counties of Transnistria are missing for the deportees from Bukovina, and from four counties for the deportees from Bessarabia, Dorohoi County and the rest of Romania.
  23. ↑ For the same data in English, see Jean Ancel, The History of the Holocaust in Romania (Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press and Jerusalem, Yad Vashem, 2011), p. 550.
  24. ↑ Bukovina", at Shoah Resource Center of Yad Vashem in Israel, at https://wwv.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%206091.pdf.
  25. ↑ See Jean Ancel, "Chernovtsy", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 1, p. 287-288.
  26. ↑ See Muzeul de Istorie Siret, Memorialul Holocaustului Evreilor din Bucovina ("The Siret History Museum, The Memorial of the Holocaust of the Jews in Bukovina"), at https://muzeulbucovinei.ro/ro/mnb/obiective-culturale/muzeul-de-istorie-siret-memorialul-holocaustului-evreilor-din-bucovina
  27. ↑ Yad Vashem, the World Holocaust Remembrance Center (in Israel), at https://collections.yadvashem.org/en/names/search-results?page=7&s_place_permanent_search_en=Bukovina&t_place_permanent_search_en=yvSynonym [ bare URL ]
  28. ↑ Yad Vashem, the World Holocaust Remembrance Center (in Israel), at https://collections.yadvashem.org/en/names/search-results?page=1&s_place_permanent_search_en=Bukovina&t_place_permanent_search_en=yvSynonym&s_place_death_search_en=Ukraine&t_place_death_search_en=yvSynonym
  29. ↑ Yad Vashem, the World Holocaust Remembrance Center (in Israel), at https://collections.yadvashem.org/en/names/search-results?page=1&s_place_permanent_search_en=Bukovina&t_place_permanent_search_en=yvSynonym&s_place_death_search_en=Siberia&t_place_death_search_en=yvSynonym
  30. ↑ Yad Vashem, the World Holocaust Remembrance Center (in Israel), at https://collections.yadvashem.org/en/names/search-results?page=1&s_place_permanent_search_en=Bessarabia&t_place_permanent_search_en=yvSynonym
  31. ↑ See Leni Yahil, The Holocaust: The Fate of European Jewry, 1932-1945 (New York and Oxford; Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 594.
  32. ↑ See Jean Ancel, "Transnistria", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 4, p. 1476.
  33. ↑ Siegfried Jagendorf, Jagendorf's Foundry: A Memoir of the Romanian Holocaust, 1941-1944, Edited with Commentary by Aron Hirt-Manheimer (New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 1991), p. XXVI.
  34. ↑ Wolf Moskovich, "Bessarabia", in The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, at https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article/50
  35. ↑ Wolf Moskovich, "Bessarabia", in The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, at https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article/50
  36. ↑ See "Chernovtsy, Ukraine" in Jewish Virtual Library, at https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/chernovtsy.
  37. ↑ Yad Vashem, the World Holocaust Remembrance Center (in Israel), at https://collections.yadvashem.org/en/names/search-results?page=1&s_place_permanent_search_en=Chernivtsi&t_place_permanent_search_en=yvSynonym
  38. ↑ Avigdor Shachan, Burning Ice: The Ghettos of Transnistria (Boulder, Colorado, Eastern European Monographs, Distributed by Columbia University Press, 1996),:p. 437.
  39. ↑ Radu Ioanid, The Holocaust in Romania: The Destruction of the Jews and Gypsies Under the Antonescu Regime (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2000), p. 255.
  40. ↑ See "Gertsa", by Andrei Corbea-Hoisie, in The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, at https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article/923 and Publikationstelle Wien, Die Bevölkerungzählung in Rumänien, 1941, Viena 1943.
  41. ↑ Julius S. Fisher, Transnistria, The Forgotten Cemetery (South Brunswick: Thomas Yoseloff, 1969), p. 35.
  42. ↑ See Jean Ancel, The History of the Holocaust in Romania (Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press and Jerusalem, Yad Vashem, 2011) p. 550, 558, on the number of survivors as of November 15, 1943, and "Situatie Numerica de evreii ucisi sub regimul de dictatura din Romania de la data de 6 decembrie 1940, pana la 23 august 1944, precum si acelor deportati in acelasi interval de timp si nereintorsi la domiciliu", in "Nota Ministerului Afacerilor Interne, Directia Generala a Politiei, Directia Politiei de Siguranta, Sectia Nationalitati Nr. 780-S din 6 Mai 1946 Catre M.A.S.", in Ion Calafeteanu, Nicolae Dinu and Teodor Gheorghe, Emigrarea Populatiei Evreiesti din Romania in 1940-1944, Culegere de Documente din Arhiva Ministerului Afaceror Externe al Romaniei (Bucuresti, Silex - Casa de Editura, Presa si IMpresariat S.R.L., Bucuresti, 1993), p. 246.
