Electron affinity (data page)

This page deals with the electron affinity as a property of isolated atoms or molecules (i.e. in the gas phase). Solid state electron affinities are not listed here.

Elements

Electron affinity can be defined in two equivalent ways. First, as the energy that is released by adding an electron to an isolated gaseous atom. The second (reverse) definition is that electron affinity is the energy required to remove an electron from a singly charged gaseous negative ion. The latter can be regarded as the ionization energy of the –1 ion or the zeroth ionization energy. ^[1] Either convention can be used. ^[2]

Negative electron affinities can be used in those cases where electron capture requires energy, i.e. when capture can occur only if the impinging electron has a kinetic energy large enough to excite a resonance of the atom-plus-electron system. Conversely electron removal from the anion formed in this way releases energy, which is carried out by the freed electron as kinetic energy. Negative ions formed in these cases are always unstable. They may have lifetimes of the order of microseconds to milliseconds, and invariably autodetach after some time.

Z	Element	Name	Electron affinity (eV)	Electron affinity (kJ/mol)	References
1	1H	Hydrogen	0.754 195(19)	72.769(2)	[3]
1	2H	Deuterium	0.754 67(4)	72.814(4)	[4]
2	He	Helium	−0.5(2)	−48(20)	est. [5]
3	Li	Lithium	0.618 049(22)	59.632 6(21)	[6]
4	Be	Beryllium	−0.5(2)	−48(20)	est. [5]
5	B	Boron	0.279 723(25)	26.989(3)	[7]
6	12C	Carbon	1.262 122 6(11)	121.776 3(1)	[8]
6	13C	Carbon	1.262 113 6(12)	121.775 5(2)	[8]
7	N	Nitrogen	−0.07	−6.8	[5]
8	16O	Oxygen	1.461 112 97(9)	140.975 970(9)	[9]
8	17O	Oxygen	1.461 108(4)	140.975 5(3)	[10]
8	18O	Oxygen	1.461 105(3)	140.975 2(3)	[10]
9	F	Fluorine	3.401 189 8(24)	328.164 9(3)	[11] [12]
10	Ne	Neon	−1.2(2)	−116(19)	est. [5]
11	Na	Sodium	0.547 926(25)	52.867(3)	[13]
12	Mg	Magnesium	−0.4(2)	−40(19)	est. [5]
13	Al	Aluminium	0.432 83(5)	41.762(5)	[14]
14	Si	Silicon	1.389 521 2(8)	134.068 4(1)	[15]
15	P	Phosphorus	0.746 609(11)	72.037(1)	[16]
16	32S	Sulfur	2.077 104 2(6)	200.410 1(1)	[15]
16	34S	Sulfur	2.077 104 5(12)	200.410 1(2)	[17]
17	Cl	Chlorine	3.612 725(28)	348.575(3)	[18]
18	Ar	Argon	−1.0(2)	−96(20)	est. [5]
19	K	Potassium	0.501 459(13)	48.383(2)	[19]
20	Ca	Calcium	0.024 55(10)	2.37(1)	[20]
21	Sc	Scandium	0.179 380(23)	17.307 6(22)	[21]
22	Ti	Titanium	0.075 54(5)	7.289(5)	[22]
23	V	Vanadium	0.527 66(20)	50.911(20)	[23]
24	Cr	Chromium	0.675 928(27)	65.217 2(26)	[21]
25	Mn	Manganese	−0.5(2)	−50(19)	est. [5]
26	Fe	Iron	0.153 236(35)	14.785(4)	[24]
27	Co	Cobalt	0.662 255(47)	63.897 9(45)	[25]
28	Ni	Nickel	1.157 16(12)	111.65(2)	[26]
29	Cu	Copper	1.235 78(4)	119.235(4)	[27]
30	Zn	Zinc	−0.6(2)	−58(20)	est. [5]
31	Ga	Gallium	0.301 166(15)	29.058 1(15)	[28]
32	Ge	Germanium	1.232 676 4(13)	118.935 2(2)	[29]
33	As	Arsenic	0.804 8(2)	77.65(2)	[30]
34	Se	Selenium	2.020 604 7(12)	194.958 7(2)	[31]
35	Br	Bromine	3.363 588(3)	324.536 9(3)	[11]
36	Kr	Krypton	−1.0(2)	−96(20)	est. [5]
37	Rb	Rubidium	0.485 916(21)	46.884(3)	[32]
