Ionization energies of the elements (data page)

Last updated

Numerical values

For each atom, the column marked 1 is the first ionization energy to ionize the neutral atom, the column marked 2 is the second ionization energy to remove a second electron from the +1 ion, the column marked 3 is the third ionization energy to remove a third electron from the +2 ion, and so on.

Contents

"use" and "WEL" give ionization energy in the unit kJ/mol; "CRC" gives atomic ionization energy in the unit eV. [1]

123456789101112131415161718192021222324252627282930
1 H hydrogen [2] [3]
use1312.0
WEL1312.0
CRC13.59844 [4]
2 He helium [2] [3]
use2372.35250.5
WEL2372.35250.5
CRC24.58738 [5] 54.41776 [5]
3 Li lithium [2] [3]
use520.27298.111815.0
WEL520.27298.111815.0
CRC5.39171 [6] 75.64009 [7] 122.45435 [8]
4 Be beryllium [2] [3]
use899.51757.114848.721006.6
WEL899.51757.114848.721006.6
CRC9.32269 [9] 18.21115153.89620217.71858
5 B boron
use800.62427.13659.725025.832826.7
WEL800.62427.13659.725025.832826.7
CRC8.2980325.1548437.93064259.37521340.22580
6 C carbon
use1086.52352.64620.56222.73783147277.0
WEL1086.52352.64620.56222.73783147277.0
CRC11.2603024.3833247.887864.4939392.087489.99334
7 N nitrogen
use1402.328564578.17475.09444.953266.664360
WEL1402.328564578.17475.09444.953266.664360
CRC14.5341429.601347.4492477.473597.8902552.0718667.046
8 O oxygen
use1313.93388.35300.57469.210989.513326.57133084078.0
WEL1313.93388.35300.57469.210989.513326.57133084078.0
CRC13.6180635.1173054.935577.41353113.8990138.1197739.29871.4101
9 F fluorine
use1681.03374.26050.48407.711022.715164.11786892038.1106434.3
WEL1681.03374.26050.48407.711022.715164.11786892038.1106434.3
CRC17.4228234.9708262.708487.1398114.2428157.1651185.186953.91121103.1176
10 Ne neon
use2080.73952.361229371121771523819999.023069.5115379.5131432
WEL2080.73952.361229371121771523819999.023069.5115379.5131432
CRC21.564640.9632863.4597.12126.21157.93207.2759239.09891195.82861362.1995
11 Na sodium
use495.845626910.395431335416613201172549628932141362159076
WEL495.845626910.395431335416613201172549628932141362
CRC5.1390847.286471.620098.91138.40172.18208.50264.25299.8641465.1211648.702
12 Mg magnesium
use737.71450.77732.710542.5136301802021711256613165335458169988189368
WEL737.71450.77732.710542.5136301802021711256613165335458
CRC7.6462415.0352880.1437109.2655141.27186.76225.02265.96328.06367.501761.8051962.6650
13 Al aluminium
use577.51816.72744.81157714842183792332627465318533847342647201266222316
WEL577.51816.72744.811577148421837923326274653185338473
CRC5.9857718.8285628.44765119.992153.825190.49241.76284.66330.13398.75442.002085.982304.1410
14 Si silicon
use786.51577.13231.64355.51609119805237802928733878387264596250502235196257923
WEL786.51577.13231.64355.5160911980523780292873387838726
CRC8.1516916.3458533.4930245.14181166.767205.27246.5303.54351.12401.37476.36523.422437.632673.182
15 P phosphorus
use1011.819072914.14963.66273.92126725431298723590540950462615411059024271791296195
WEL1011.819072914.14963.66273.92126725431298723590540950
CRC10.4866919.769430.202751.443965.0251220.421263.57309.60372.13424.4479.46560.8611.742816.913069.842
16 S sulfur
use999.62252335745567004.38495.82710731719366214317748710544606293068216311048337138
WEL999.62252335745567004.38495.827107317193662143177
CRC10.3600123.337934.7947.22272.594588.0530280.948328.75379.55447.5504.8564.44652.2707.013223.783494.1892
17 Cl chlorine
use1251.2229838225158.665429362110183360438600439615106857119633637234178095352994380760
WEL1251.2229838225158.66542936211018336043860043961
CRC12.9676423.81439.6153.465267.897.03114.1958348.28400.06455.63529.28591.99656.71749.76809.403658.5213946.2960
18 Ar argon
use1520.62665.8393157717238878111995138424076046186520025965366199729188247388576397605427066