  43. ↑ See Jean Ancel, The History of the Holocaust in Romania (Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press and Jerusalem, Yad Vashem, 2011), p. 304-305.
  44. ↑ "Holocaust Survivors and Victims Database: LISTING OF C. 3000 JEWS FROM DOROHOI (IN SOUTHERN BUKOVINA) WHO WERE DEPORTED TO TRANSNISTRIA. (ID: 30435)".
  45. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Dorohoi", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 1, p. 401.
  46. ↑ Yitzak Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2009), p. 302.
  47. ↑ Yad Vashem, the World Holocaust Remembrance Center (in Israel), at https://collections.yadvashem.org/en/names/search-results?page=1&s_place_death_search_en=Skazinets&t_place_death_search_en=yvSynonym
  48. ↑ For more information on the deportations to Skazinets, see Siegfried Jagendorf, Jagendorf's Foundry: A Memoir of the Romanian Holocaust, 1941-1944, Edited with Commentary by Aron Hirth-Manheimer (New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 1991), p. 67-77. Jagendorf, the Jewish leader in Mohyliv-Podilskyi, estimated the number of the deportees at 3,000, but other sources provide the number 4,000. Jean Ancel estimates that half of the 4,000 people sent to Skazinets, where the living conditions were horrible, died in there. See, for example, Jean Ancel, Transnistria (Bucuresti: Atlas, 1998), vol. 3 (in Romanian), p. 43.
  49. ↑ Yad Vashem, the World Holocaust Remembrance Center (in Israel), at https://collections.yadvashem.org/en/names/search-results?page=1&s_place_permanent_search_en=Romania&t_place_permanent_search_en=yvSynonym&s_place_death_search_en=Pechora&t_place_death_search_en=yvSynonym
  50. ↑ Yad Vashem, the World Holocaust Remembrance Center (in Israel), at https://collections.yadvashem.org/en/names/search-results?page=1&s_place_permanent_search_en=Bukovina&t_place_permanent_search_en=yvSynonym&s_place_death_search_en=Pechora&t_place_death_search_en=yvSynonym
  51. ↑ Yad Vashem, the World Holocaust Remembrance Center (in Israel), at https://collections.yadvashem.org/en/names/search-results?page=1&s_place_permanent_search_en=Bessarabia&t_place_permanent_search_en=yvSynonym&s_place_death_search_en=Pechora&t_place_death_search_en=yvSynonym
  52. ↑ Yad Vashem, the World Holocaust Remembrance Center (in Israel), at https://collections.yadvashem.org/en/names/search-results?page=1&s_place_permanent_search_en=Dorohoi&t_place_permanent_search_en=yvSynonym&s_place_death_search_en=Pechora&t_place_death_search_en=yvSynonym
  53. ↑ Julius S. Fisher, Transnistria, The Forgotten Cemetery (South Brunswick: Thomas Yoseloff, 1969), p. 114, 124, 136.
  54. ↑ Julius S. Fisher, Transnistria, The Forgotten Cemetery (South Brunswick: Thomas Yoseloff, 1969), p. 136.
  55. ↑ The official Romanian statistics from Jean Ancel, Transnistria (Bucuresti: Atlas, 1998), vol. 3 (in Romanian), p. 294-297.
  56. ↑ Julius S. Fisher, Transnistria, The Forgotten Cemetery (South Brunswick: Thomas Yoseloff, 1969), p. 136, citing the transcript of the war crimes trial of Ion Antonescu et al.
  57. ↑ Yad Vashem, the World Holocaust Remembrance Center (in Israel), at https://collections.yadvashem.org/en/names/search-results?page=1&s_place_death_search_en=Odessa%20City&t_place_death_search_en=yvSynonym
  58. ↑ For the 25,000 total number of executed individuals, regardless of ethnicity, see Radu Ioanid, The Holocaust in Romania: The Destruction of the Jews and Gypsies Under the Antonescu Regime (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2000), p. 182.