38	Sr	Strontium	0.052 06(6)	5.023(6)	[33]
39	Y	Yttrium	0.311 29(22)	30.035(21)	[21]
40	Zr	Zirconium	0.433 28(9)	41.806(9)	[34]
41	Nb	Niobium	0.917 40(7)	88.516(7)	[35]
42	Mo	Molybdenum	0.747 23(8)	72.097(8)	[21]
43	Tc	Technetium	0.55(20)	53(20)	est. [36]
44	Ru	Ruthenium	1.046 27(2)	100.950(3)	[21]
45	Rh	Rhodium	1.142 89(20)	110.27(2)	[26]
46	Pd	Palladium	0.562 14(12)	54.24(2)	[26]
47	Ag	Silver	1.304 47(3)	125.862(3)	[27]
48	Cd	Cadmium	−0.7(2)	−68(20)	est. [5]
49	In	Indium	0.383 92(6)	37.043(6)	[37]
50	Sn	Tin	1.112 070(2)	107.298 4(3)	[38]
51	Sb	Antimony	1.047 401(19)	101.059(2)	[39]
52	Te	Tellurium	1.970 875(7)	190.161(1)	[40]
53	127I	Iodine	3.059 046 5(37)	295.153 1(4)	[41]
53	128I	Iodine	3.059 052(38)	295.154(4)	[42]
54	Xe	Xenon	−0.8(2)	−77(20)	est. [5]
55	Cs	Caesium	0.4715983(38)	45.5023(4)	[43]
56	Ba	Barium	0.144 62(6)	13.954(6)	[44]
57	La	Lanthanum	0.557 546(20)	53.795(2)	[45]
58	Ce	Cerium	0.600 160(27)	57.906 7(26)	[46]
59	Pr	Praseodymium	0.109 23(46)	10.539(45)	[47]
60	Nd	Neodymium	0.097 49(33)	9.406(32)	[47]
61	Pm	Promethium	0.129	12.45	[48]
62	Sm	Samarium	0.162	15.63	[48]
63	Eu	Europium	0.116(13)	11.2(13)	[49]
64	Gd	Gadolinium	0.212(30)	20.5(29)	[21]
65	Tb	Terbium	0.131 31(80)	12.670(77)	[47]
66	Dy	Dysprosium	0.015(3)	1.45(30)	[50]
67	Ho	Holmium	0.338	32.61	[48]
68	Er	Erbium	0.312	30.10	[48]
69	Tm	Thulium	1.029(22)	99(3)	[51]
70	Yb	Ytterbium	−0.02	−1.93	est. [36]
71	Lu	Lutetium	0.238 8(7)	23.04(7)	[52]
72	Hf	Hafnium	0.178 0(7)	17.18(7)	[53]
73	Ta	Tantalum	0.328 859(23)	31.730 1(22)	[21]
74	W	Tungsten	0.816 26(8)	78.76(1)	[54]
75	Re	Rhenium	0.060 396(64)	5.827 3(62)	[55]
76	Os	Osmium	1.077 661(24)	103.978 5(24)	[21]
77	Ir	Iridium	1.564 057(12)	150.908 6(12)	[56]
78	Pt	Platinum	2.125 10(5)	205.041(5)	[57]
79	Au	Gold	2.308 610(25)	222.747(3)	[58]
80	Hg	Mercury	−0.5(2)	−48(20)	est. [5]
81	Tl	Thallium	0.320 053(19)	30.880 4(19)	[59]
82	Pb	Lead	0.356 721(2)	34.418 3(3)	[60]
83	Bi	Bismuth	0.942 362(13)	90.924(2)	[61]
84	Po	Polonium	1.40(7)	136(7)	calc. [62]
85	At	Astatine	2.415 78(7)	233.087(8)	[63]
86	Rn	Radon	−0.7(2)	−68(20)	est. [5]
87	Fr	Francium	0.486	46.89	est. [64] [36]
88	Ra	Radium	0.10	9.648 5	est. [65] [36]
89	Ac	Actinium	0.35	33.77	est. [36]
90	Th	Thorium	0.607 69(6)	58.633(6)	[66]
91	Pa	Protactinium	0.55	53.03	est. [67]
92	U	Uranium	0.314 97(9)	30.390(9)	[68]
93	Np	Neptunium	0.48	45.85	est. [67]
94	Pu	Plutonium	−0.50	−48.33	est. [67]
95	Am	Americium	0.10	9.93	est. [67]
96	Cm	Curium	0.28	27.17	est. [67]
97	Bk	Berkelium	−1.72	−165.24	est. [67]
98	Cf	Californium	−1.01	−97.31	est. [67]
99	Es	Einsteinium	−0.30	−28.60	est. [67]
100	Fm	Fermium	0.35	33.96	est. [67]
101	Md	Mendelevium	0.98	93.91	est. [67]
102	No	Nobelium	−2.33	−223.22	est. [67]
103	Lr	Lawrencium	−0.31	−30.04	est. [67]
111	Rg	Roentgenium	1.565	151.0	calc. [69]
113	Nh	Nihonium	0.69	66.6	calc. [70]
115	Mc	Moscovium	0.366	35.3	calc. [70]
116	Lv	Livermorium	0.776	74.9	calc. [70]
117	Ts	Tennessine	1.719	165.9	calc. [70]
118	Og	Oganesson	0.080(6)	7.72(58)	calc. [71]
119	Uue	Ununennium	0.662	63.87	calc. [64]
120	Ubn	Unbinilium	0.021	2.03	calc. [72]
121	Ubu	Unbiunium	0.57	55	calc. [36]