WEL1520.62665.8393157717238878111995138424076046186
CRC15.7596227.6296740.7459.8175.0291.009124.323143.460422.45478.69538.96618.26686.10755.74854.77918.034120.88574426.2296
19 K potassium
use418.830524420587779759590113431494416963.74861054490607306895075900830809340099710444880476063
WEL418.830524420587779759590113431494416963.748610
CRC4.3406631.6345.80660.9182.6699.4117.56154.88175.8174503.8564.7629.4714.6786.6861.19681033.44610.84934.046
20 Ca calcium
use589.81145.44912.4649181531049612270142061819120385571106341070110788908631094000104900111711494850527762
WEL589.81145.44912.464918153104961227014206181912038557110
CRC6.1131611.8717250.913167.2784.50108.78127.2147.24188.54211.275591.9657.2726.6817.6894.597410871157.85128.85469.864
21 Sc scandium
use633.11235.02388.67090.688431067913310152501737021726241026632073010801608949097400105600117000124270547530582163
WEL633.11235.02388.67090.688431067913310152501737021726241026632073010801608949097400105600117000124270547530582163
CRC6.561512.7996724.7566673.489491.65110.68138.0158.1180.03225.18249.798687.36756.7830.8927.51009109412131287.975674.86033.712
22 Ti titanium
use658.81309.82652.54174.6958111533135901644018530208332557528125760158328090880100700109100117800129900137530602930639294
WEL658.81309.82652.54174.6958111533135901644018530208332557528125760158328090880100700109100117800129900137530602930
CRC6.828113.575527.491743.267299.30119.53140.8170.4192.1215.92265.07291.500787.84863.1941.910441131122113461425.46249.06625.82
23 V vanadium
use650.91414283045076298.712363145301673019860222402467029730324468645094170102300112700121600130700143400151440661050699144
WEL650.91414283045076298.712363145301673019860222402467029730324468645094170102300112700121600130700143400151440
CRC6.746214.6629.31146.70965.2817128.13150.6173.4205.8230.5255.7308.1336.277896.0976106011681260135514861569.66851.37246.12
24 Cr chromium
use652.91590.62987474367028744.9154551782020190235802613028750342303706697510105800114300125300134700144300157700166090721870761733
WEL652.91590.62987474367028744.9154551782020190235802613028750342303706697510105800114300125300134700144300157700
CRC6.766516.485730.9649.1669.4690.6349160.18184.7209.3244.4270.8298.0354.8384.1681010.61097118512991396149616341721.47481.77894.81
25 Mn manganese
use717.31509.03248494069909220115001877021400239602759030330331503888041987109480118100127100138600148500158600172500181380785450827067
WEL717.31509.03248494069909220115001877021400239602759030330331503888041987109480118100127100138600148500158600
CRC7.4340215.6399933.66851.272.495.6119.203194.5221.8248.3286.0314.4343.6403.0435.1631134.71224131714371539164417881879.98140.68571.94
26 Fe iron
use762.51561.9295752907240956012060145802254025290280003192034830378404410047206122200131000140500152600163000173600188100195200851800895161
WEL762.51561.9295752907240956012060145802254025290280003192034830378404410047206122200131000140500152600163000
CRC7.902416.187830.65254.875.099.1124.98151.06233.6262.1290.2330.8361.0392.2457489.2561266135814561582168917991950202388289277.69
27 Co cobalt
use760.4164832324950767098401244015230179592657029400324003660039700428004939652737134810145170154700167400178100189300204500214100920870966023
WEL760.4164832324950767098401244015230179592657029400324003660039700428004939652737134810145170154700167400
CRC7.881017.08333.5051.379.5102.0128.9157.8186.13275.4305336379411444511.96546.581397.21504.6160317351846196221192219.09544.110012.12
28 Ni nickel
use737.11753.0339553007339104001280015600186002167030970340003710041500448004810055101585701487001590001694001827001940002056002214002314909927181039668
WEL737.11753.033955300733910400128001560018600216703097034000371004150044800481005510158570148700159000169400