  59. ↑ "Bogdanovka" (PDF). Yad Vashem.
  60. ↑ A district of Transnistria, see map.
  61. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Bogdanovka", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 1, p. 226.
  62. ↑ "December 21: More than 40,000 Jews shot at Bogdanovka". Yad Vashem. Archived from the original on 2016-02-16. Retrieved 2005-10-06.
  63. ↑ See "Bogdanovka", Shoah Resource Center of Yad Vashem (http://www.yadvashem.org), at https://wwv.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/microsoft%20word%20-%20103.pdf. The source estimates the number of dead at 54,000.
  64. ↑ Dennis Deletant, "Transnistria", in The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, at https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article/63. The source estimates the number of dead at 43,000-48,000.
  65. ↑ See Radu Ioanid, The Holocaust in Romania: The Destruction of the Jews and Gypsies Under the Antonescu Regime (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2000), p. 184. The source estimates the number of dead at 43,000-48,000.
  66. ↑ Julius S. Fisher, Transnistria, The Forgotten Cemetery (South Brunswick: Thomas Yoseloff, 1969), p. 122, 123, 125. The source estimates the number of dead at 48,000.
  67. ↑ According to Yahad-in-Unum (the French organization that investigates the deaths by mass shootings in the Holocaust headed by Father Patrick Desbois, a Catholic priest), at https://www.yahadmap.org/#village/bogdanivka-bogdanovka-mykolaiv-ukraine.24, at least 40,000 Jews were killed at Bogdanovka.
  68. ↑ See "Bogdanovka", Shoah Resource Center of Yad Vashem (http://www.yadvashem.org), at https://wwv.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/microsoft%20word%20-%20103.pdf.
  69. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Bogdanovka", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 1, p. 227.
  70. ↑ "Yahad - in Unum".
  71. ↑ Radu Ioanid, The Holocaust in Romania: The Destruction of the Jews and Gypsies Under the Antonescu Regime (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2000), p. 184. The source estimates the number of dead at 14,000.
  72. ↑ The Soviet estimate was 15,000 dead Jews. See "Odessa", in Ilya Ehrenburg and Vasily Grossman, The Black Book (New York: Holocaust Library, 1980), p. 83.
  73. ↑ The article "Domanevka" in Shoah Research Center, http://www.yadvashem.org, at https://wwv.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%206276.pdf, indicates that 18,000 Jews were murdered.
  74. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Domanevka", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 1, p. 398, states that 18,000 Jews were murdered.
  75. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Domanevka", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 1, p. 397-398.
  76. ↑ {{cite web |url=https://memorialmuseums.eu/eng/denkmaeler/view/1565/Memorial-to-the-murdered-Jews-of-Domanivka |title=Information Portal to European Sites of Remembrance |publisher=Memorialmuseums.eu |date= |accessdate=2022-09-12 |archive-date=2022-11-25 |archive-url=https://web.ar
  77. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Domanevka", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 1, p. 398.
  78. ↑ Jean Ancel, The History of the Holocaust in Romania (Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press and Jerusalem, Yad Vashem, 2011), p. 345.
  79. ↑ Julius S. Fisher, Transnistria, The Forgotten Cemetery (South Brunswick: Thomas Yoseloff, 1969), p. 123.
  80. ↑ Megargee, Geoffrey P.; White, Joseph R.; Hecker, Mel, eds. (2018-04-21). The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, 1933–1945, vol. III (PDF). Indiana University Press. ISBN   978-0-253-02386-5., p.743.
  81. ↑ Yad Vashem, the World Holocaust Remembrance Center (in Israel), at https://collections.yadvashem.org/en/names/search-results?page=1&s_place_death_search_en=Pechora&t_place_death_search_en=yvSynonym
  82. ↑ Yad Vashem, the World Holocaust Remembrance Center (in Israel), at https://collections.yadvashem.org/en/names/search-results?page=1&s_place_permanent_search_en=Ukraine&t_place_permanent_search_en=yvSynonym&s_place_death_search_en=Pechora&t_place_death_search_en=yvSynonym
  83. ↑ Julius S. Fisher, Transnistria, The Forgotten Cemetery (South Brunswick: Thomas Yoseloff, 1969), p. 114, 124, 136.
  84. ↑ See Jean Ancel, Transnistria (Bucuresti: Atlas, 1998), vol. 3 (in Romanian), p. 293.