Molecules

The electron affinities E_ea of some molecules are given in the table below, from the lightest to the heaviest. Many more have been listed by Rienstra-Kiracofe et al. (2002). The electron affinities of the radicals OH and SH are the most precisely known of all molecular electron affinities.

Molecule	Name	Eea (eV)	Eea (kJ/mol)	References
Diatomics
16OH	Hydroxyl	1.827 6488(11)	176.3413(2)	Goldfarb et al. (2005)
16OD		1.825 53(4)	176.137(5)	Schulz et al. (1982)
C2	Dicarbon	3.269(6)	315.4(6)	Ervin & Lineberger (1991)
BO	Boron oxide	2.508(8)	242.0(8)	Wenthold et al. (1997)
NO	Nitric oxide	0.026(5)	2.5(5)	Travers, Cowles & Ellison (1989)
O2	Dioxygen	0.450(2)	43.42(20)	Schiedt & Weinkauf (1995)
32SH	Sulfhydryl	2.314 7283(17)	223.3373(2)	Chaibi et al. (2006)
F2	Difluorine	3.08(10)	297(10)	Janousek & Brauman (1979)
Cl2	Dichlorine	2.35(8)	227(8)	Janousek & Brauman (1979)
Br2	Dibromine	2.53(8)	244(8)	Janousek & Brauman (1979)
I2	Diiodine	2.524(5)	243.5(5)	Zanni et al. (1997)
IBr	Iodine monobromide	2.512(3)	242.4(4)	Sheps, Miller & Lineberger (2009)
LiCl	Lithium chloride	0.593(10)	57.2(10)	Miller et al. (1986)
FeO	Iron(II) oxide	1.4950(5)	144.25(6)	Kim, Weichman & Neumark (2015)
CN	Cyano radical	3.862(4)		[73]
Triatomics
NO2	Nitrogen dioxide	2.273(5)	219.3(5)	Ervin, Ho & Lineberger (1988)
O3	Ozone	2.1028(25)	202.89(25)	Novick et al. (1979)
SO2	Sulfur dioxide	1.107(8)	106.8(8)	Nimlos & Ellison (1986)
Larger polyatomics
CH2CHO	Vinyloxy	1.8248(+2-6)	176.07(+3-7)	Rienstra-Kiracofe et al. (2002) after Mead et al. (1984)
C6H6	Benzene	−0.70(14)	−68(14)	Ruoff et al. (1995)
C6H4O2	p-Benzoquinone	1.860(5)	179.5(6)	Schiedt & Weinkauf (1999)
BF3	Boron trifluoride	2.65(10)	256(10)	Page & Goode (1969)
HNO3	Nitric acid	0.57(15)	55(14)	Janousek & Brauman (1979)
CH3NO2	Nitromethane	0.172(6)	16.6(6)	Adams et al. (2009)
POCl3	Phosphoryl chloride	1.41(20)	136(20)	Mathur et al. (1976)
SF6	Sulfur hexafluoride	1.03(5)	99.4(49)	Troe, Miller & Viggiano (2012)
C2(CN)4	Tetracyanoethylene	3.17(20)	306(20)	Chowdhury & Kebarle (1986)
WF6	Tungsten hexafluoride	3.5(1)	338(10)	George & Beauchamp (1979)
UF6	Uranium hexafluoride	5.06(20)	488(20)	NIST chemistry webbook after Borshchevskii et al. (1988)
C60	Buckminsterfullerene	2.6835(6)	258.92(6)	Huang et al. (2014)

Second and third electron affinity

Z	Element	Name	Electron affinity (eV)	Electron affinity (kJ/mol)	References
7	N−	Nitrogen	-6.98	-673	[74]
7	N2−	Nitrogen	-11.09	-1070	[74]
8	O−	Oxygen	-7.71	-744	[74]
15	P−	Phosphorus	-4.85	-468	[74]
15	P2−	Phosphorus	-9.18	-886	[74]
16	S−	Sulfur	-4.73	-456	[74]
33	As−	Arsenic	-4.51	-435	[74]
33	As2−	Arsenic	-8.31	-802	[74]
34	Se−	Selenium	-4.25	-410	[74]

Bibliography

• Janousek, Bruce K.; Brauman, John I. (1979), "Electron affinities", in Bowers, M. T. (ed.), Gas Phase Ion Chemistry, vol. 2, New York: Academic Press, p. 53.
• Rienstra-Kiracofe, J.C.; Tschumper, G.S.; Schaefer, H.F.; Nandi, S.; Ellison, G.B. (2002), "Atomic and molecular electron affinities: Photoelectron experiments and theoretical computations", Chem. Rev., vol. 102, no. 1, pp. 231–282, doi:10.1021/cr990044u, PMID   11782134 .
• Updated values can be found in the NIST chemistry webbook for around three dozen elements and close to 400 compounds.