CRC7.639818.1688435.1954.976.06108133162193224.6321.0352384430464499571.08607.0615411648175618942011213122952399.210288.810775.40
29 Cu copper
use745.51957.935555536770099001340016000192002240025600356003870042000467005020053700611006470216370017410018490019880021050022270023910024966010673581116105
WEL745.51957.9355555367700990013400160001920022400256003560038700420004670050200537006110064702163700174100
CRC7.7263820.2924036.84157.3879.8103139166199232265.3369401435484520557633670.58816971804191620602182230824782587.511062.3811567.617
30 Zn zinc
use906.41733.3383357317970104001290016800196002300026400299904049043800473005230055900597006730071200179100
WEL906.41733.3383357317970104001290016800196002300026400299904049043800473005230055900597006730071200179100
CRC9.394217.9644039.72359.482.6108134174203238274310.8419.74544905425796196987381856
31 Ga gallium
use578.81979.329636180
WEL578.81979.329636180
CRC5.9993020.514230.7164
32 Ge germanium
use7621537.53302.144119020
WEL7621537.53302.144119020
CRC7.899415.9346234.224145.713193.5
33 As arsenic
use947.0179827354837604312310
WEL947.0179827354837604312310
CRC9.788618.63328.35150.1362.63127.6
34 Se selenium
use941.020452973.741446590788014990
WEL941.020452973.741446590788014990
CRC9.7523821.1930.820442.945068.381.7155.4
35 Br bromine
use1139.921033470456057608550994018600
WEL1139.921033470456057608550994018600
CRC11.8138121.83647.359.788.6103.0192.8
36 Kr krypton
use1350.82350.435655070624075701071012138222742588029700338003770043100475005220057100618007580080400853009040096300101400111100116290282500296200311400326200
WEL1350.82350.43565507062407570107101213822274258802970033800377004310047500522005710061800758008040085300
CRC13.9996124.3598536.95052.564.778.5111.0125.802230.85268.2308350391447492541592641786833884937998105111511205.32928307032273381
37 Rb rubidium
use403.0263338605080685081409570131201450026740
WEL403.0263338605080685081409570131201450026740
CRC4.1771327.2854052.671.084.499.2136150277.1
38 Sr strontium
use549.51064.241385500691087601023011800156001710031270
WEL549.51064.2413855006910876010230118001560017100
CRC5.694911.0301342.895771.690.8106122.3162177324.1
39 Y yttrium
use60011801980584774308970111901245014110184001990036090
WEL6001180198058477430897011190124501411018400
CRC6.217112.2420.5260.59777.093.0116129146.2191206374.0
40 Zr zirconium
use640.112702218331377529500
WEL640.112702218331377529500
CRC6.6339013.1322.9934.3480.348
41 Nb niobium
use652.11380241637004877984712100
WEL652.11380241637004877984712100
CRC6.7588514.3225.0438.350.55102.057125
42 Mo molybdenum
use684.315602618448052576640.81212513860158351798020190222192693029196524905500061400677007400080400870009340098420104400121900127700133800139800148100154500
WEL684.315602618448052576640.8121251386015835179802019022219269302919652490550006140067700740008040087000
CRC7.0924316.1627.1346.454.4968.8276125.664143.6164.12186.4209.3230.28279.1302.60544.057063670276783390296810201082126313231387144915351601
43 Tc technetium
use686.914702850
WEL70214702850
CRC7.2815.2629.54
Mattolat et al. [10] 7.119380(32) eV
44 Ru ruthenium
use710.216202747
WEL710.216202747
CRC7.3605016.7628.47
45 Rh rhodium
use719.717402997
WEL719.717402997
CRC7.4589018.0831.06
46 Pd palladium
use804.418703177
WEL804.418703177
CRC8.336919.4332.93
47 Ag silver
use731.020703361
WEL731.020703361
CRC7.576221.4934.83
48 Cd cadmium
use867.81631.43616
WEL867.81631.43616
CRC8.993816.9083237.48
49 In indium
use558.31820.727045210
WEL558.31820.727045210
CRC5.7863618.869828.0354
50 Sn tin
use708.61411.82943.03930.37456
WEL708.61411.82943.03930.37456
CRC7.343914.6322530.5026040.7350272.28
51 Sb antimony
use8341594.924404260540010400
WEL8341594.924404260540010400
CRC8.608416.5305125.344.256108
52 Te tellurium