  85. ↑ See Jean Ancel, Transnistria (Bucuresti: Atlas, 1998), vol. 3 (in Romanian), p. 300.
  86. ↑ See Jean Ancel, Transnistria (Bucuresti: Atlas, 1998), vol. 3 (in Romanian), p. 9-101, 293, 300.
  87. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Vapniarka", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 4, p. 1560.
  88. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Vapniarka", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 4, p. 1560.
  89. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Vapniarka", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 4, p. 1560.
  90. ↑ Kessler, Arthur (2024). Spitzer, Leo (ed.). A Doctor's Memoir of the Romanian Holocaust: Survival in Lager Vapniarka and the Ghettos of Transnistria. Rochester Studies in East and Central Europe. Translated by Robinson, Margaret. Rochester NY: University of Rochester Press. ISBN   978-1-64825-093-4.
  91. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Vapniarka", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 4, p. 1560.
  92. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Vapniarka", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 4, p. 1560.
  93. ↑ Stefan, Olga https://www.academia.edu/126359982/Vapniarka_Forms_of_Antifascist_Resistance_in_the_Camp_of_Death
  94. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Vapniarka", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 4, p. 1560.
  95. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Vapniarka", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 4, p. 1560.
  96. 1 2 Kessler, Arthur (2024). Spitzer, Leo (ed.). A Doctor's Memoir of the Romanian Holocaust: Survival in Lager Vapniarka and the Ghettos of Transnistria. Rochester Studies in East and Central Europe. Translated by Robinson, Margaret. Rochester NY: University of Rochester Press. pp. 52, 92. ISBN   978-1-64825-093-4.
  97. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Vapniarka", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 4, p. 1561.
  98. ↑ "Dr. Arthur Kessler (1903-2000)", in Lathyrus Lathyrism Newsletter, Vol. 3, pp. 3–4
  99. ↑ Dennis Deletant Hitler's Forgotten Ally: Ion Antonescu and His Regime, Romania, 1940-1944. Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2006, ISBN   1-4039-9341-6, p. 197; Kornis, pp. 228–229
  100. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Vapniarka", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 4, p. 1561.
  101. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Vapniarka", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 4, p. 1561.
  102. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Vapniarka", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 4, p. 1561.
  103. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Vapniarka", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 4, p. 1561.
  104. ↑ Stefan, Olga https://www.academia.edu/126975733/_The_Success_is_Their_Own_The_Long_Arduous_History_of_Reparations_for_Survivors_of_Vapniarka_the_Camp_of_Death
  105. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Vapniarka", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 4, p. 1561.
  106. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Vapniarka", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 4, p. 1561.
  107. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Vapniarka", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 4, p. 1561.
  108. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Vapniarka", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 4, p. 1561.
  109. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Vapniarka", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 4, p. 1561-1562.
  110. ↑ "The Vapniarka camp". roholocaust.com. Retrieved 2024-11-07.
  111. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Vapniarka", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 4, p. 1562.
  112. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Vapniarka", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 4, p. 1562.
  113. ↑ Yad Vashem Collections - Names - Search Results/Yad Vashem, the World Holocaust Remembrance Center (in Israel), at https://collections.yadvashem.org/en/names/search-results?page=1&s_place_death_search_en=Vapniarka&t_place_death_search_en=yvSynonym.
  114. ↑ Julius S. Fisher, Transnistria, The Forgotten Cemetery (South Brunswick: Thomas Yoseloff, 1969), p. 136.
  115. ↑ Radu Ioanid, The Holocaust in Romania: The Destruction of the Jews and Gypsies Under the Antonescu Regime (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2000), p. 190.
  116. ↑ See Jean Ancel, Transnistria (Bucuresti: Atlas, 1998), vol. 3 (in Romanian), p. 296.
  117. ↑ Nikolai Bougai, The Deportation of Peoples in the Soviet Union (New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 1996), p. 156.
  118. ↑ Jean Ancel, "Mogilev-Podolski", in Israel Gutman (editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990), vol. 3, p. 987.
  119. ↑ Yad Vashem, the World Holocaust Remembrance Center (in Israel), at https://collections.yadvashem.org/en/names/search-results?page=1&s_place_death_search_en=Arkhangelsk&t_place_death_search_en=yvSynonym
  1. ↑ See more on names section.


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