Specific molecules

• Adams, C.L.; Schneider, H.; Ervin, K.M.; Weber, J.M. (2009), "Low-energy photoelectron imaging spectroscopy of nitromethane anions: Electron affinity, vibrational features, anisotropies, and the dipole-bound state", J. Chem. Phys., 130 (7): 074307, Bibcode:2009JChPh.130g4307A, doi:10.1063/1.3076892, PMID   19239294
• Borshchevskii, A.Ya.; Boltalina, O.V.; Sorokin, I.D.; Sidorov, L.N. (1988), "Thermochemical quantities for gas-phase iron, uranium, and molybdenum fluorides, and their negative ions", J. Chem. Thermodyn., 20 (5): 523, doi:10.1016/0021-9614(88)90080-8
• Chaibi, W.; Delsart, C.; Drag, C.; Blondel, C. (2006), "High precision measurement of the ³²SH electron affinity by laser detachment microscopy", J. Mol. Spectrosc., 239 (1): 11, Bibcode:2006JMoSp.239...11C, doi:10.1016/j.jms.2006.05.012
• Chowdhury, S.; Kebarle, P. (1986), "Electron affinities of di- and tetracyanoethylene and cyanobenzenes based on measurements of gas-phase electron-transfer equilibria", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 108 (18): 5453, doi:10.1021/ja00278a014
• Ervin, K.M.; Ho, J.; Lineberger, W.C. (1988), "Ultraviolet photoelectron spectrum of nitrite anion", J. Phys. Chem., 92 (19): 5405, doi:10.1021/j100330a017
• Ervin, K.M.; Lineberger, W.C. (1991), "Photoelectron spectra of C⁻
  ₂ and C₂H⁻", J. Phys. Chem., 95 (3): 1167, doi:10.1021/j100156a026
• George, P.M.; Beauchamp, J.L. (1979), "The electron and fluoride affinities of tungsten hexafluoride by ion cyclotron resonance spectroscopy", Chem. Phys., 36 (3): 345, Bibcode:1979CP.....36..345G, doi:10.1016/0301-0104(79)85018-1
• Goldfarb, F.; Drag, C.; Chaibi, W.; Kröger, S.; Blondel, C.; Delsart, C. (2005), "Photodetachment microscopy of the P, Q, and R branches of the OH⁻(v=0) to OH(v=0) detachment threshold", J. Chem. Phys., 122 (1): 014308, Bibcode:2005JChPh.122a4308G, doi:10.1063/1.1824904, PMID   15638660
• Huang, Dao-Ling; Dau, Phuong Diem; Liu, Hong-Tao; Wang, Lai-Sheng (2014), "High-resolution photoelectron imaging of cold C⁻
  ₆₀ anions and accurate determination of the electron affinity of C₆₀", J. Chem. Phys., 140 (22): 224315, Bibcode:2014JChPh.140v4315H, doi:10.1063/1.4881421, PMID   24929396, S2CID   1061364
• Kim, J.B.; Weichman, M.L.; Neumark, D.M. (2015), "Low-lying states of FeO and FeO⁻ by slow photoelectron spectroscopy", Mol. Phys., 113 (15–16): 2105, Bibcode:2015MolPh.113.2105K, doi:10.1080/00268976.2015.1005706, S2CID   13868986
• Mathur, B.P.; Rothe, E.W.; Tang, S.Y.; Reck, G.P. (1976), "Negative ions from phosphorus halides due to cesium charge exchange", J. Chem. Phys., 65 (2): 565, Bibcode:1976JChPh..65..565M, doi:10.1063/1.433109
• Mead, R.D.; Lykke, K.R.; Lineberger, W.C.; Marks, J.; Brauman, J.I. (1984), "Spectroscopy and dynamics of the dipole-bound state of acetaldehyde enolate", J. Chem. Phys., 81 (11): 4883, Bibcode:1984JChPh..81.4883M, doi:10.1063/1.447515
• Miller, T.M.; Leopold, D.G.; Murray, K.K.; Lineberger, W.C. (1986), "Electron affinities of the alkali halides and the structure of their negative ions", J. Chem. Phys., 85 (5): 2368, Bibcode:1986JChPh..85.2368M, doi:10.1063/1.451091
• Nimlos, Mark R.; Ellison, G. Barney (1986), "Photoelectron spectroscopy of sulfur-containing anions (SO⁻
  ₂, S⁻
  ₃, and S₂O⁻)", J. Phys. Chem., 90 (12): 2574, doi:10.1021/j100403a007
• Novick, S.E.; Engelking, P.C.; Jones, P.L.; Futrell, J.H.; Lineberger, W.C. (1979), "Laser photoelectron, photodetachment, and photodestruction spectra of O⁻
  ₃", J. Chem. Phys., 70 (6): 2652, Bibcode:1979JChPh..70.2652N, doi:10.1063/1.437842
• Page, F. M.; Goode, G. C. (1969), Negative ions and the magnetron, John Wiley & Sons ^[75]
• Ruoff, R.S.; Kadish, K.M.; Boulas, P.; Chen, E.C.M. (1995), "Relationship between the Electron Affinities and Half-Wave Reduction Potentials of Fullerenes, Aromatic Hydrocarbons, and Metal Complexes", J. Phys. Chem., 99 (21): 8843, doi:10.1021/j100021a060
• Schiedt, J.; Weinkauf, R. (1995), "Spin-orbit coupling in the O⁻
  ₂ anion", Z. Naturforsch. A, 50 (11): 1041, Bibcode:1995ZNatA..50.1041S, doi: 10.1515/zna-1995-1110 , S2CID   197275321
• Schiedt, J.; Weinkauf, R. (1999), "Resonant photodetachment via shape and Feshbach resonances: p-benzoquinone anions as a model system", J. Chem. Phys., 110 (1): 304, Bibcode:1999JChPh.110..304S, doi:10.1063/1.478066
• Schulz, P.A.; Mead, R.D.; Jones, P.L.; Lineberger, W.C. (1982), "OH⁻ and OD⁻ threshold photodetachment", J. Chem. Phys., 77 (3): 1153, Bibcode:1982JChPh..77.1153S, doi:10.1063/1.443980
• Sheps, L.; Miller, E.M.; Lineberger, W.C. (2009), "Photoelectron spectroscopy of small IBr⁻(CO₂)_n(n=0–3) cluster anions", J. Chem. Phys., 131 (6): 064304, Bibcode:2009JChPh.131f4304S, doi:10.1063/1.3200941, PMID   19691385
• Travers, M.J.; Cowles, D.C.; Ellison, G.B. (1989), "Reinvestigation of the electron affinities of O₂ and NO", Chem. Phys. Lett., 164 (5): 449, Bibcode:1989CPL...164..449T, doi:10.1016/0009-2614(89)85237-6
• Troe, J.; Miller, T.M.; Viggiano, A.A. (2012), "Communication:Revised electron affinity of SF₆ from kinetic data", J. Chem. Phys., 136 (2): 121102, Bibcode:2012JChPh.136l1102T, doi: 10.1063/1.3698170 , hdl: 11858/00-001M-0000-000F-A0CD-D , PMID   22462826
• Wenthold, P.G.; Kim, J.B.; Jonas, K.-L.; Lineberger, W.C. (1997), "An Experimental and Computational Study of the Electron Affinity of Boron Oxide", J. Phys. Chem. A, 101 (24): 4472, Bibcode:1997JPCA..101.4472W, CiteSeerX   10.1.1.497.1352 , doi:10.1021/jp970645u
• Zanni, M.T.; Taylor, T.R.; Greenblatt, B.J.; Soep, B.; Neumark, D.M. (1997), "Characterization of the I⁻
  ₂ anion ground state using conventional and femtosecond photoelectron spectroscopy", J. Chem. Phys., 107 (19): 7613, Bibcode:1997JChPh.107.7613Z, doi:10.1063/1.475110