use869.31790269836105668682013200
WEL869.31790269836105668682013200
CRC9.009618.627.9637.4158.7570.7137
53 I iodine
use1008.41845.93180
WEL1008.41845.93180
CRC10.4512619.131333
54 Xe xenon
use1170.42046.43099.4
WEL1170.42046.43099.4
CRC12.129821.2097932.1230
55 Cs caesium
use375.72234.33400
WEL375.72234.33400
CRC3.8939023.15745
56 Ba barium
use502.9965.23600
WEL502.9965.23600
CRC5.2117010.00390
57 La lanthanum
use538.110671850.348195940
WEL538.110671850.348195940
CRC5.576911.06019.177349.9561.6
58 Ce cerium
use534.410501949354763257490
WEL534.410501949354763257490
CRC5.538710.8520.19836.75865.5577.6
59 Pr praseodymium
use5271020208637615551
WEL5271020208637615551
CRC5.47310.5521.62438.9857.53
60 Nd neodymium
use533.1104021303900
WEL533.1104021303900
CRC5.525010.7322.140.41
61 Pm promethium
use540105021503970
WEL540105021503970
CRC5.58210.9022.341.1
62 Sm samarium
use544.5107022603990
WEL544.5107022603990
CRC5.643611.0723.441.4
63 Eu europium
use547.1108524044120
WEL547.1108524044120
CRC5.670411.24124.9242.7
64 Gd gadolinium
use593.4117019904250
WEL593.4117019904250
CRC6.150112.0920.6344.0
65 Tb terbium
use565.8111021143839
WEL565.8111021143839
CRC5.863811.5221.9139.79
66 Dy dysprosium
use573.0113022003990
WEL573.0113022003990
CRC5.938911.6722.841.47
67 Ho holmium
use581.0114022044100
WEL581.0114022044100
CRC6.021511.8022.8442.5
68 Er erbium
use589.3115021944120
WEL589.3115021944120
CRC6.107711.9322.7442.7
69 Tm thulium
use596.7116022854120
WEL596.7116022854120
CRC6.1843112.0523.6842.7
70 Yb ytterbium
use603.41174.824174203
WEL603.41174.824174203
CRC6.2541612.176125.0543.56
71 Lu lutetium
use523.513402022.343706445
WEL523.513402022.343706445
CRC5.425913.920.959445.2566.8
72 Hf hafnium
use658.5144022503216
WEL658.5144022503216
CRC6.8250714.923.333.33
73 Ta tantalum
use7611500
WEL7611500
CRC7.5496
74 W tungsten
use7701700
WEL7701700
CRC7.8640
75 Re rhenium
use760126025103640
WEL760126025103640
CRC7.8335
76 Os osmium
use8401600
WEL8401600
CRC8.4382
77 Ir iridium
use8801600
WEL8801600
CRC8.9670
78 Pt platinum
use8701791
WEL8701791
CRC8.958718.56328 [11]
79 Au gold
use890.11980
WEL890.11980
CRC9.225520.530 [11]
80 Hg mercury
use1007.118103300
WEL1007.118103300
CRC10.4375018.75634.2
81 Tl thallium
use589.419712878
WEL589.419712878
CRC6.108220.42829.83
82 Pb lead
use715.61450.53081.540836640
WEL715.61450.53081.540836640
CRC7.4166615.032231.937342.3268.8
83 Bi bismuth
use70316102466437054008520
WEL70316102466437054008520
CRC7.285616.6925.5645.356.088.3
84 Po polonium
use812.1
WEL812.1
CRC8.417
85 At astatine
use899.003
WEL920
CRC
talk
Originally quoted as 9.31751(8) eV.
86 Rn radon
use1037
WEL1037
CRC10.74850
87 Fr francium
use380
WEL380
CRC4.0727
talk Andreev, S.V.; Letokhov, V.S.; Mishin, V.I. (1987). "Laser resonance photoionization spectroscopy of Rydberg levels in Fr". Phys. Rev. Lett. 59 (12): 1274–76. Bibcode:1987PhRvL..59.1274A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.59.1274. PMID   10035190. give 4.0712±0.00004 eV (392.811(4) kJ/mol)
88 Ra radium
use509.3979.0
WEL509.3979.0
CRC5.278410.14716
89 Ac actinium
use4991170
WEL4991170
CRC5.1712.1
90 Th thorium
use587111019302780
WEL587111019302780
CRC6.306711.520.028.8
91 Pa protactinium
use568
WEL568
CRC5.89
92 U uranium
use597.61420
WEL597.61420
CRC6.1940514.72
93 Np neptunium
use604.5
WEL604.5
CRC6.2657
94 Pu plutonium
use584.7
WEL584.7
CRC6.0262
95 Am americium
use578
WEL578
CRC5.9738
96 Cm curium
use581
WEL581
CRC5.9915
97 Bk berkelium
use601
WEL601
CRC6.1979
98 Cf californium
use608
WEL608
CRC6.2817
99 Es einsteinium
use619
WEL619
CRC6.42
100 Fm fermium
use627
WEL627
CRC6.50
101 Md mendelevium
use635
WEL635
CRC6.58
102 No nobelium
use642
WEL
CRC6.65
103 Lr lawrencium
use470
WEL
CRC4.9
104 Rf rutherfordium
use580
WEL
CRC6.0