References

1. Wulfsberg, G. P. (2018). Foundations of Inorganic Chemistry. California: University Science Books. p. 362. ISBN   978-1-891389-95-5.
2. IUPAC , Compendium of Chemical Terminology , 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) " Electron affinity ". doi : 10.1351/goldbook.E01977
3. Lykke, K.R.; Murray, K.K.; Lineberger, W.C. (1991). "Threshold Photodetachment of H⁻". Phys. Rev. A. 43 (11): 6104–7. Bibcode:1991PhRvA..43.6104L. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.43.6104. PMID   9904944.
4. Beyer M. & Merkt F. (2018). "Communication: Heavy-Rydberg states of HD and the electron affinity of the deuterium atom". J. Chem. Phys.149, 031102 doi:10.1063/1.5043186
5. Bratsch, S.G.; Lagowski, J.J. (1986). "Predicted stabilities of monatomic anions in water and liquid ammonia at 298.15 K.". Polyhedron. 5 (11): 1763–1770. doi:10.1016/S0277-5387(00)84854-8.
6. Haeffler, G.; Hanstorp, D.; Kiyan, I.; Klinkmüller, A.E.; Ljungblad, U.; Pegg, D.J. (1996). "Electron affinity of Li: A state-selective measurement". Phys. Rev. A. 53 (6): 4127–31. arXiv: physics/9703013 . Bibcode:1996PhRvA..53.4127H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.53.4127. PMID   9913377. S2CID   568882.
7. Scheer, M.; Bilodeau, R.C.; Haugen, H.K. (1998). "Negative ion of boron: An experimental study of the ³P ground state". Phys. Rev. Lett. 80 (12): 2562–65. Bibcode:1998PhRvL..80.2562S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.80.2562.
8. Bresteau, D.; Drag, C.; Blondel, C. (2016). "Isotope shift of the electron affinity of carbon measured by photodetachment microscopy". Phys. Rev. A. 93 (1): 013414. Bibcode:2016PhRvA..93a3414B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.93.013414.
9. Kristiansson, M.K.; Chartkunchand, K.; Eklund, G.; et al. (2022). "High-precision electron affinity of oxygen". Nat Commun. 13 (1): 5906. Bibcode:2022NatCo..13.5906K. doi: 10.1038/s41467-022-33438-y . PMC   9546871 . PMID   36207329.
10. Blondel, C.; Delsart, C.; Valli, C.; Yiou, S.; Godefroid, M.R.; Van Eck, S. (2001). "Electron affinities of ¹⁶ O, ¹⁷ O, ¹⁸ O, the fine structure of ¹⁶O⁻, and the hyperfine structure of ¹⁷O⁻". Phys. Rev. A. 64 (5): 052504. Bibcode:2001PhRvA..64e2504B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.64.052504.
11. Blondel, C.; Cacciani, P.; Delsart, C.; Trainham, R. (1989). "High Resolution Determination of the Electron Affinity of Fluorine and Bromine using Crossed Ion and Laser Beams". Phys. Rev. A. 40 (7): 3698–3701. Bibcode:1989PhRvA..40.3698B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.40.3698. PMID   9902584.
12. Blondel, C.; Delsart, C.; Goldfarb, F. (2001). "Electron spectrometry at the μeV level and the electron affinities of Si and F". Journal of Physics B . 34: L281–88. doi:10.1088/0953-4075/34/9/101. S2CID   250875182.
13. Hotop, H.; Lineberger, W.C. (1985). "Binding energies in atomic negative ions. II". J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data. 14 (3): 731. Bibcode:1985JPCRD..14..731H. doi:10.1063/1.555735.
14. Scheer, M.; Bilodeau, R.C.; Thøgersen, J.; Haugen, H.K. (1998). "Threshold Photodetachment of Al⁻: Electron Affinity and Fine Structure". Phys. Rev. A. 57 (3): R1493–96. Bibcode:1998PhRvA..57.1493S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.57.R1493.
15. Chaibi, W.; Peláez, R.J.; Blondel, C.; Drag, C.; Delsart, C. (2010). "Effect of a magnetic field in photodetachment microscopy". Eur. Phys. J. D . 58 (1): 29. Bibcode:2010EPJD...58...29C. doi:10.1140/epjd/e2010-00086-7. S2CID   17677037.
16. Peláez, R.J.; Blondel, C.; Vandevraye, M.; Drag, C.; Delsart, C. (2011). "Photodetachment microscopy to an excited spectral term and the electron affinity of phosphorus". J. Phys. B: At. Mol. Opt. Phys. 44 (19): 195009. Bibcode:2011JPhB...44s5009P. doi:10.1088/0953-4075/44/19/195009. hdl: 10261/62382 . S2CID   12279331.
17. Carette, T.; Drag, C.; Scharf, O.; Blondel, C.; Delsart, C.; Fischer, C. (2000). "F. & Godefroid M. (2010). Isotope shift in the sulfur electron affinity: Observation and theory". Phys. Rev. A. 81: 042522. arXiv: 1002.1297 . doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.81.042522. S2CID   54056163.
18. Berzinsh, U.; Gustafsson, M.; Hanstorp, D.; Klinkmüller, A.; Ljungblad, U.; Martensson-Pendrill, A.M. (1995). "Isotope shift in the electron affinity of chlorine". Phys. Rev. A. 51 (1): 231–238. arXiv: physics/9804028 . Bibcode:1995PhRvA..51..231B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.51.231. PMID   9911578. S2CID   3225884.
19. Andersson, K.T.; Sandstrom, J.; Kiyan, I.Y.; Hanstorp, D.; Pegg, D.J. (2000). "Measurement of the electron affinity of potassium". Phys. Rev. A. 62 (2): 022503. Bibcode:2000PhRvA..62b2503A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.62.022503.
20. Petrunin, V.V.; Andersen, H.H.; Balling, P.; Andersen, T. (1996). "Structural Properties of the Negative Calcium Ion: Binding Energies and Fine-structure Splitting". Phys. Rev. Lett. 76 (5): 744–47. Bibcode:1996PhRvL..76..744P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.76.744. PMID   10061539.
21. Ning, Chuangang; Lu, Yuzhu (2022). "Electron Affinities of Atoms and Structures of Atomic Negative Ions". J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data. 51 (2): 021502. Bibcode:2022JPCRD..51b1502N. doi:10.1063/5.0080243. S2CID   248844032.
22. Tang, R.; Fu, X.; Ning, C. (2018). "Accurate electron affinity of Ti and fine structures of its anions". J. Chem. Phys. 149 (13): 134304. Bibcode:2018JChPh.149m4304T. doi:10.1063/1.5049629. PMID   30292212. S2CID   52934687.
23. Fu, X.; Luo, Z.; Chen, X.; Li, J.; Ning, C. (2016). "Accurate electron affinity of V and fine-structure splittings of V⁻ via slow-electron velocity-map imaging". J. Chem. Phys. 145 (16): 164307. Bibcode:2016JChPh.145p4307F. doi:10.1063/1.4965928. PMID   27802620.
24. Chen, X.; Luo, Z.; Li, J.; Ning, C. (2016). "Accurate Electron Affinity of Iron and Fine Structures of Negative Iron ions". Sci. Rep. 6: 24996. Bibcode:2016NatSR...624996C. doi: 10.1038/srep24996 . PMC   4853736 . PMID   27138292.
25. Chen, X.; Ning, C. (2016). "Accurate electron affinity of Co and fine-structure splittings of Co⁻ via slow-electron velocity-map imaging". Phys. Rev. A. 93 (5): 052508. Bibcode:2016PhRvA..93e2508C. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.93.052508.
26. Scheer, M.; Brodie, C.A.; Bilodeau, R.C.; Haugen, H.K. (1998). "Laser spectroscopic measurements of binding energies and fine-structure splittings of Co⁻, Ni⁻, Rh⁻, and Pd⁻". Phys. Rev. A. 58 (3): 2051–62. Bibcode:1998PhRvA..58.2051S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.58.2051.
27. Bilodeau, R.C.; Scheer, M.; Haugen, H.K. (1998). "Infrared Laser Photodetachment of Transition Metal Negative Ions: Studies on Cr⁻, Mo⁻, Cu⁻, and Ag⁻". Journal of Physics B . 31: 3885–91. doi:10.1088/0953-4075/31/17/013. S2CID   250869727.
28. Tang, R.; Fu, X.; Lu, Y.; Ning, C. (2020). "Accurate electron affinity of Ga and fine structures of its anions". J. Chem. Phys. 152 (11): 114303. Bibcode:2020JChPh.152k4303T. doi:10.1063/1.5144962. PMID   32199425. S2CID   214617280.
29. Bresteau, D.; Babilotte, Ph.; Drag, C.; Blondel, C. (2015). "Intra-cavity photodetachment microscopy and the electron affinity of germanium". J. Phys. B: At. Mol. Opt. Phys. 48 (12): 125001. Bibcode:2015JPhB...48l5001B. doi:10.1088/0953-4075/48/12/125001.
30. Walter, C. W.; Gibson, N. D.; Field, R. L.; Snedden, A. P.; Shapiro, J. Z.; Janczak, C. M.; Hanstorp, D. (2009). "Electron affinity of arsenic and the fine structure of As⁻ measured using infrared photodetachment threshold spectroscopy". Phys. Rev. A. 80 (1): 014501. Bibcode:2009PhRvA..80a4501W. doi:10.1103/physreva.80.014501.
31. Vandevraye, M.; Drag, C.; Blondel, C. (2012). "Electron affinity of selenium measured by photodetachment microscopy". Phys. Rev. A. 85 (1): 015401. Bibcode:2012PhRvA..85a5401V. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.85.015401.
32. Frey, P.; Breyer, F.; Hotop, H. (1978). "High Resolution Photodetachment from the Rubidium Negative Ion around the Rb(5p_1/2) Threshold. Journal of Physics BJ. Phys. B: At. Mol. Phys". Chinese Journal of Chemical Physics. 11: L589–94. doi:10.1088/0022-3700/11/19/005.
33. Andersen, H.H.; Petrunin, V.V.; Kristensen, P.; Andersen, T. (1997). "Structural properties of the negative strontium ion: Binding energy and fine-structure splitting". Phys. Rev. A. 55 (4): 3247–49. Bibcode:1997PhRvA..55.3247A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.55.3247.
34. Fu, X.; Li, J.; Luo, Z.; Chen, X.; Ning, C. (2017). "Precision measurement of electron affinity of Zr and fine structures of its negative ions. Journal of Chemical Physics J. Chem. Phys". The Journal of Chemical Physics. 147 (6): 064306. doi:10.1063/1.4986547. PMID   28810756.
35. Luo Z., Chen X., Li J. & Ning C. (2016). Precision measurement of the electron affinity of niobium. Phys. Rev. A93, 020501(R) doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.93.020501
36. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 92nd Edn. (2011–2012); W. M. Haynes. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. "Section 10, Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics; Electron Affinities".
37. Walter, C.W.; Gibson, N.D.; Carman, D.J.; Li, Y.-G.; Matyas, D.J. (2010). "Electron affinity of indium and the fine structure of In⁻ measured using infrared photodetachment threshold spectroscopy". Phys. Rev. A. 82 (3): 032507. Bibcode:2010PhRvA..82c2507W. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.82.032507.