Notes

Related Research Articles

The molecular mass (m) is the mass of a given molecule. The unit dalton (Da) is often used. Different molecules of the same compound may have different molecular masses because they contain different isotopes of an element. The derived quantity relative molecular mass is the unitless ratio of the mass of a molecule to the atomic mass constant (which is equal to one dalton).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Avogadro constant</span> Fundamental metric system constant defined as the number of particles per mole

The Avogadro constant, commonly denoted NA or L, is an SI defining constant with an exact value of 6.02214076×1023 mol−1 (reciprocal moles). It is defined as the number of constituent particles (usually molecules, atoms, ions, or ion pairs) per mole (SI unit) and used as a normalization factor in the amount of substance in a sample. In the SI dimensional analysis of measurement units, the dimension of the Avogadro constant is the reciprocal of amount of substance, denoted N−1. The Avogadro number, sometimes denoted N0, is the numeric value of the Avogadro constant (i.e., without a unit), namely the dimensionless number 6.02214076×1023; the value chosen based on the number of atoms in 12 grams of carbon-12 in alignment with the historical definition of a mole. The constant is named after the Italian physicist and chemist Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856).

The dalton or unified atomic mass unit is a unit of mass defined as 1/12 of the mass of an unbound neutral atom of carbon-12 in its nuclear and electronic ground state and at rest. It is a non-SI unit accepted for use with SI. The atomic mass constant, denoted mu, is defined identically, giving mu = 1/12m(12C) = 1 Da.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ionization</span> Process by which atoms or molecules acquire charge by gaining or losing electrons

Ionization is the process by which an atom or a molecule acquires a negative or positive charge by gaining or losing electrons, often in conjunction with other chemical changes. The resulting electrically charged atom or molecule is called an ion. Ionization can result from the loss of an electron after collisions with subatomic particles, collisions with other atoms, molecules, electrons, positrons, protons, antiprotons and ions, or through the interaction with electromagnetic radiation. Heterolytic bond cleavage and heterolytic substitution reactions can result in the formation of ion pairs. Ionization can occur through radioactive decay by the internal conversion process, in which an excited nucleus transfers its energy to one of the inner-shell electrons causing it to be ejected.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ionization energy</span> Energy needed to remove an electron

In physics and chemistry, ionization energy (IE) is the minimum energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron of an isolated gaseous atom, positive ion, or molecule. The first ionization energy is quantitatively expressed as

In spectroscopy, the Rydberg constant, symbol for heavy atoms or for hydrogen, named after the Swedish physicist Johannes Rydberg, is a physical constant relating to the electromagnetic spectra of an atom. The constant first arose as an empirical fitting parameter in the Rydberg formula for the hydrogen spectral series, but Niels Bohr later showed that its value could be calculated from more fundamental constants according to his model of the atom.

The Balmer series, or Balmer lines in atomic physics, is one of a set of six named series describing the spectral line emissions of the hydrogen atom. The Balmer series is calculated using the Balmer formula, an empirical equation discovered by Johann Balmer in 1885.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Photoionization</span> Ion formation via a photon interacting with a molecule or atom

Photoionization is the physical process in which an ion is formed from the interaction of a photon with an atom or molecule.

The molar heat capacity of a chemical substance is the amount of energy that must be added, in the form of heat, to one mole of the substance in order to cause an increase of one unit in its temperature. Alternatively, it is the heat capacity of a sample of the substance divided by the amount of substance of the sample; or also the specific heat capacity of the substance times its molar mass. The SI unit of molar heat capacity is joule per kelvin per mole, J⋅K−1⋅mol−1.