38. Vandevraye, M.; Drag, C.; Blondel, C. (2013). "Electron affinity of tin measured by photodetachment microscopy". Journal of Physics B: Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics. 46 (12): 125002. Bibcode:2013JPhB...46l5002V. doi:10.1088/0953-4075/46/12/125002. S2CID   121556183.
39. Scheer, M.; Haugen, H.K.; Beck, D.R. (1997). "Single- and Multiphoton Infrared Laser Spectroscopy of Sb⁻: A Case Study". Phys. Rev. Lett. 79 (21): 4104–7. Bibcode:1997PhRvL..79.4104S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.79.4104.
40. Haeffler, G.; Klinkmüller, A.E.; Rangell, J.; Berzinsh, U.; Hanstorp, D. (1996). "The electron affinity of tellurium". Z. Phys. D. 38 (3): 211. arXiv: physics/9703012 . Bibcode:1996ZPhyD..38..211H. doi:10.1007/s004600050085. S2CID   10789594.
41. Peláez, R.J.; Blondel, C.; Delsart, C.; Drag, C. (2009). "Pulsed photodetachment microscopy and the electron affinity of iodine". J. Phys. B. 42 (12): 125001. Bibcode:2009JPhB...42l5001P. doi:10.1088/0953-4075/42/12/125001. S2CID   123302487.
42. Rothe, S.; Sundberg, J.; Welander, J.; Chrysalidis, K.; Goodacre, T. (2017). "D., Fedosseev V., ... & Kron T. (2017). Laser photodetachment of radioactive ¹²⁸I⁻". J. Phys. G: Nucl. Part. Phys. 44: 104003. doi: 10.1088/1361-6471/aa80aa .
43. Navarro Navarrete, José E.; Nichols, Miranda; Ringvall-Moberg, Annie; Welander, Jakob; Lu, Di; Leimbach, David; Kristiansson, Moa K.; Eklund, Gustav; Raveesh, Meena; Chulkov, Ruslan; Zhaunerchyk, Vitali; Hanstorp, Dag (2024-02-21). "High-resolution measurement of the electron affinity of cesium". Physical Review A. 109 (2). doi: 10.1103/PhysRevA.109.022812 . ISSN   2469-9926.
44. Petrunin, V.V.; Volstad, J.D.; Balling, P.; Kristensen, K.; Andersen, T. (1995). "Resonant Ionization Spectroscopy of Ba⁻: Metastable and Stable Ions". Phys. Rev. Lett. 75 (10): 1911–14. Bibcode:1995PhRvL..75.1911P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.75.1911. PMID   10059160.
45. Blondel, C. (2020). "Comment on "Measurement of the electron affinity of the lanthanum atom"" (PDF). Phys. Rev. A. 101 (1): 016501. Bibcode:2020PhRvA.101a6501B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.101.016501. S2CID   213221561.
46. Fu, X.-X.; Tang, R.-L.; Lu, Y.-Z.; Ning, C.-G. (2020). "Accurate electron affinity of atomic cerium and excited states of its anion". Chin. Phys. B. 29 (7): 073201. Bibcode:2020ChPhB..29g3201F. doi:10.1088/1674-1056/ab90e9. S2CID   250763618.
47. Fu, X.; Lu, Y.; Tang, R.; Ning, C. (2020). "Electron affinity measurements of lanthanide atoms: Pr, Nd, and Tb". Phys. Rev. A. 101 (2): 022502. Bibcode:2020PhRvA.101b2502F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.101.022502. S2CID   213030610.
48. Felfli, Z.; Msezane, A.; Sokolovski, D. (2009). "Resonances in low-energy electron elastic cross sections for lanthanide atoms". Phys. Rev. A. 79 (1): 012714. Bibcode:2009PhRvA..79a2714F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.79.012714.
49. Cheng, S.B.; Castleman, A. W. Jr (2015). "Direct experimental observation of weakly-bound character of the attached electron in europium anion". Sci. Rep. 5: 12414. Bibcode:2015NatSR...512414C. doi: 10.1038/srep12414 . PMC   4510523 . PMID   26198741.
50. Nadeau, M. J.; Garwan, M. A.; Zhao, X. L.; Litherland, A. E. (1997). "A negative ion survey; towards the completion of the periodic table of the negative ions". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B. 123 (1–4): 521–526. Bibcode:1997NIMPB.123..521N. doi:10.1016/S0168-583X(96)00749-5.
51. Davis, V.T.; Thompson, J.S. (2001). "Measurement of the electron affinity of thulium". Phys. Rev. A. 65 (1): 010501. Bibcode:2001PhRvA..65a0501D. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.65.010501.
52. Fu, X.X.; Tang, R.L.; Lu, Y.Z.; Ning, C.G. (2019). "Measurement of electron affinity of atomic lutetium via the cryo-SEVI Method". Chinese Journal of Chemical Physics. 32 (2): 187. Bibcode:2019ChJCP..32..187F. doi:10.1063/1674-0068/cjcp1812293. S2CID   165042639.
53. Tang R., Chen X., Fu X., Wang H. and Ning C. (2018). Electron affinity of the hafnium atom. Phys. Rev. A98 020501(R) doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.98.020501.
54. Lindahl, A.O.; et al. (2010). "The electron affinity of tungsten". Eur. Phys. J. D. 60 (2): 219. Bibcode:2010EPJD...60..219L. doi:10.1140/epjd/e2010-00199-y. S2CID   122176839.
55. Chen, X.L.; Ning, C.G. (2017). "Observation of Rhenium Anion and Electron Affinity of Re". J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 8 (12): 2735–2738. doi:10.1021/acs.jpclett.7b01079. PMID   28581753.
56. Lu Y., Zhao J., Tang R., Fu X. & Ning C. (2020). "Measurement of electron affinity of iridium atom and photoelectron angular distributions of iridium anion". J. Chem. Phys.152, 034302 doi:10.1063/1.5134535