Spectroscopic notation provides a way to specify atomic ionization states, atomic orbitals, and molecular orbitals.

In chemistry, bond energy (BE) is one measure of the strength of a chemical bond. It is sometimes called the mean bond, bond enthalpy, average bond enthalpy, or bond strength. IUPAC defines bond energy as the average value of the gas-phase bond-dissociation energy for all bonds of the same type within the same chemical species.

These tables list values of molar ionization energies, measured in kJ⋅mol−1. This is the energy per mole necessary to remove electrons from gaseous atoms or atomic ions. The first molar ionization energy applies to the neutral atoms. The second, third, etc., molar ionization energy applies to the further removal of an electron from a singly, doubly, etc., charged ion. For ionization energies measured in the unit eV, see Ionization energies of the elements . All data from rutherfordium onwards is predicted.

This page shows the electron configurations of the neutral gaseous atoms in their ground states. For each atom the subshells are given first in concise form, then with all subshells written out, followed by the number of electrons per shell. For phosphorus as an example, the concise form is [Ne] 3s2 3p3. Here [Ne] refers to the core electrons which are the same as for the element neon (Ne), the last noble gas before phosphorus in the periodic table. The valence electrons are written explicitly for all atoms.

The Rydberg–Ritz combination principle is an empirical rule proposed by Walther Ritz in 1908 to describe the relationship of the spectral lines for all atoms, as a generalization of an earlier rule by Johannes Rydberg for the hydrogen atom and the alkali metals. The principle states that the spectral lines of any element include frequencies that are either the sum or the difference of the frequencies of two other lines. Lines of the spectra of elements could be predicted from existing lines. Since the frequency of light is proportional to the wavenumber or reciprocal wavelength, the principle can also be expressed in terms of wavenumbers which are the sum or difference of wavenumbers of two other lines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Characterization (materials science)</span> Study of material structure and properties

Characterization, when used in materials science, refers to the broad and general process by which a material's structure and properties are probed and measured. It is a fundamental process in the field of materials science, without which no scientific understanding of engineering materials could be ascertained. The scope of the term often differs; some definitions limit the term's use to techniques which study the microscopic structure and properties of materials, while others use the term to refer to any materials analysis process including macroscopic techniques such as mechanical testing, thermal analysis and density calculation. The scale of the structures observed in materials characterization ranges from angstroms, such as in the imaging of individual atoms and chemical bonds, up to centimeters, such as in the imaging of coarse grain structures in metals.

This page deals with the electron affinity as a property of isolated atoms or molecules. Solid state electron affinities are not listed here.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atomic clock</span> Clock that monitors the resonant frequency of atoms

An atomic clock is a clock that measures time by monitoring the resonant frequency of atoms. It is based on atoms having different energy levels. Electron states in an atom are associated with different energy levels, and in transitions between such states they interact with a very specific frequency of electromagnetic radiation. This phenomenon serves as the basis for the International System of Units' (SI) definition of a second:

The second, symbol s, is the SI unit of time. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the caesium frequency, , the unperturbed ground-state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium-133 atom, to be 9192631770 when expressed in the unit Hz, which is equal to s−1.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Philip H. Bucksbaum</span> American atomic physicist

Philip H. Bucksbaum is an American atomic physicist, the Marguerite Blake Wilbur Professor in Natural Science in the Departments of Physics, Applied Physics, and Photon Science at Stanford University and the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory. He also directs the Stanford PULSE Institute.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">William Clyde Martin Jr.</span>

William Clyde Martin Jr. was an American physicist. After receiving his Ph.D. degree from Princeton University in 1956, he joined the staff of the National Bureau of Standards, where he was employed until his retirement in 1998. As Chief of the NBS Atomic Spectroscopy Section from 1962 to 1998, he led the development of its reference data resources on the spectra of rare-earth elements, substantially increased its coverage of highly excited and ionized species, and pioneered the publication of NIST Standard Reference Data on the internet.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Helium dimer</span> Chemical compound

The helium dimer is a van der Waals molecule with formula He2 consisting of two helium atoms. This chemical is the largest diatomic molecule—a molecule consisting of two atoms bonded together. The bond that holds this dimer together is so weak that it will break if the molecule rotates, or vibrates too much. It can only exist at very low cryogenic temperatures.

References

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WEL (Webelements)

As quoted at http://www.webelements.com/ from these sources:

See also