57. Bilodeau, R.C.; Scheer, M.; Haugen, H.K.; Brooks, R.L. (1999). "Near-threshold Laser Spectroscopy of Iridium and Platinum Negative Ions: Electron Affinities and the Threshold Law". Phys. Rev. A. 61 (1): 012505. Bibcode:1999PhRvA..61a2505B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.61.012505.
58. Andersen, T.; Haugen, H.K.; Hotop, H. (1999). "Binding Energies in Atomic Negative Ions: III". J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data. 28 (6): 1511. Bibcode:1999JPCRD..28.1511A. doi:10.1063/1.556047.
59. Walter, C.W.; Gibson, N.D.; Spielman, S.E. (2020). "Electron affinity of thallium measured with threshold spectroscopy". Phys. Rev. A. 101 (5): 052511. Bibcode:2020PhRvA.101e2511W. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.101.052511. S2CID   219489520.
60. Bresteau, D.; Drag, C.; Blondel, C. (2019). "Electron affinity of lead". J. Phys. B: At. Mol. Opt. Phys. 52 (6): 065001. Bibcode:2019JPhB...52f5001B. doi:10.1088/1361-6455/aaf685. S2CID   125298267.
61. Bilodeau, R.C.; Haugen, H.K. (2001). "Electron affinity of Bi using infrared laser photodetachment threshold spectroscopy". Phys. Rev. A. 64 (2): 024501. Bibcode:2001PhRvA..64b4501B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.64.024501.
62. Junqin, Li; Zilong, Zhao; Martin, Andersson; Xuemei, Zhang; Chongyang, Chen (2012). "Theoretical study for the electron affinities of negative ions with the MCDHF method". J. Phys. B: At. Mol. Opt. Phys. 45 (16): 165004. Bibcode:2012JPhB...45p5004L. doi:10.1088/0953-4075/45/16/165004. S2CID   121023909.
63. Leimbach, D.; et al. (2020). "The electron affinity of astatine". Nat. Commun. 11 (1): 3824. arXiv: 2002.11418 . Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.3824L. doi: 10.1038/s41467-020-17599-2 . PMC   7393155 . PMID   32733029.
64. Landau, A.; Eliav, E.; Ishikawa, Y.; Kaldor, U. (2001). "Benchmark calculations of electron affinities of the alkali atoms sodium to eka-francium (element 119)". J. Chem. Phys. 115 (6): 2389. Bibcode:2001JChPh.115.2389L. doi:10.1063/1.1386413.
65. Andersen, T. (2004). "Atomic negative ions: Structure, dynamics and collisions". Physics Reports. 394 (4–5): 157–313. Bibcode:2004PhR...394..157A. doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2004.01.001.
66. Tang R., Si R., Fei Z., Fu X., Lu Y., Brage T., Liu H., Chen C. & Ning C. (2019). "Candidate for Laser Cooling of a Negative Ion: High-Resolution Photoelectron Imaging of Th⁻". Phys. Rev. Lett.123, 203002 doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.123.203002
67. Guo, Y.; Whitehead, M.A. (1989). "Electron affinities of alkaline-earth element calculated with the local-spin-density-functional theory". Physical Review A. 40 (1): 28–34. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.40.28. PMID   9901864.
68. Tang R., Lu Y., Liu H. & Ning C. (2021). "Electron affinity of uranium and bound states of opposite parity in its anion". Phys. Rev. A 103, L050801 doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.103.L050801
69. Eliav, Ephraim; Fritzsche, Stephan; Kaldor, Uzi (2015). "Electronic structure theory of the superheavy elements". Nucl. Phys. A. 944: 518–550. Bibcode:2015NuPhA.944..518E. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2015.06.017.
70. Borschevsky, Anastasia; Pershina, Valeria; Kaldor, Uzi; Eliav, Ephraim. "Fully relativistic ab initio studies of superheavy elements" (PDF). www.kernchemie.uni-mainz.de. Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 January 2018. Retrieved 15 January 2018.
71. Guo, Yangyang; Pašteka, Lukáš F.; Eliav, Ephraim; Borschevsky, Anastasia (2021). "Chapter 5: Ionization potentials and electron affinity of oganesson with relativistic coupled cluster method". In Musiał, Monika; Hoggan, Philip E. (eds.). Advances in Quantum Chemistry. Vol. 83. pp. 107–123. ISBN   978-0-12-823546-1.
72. Borschevsky, A.; Pershina, V.; Eliav, E.; Kaldor, U. (2013). "Ab initio predictions of atomic properties of element 120 and its lighter group-2 homologues". Phys. Rev. A. 87 (2): 022502–1–8. Bibcode:2013PhRvA..87b2502B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.87.022502.
73. Bradforth, Stephen E.; Kim, Eun Ha; Arnold, Don W.; Neumark, Daniel M. (1993-01-15). "Photoelectron spectroscopy of CN−, NCO−, and NCS−". The Journal of Chemical Physics. 98 (2). AIP Publishing: 800–810. doi:10.1063/1.464244. ISSN   0021-9606.
74. Rayner-Canham Appendix 5: Data summarised from, and see also, J. E. Huheey et al., Inorganic Chemistry, 4th ed. (New York: HarperCollins, 1993)
75. According to NIST as concerns Boron trifluoride, the Magnetron method, lacking mass analysis, is not considered reliable.