List of space programs of the United States

Last updated

The United States has developed many space programs since the beginning of the spaceflight era in the mid-20th century. The government runs space programs by three primary agencies: NASA for civil space; the United States Space Force for military space; and the National Reconnaissance Office for intelligence space. These entities have invested significant resources to advance technological approaches to meet objectives. In the late 1980s, commercial interests emerged in the space industry and have expanded dramatically, especially within the last 10 to 15 years.

Contents

NASA delivers the most visible elements of the U.S. space program. From crewed space exploration and the Apollo 11 landing on the Moon, to the Space Shuttle, International Space Station, Voyager, the Mars rovers, numerous space telescopes, and the Artemis program, NASA delivers on the civil space exploration mandate. NASA also cooperates with other U.S. civil agencies such as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to deliver space assets supporting the weather and civil remote sensing mandates of those organizations. In 2022, NASA's annual budget was approximately $24 billion.

The Department of Defense delivers the military space programs. In 2019, the U.S. Space Force started as the primary DoD agent for delivery of military space capability. [1] Systems such as the Global Positioning System, which is ubiquitous to users worldwide, was developed and is maintained by the DoD. [2] Missile warning, defense weather, military satellite communications, and space domain awareness also acquire significant annual investment. In 2023, the annual DoD budget request focused on space is $24.5 billion dollars. [3]

The Intelligence Community, through entities that include the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), invests significant resources in space. Surveillance and reconnaissance are the primary focuses of these entities.

Commercial space activity in the United States was facilitated by the passage of the Commercial Space Launch Act in October 1984. [4] [5] Commercial crewed program activity was spurred by the establishment of the $10 million Ansari X Prize in May 1996.

Definition of space flight

Space programs of the United States date to the start of the Space Age in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Programs involve both crewed systems and uncrewed satellites, probes and platforms to meet diverse program objectives.

From a definition perspective, the criteria for what constitutes spaceflight vary. In the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of 50 miles (80 km) are awarded astronaut wings. [6] The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale defines spaceflight as any flight over 62 miles (100 km). [7] This article follows the US definition of spaceflight. Similarly, for uncrewed missions, systems are required to travel above the same altitude thresholds.

Government-led programs

The following summarizes the major space programs where the United States government plays a leadership role in managing program delivery.

Crewed government-led programs

Uncrewed government-led programs

Commercial space programs

The following summarizes the major space programs where private interests play the leadership role in managing program delivery.

Crewed commercial programs

Uncrewed commercial programs

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ↑ Lockheed Martin sold its interest in ILS to Russian entities in 2006 with ILS continuing as an international entity. Atlas commercial sales reverted to Lockheed Martin via the United Launch Alliance joint venture with Boeing.
  2. ↑ Rocketlab was founded in New Zealand but made the decision to re-domicile itself to the United States in 2013.

Related Research Articles

Human spaceflight programs have been conducted, started, or planned by multiple countries and companies. Until the 21st century, human spaceflight programs were sponsored exclusively by governments, through either the military or civilian space agencies. With the launch of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of human spaceflight programs – commercial human spaceflight – arrived. By the end of 2022, three countries and one private company (SpaceX) had successfully launched humans to Earth orbit, and two private companies had launched humans on a suborbital trajectory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">SpaceX</span> American private spacecraft company

Space Exploration Technologies Corporation, commonly referred to as SpaceX, is an American spacecraft manufacturer, launch service provider and satellite communications company headquartered at the SpaceX Starbase near Brownsville, Texas after first being established in 2002 in Southern California, where it still has significant operations. The company was founded by Elon Musk with the goal of reducing space transportation costs by designing for reusability and ultimately developing a sustainable colony on Mars. SpaceX currently produces and operates the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy rockets along with the Dragon spacecraft.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atlas V</span> Expendable launch system

Atlas V is an expendable launch system and the fifth major version in the Atlas launch vehicle family. It was designed by Lockheed Martin and has been operated by United Launch Alliance (ULA) since 2006. It is used for DoD, NASA, and commercial payloads. It is America's longest-serving active rocket. After 87 launches, in August 2021 ULA announced that Atlas V would be retired, and all 29 remaining launches had been sold. As of July 2024, 15 launches remain. Production ceased in 2024. Other future ULA launches will use the Vulcan Centaur rocket.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United Launch Alliance</span> Joint venture of Lockheed Martin and Boeing

United Launch Alliance, LLC (ULA) is an American launch service provider formed in December 2006 as a joint venture between Lockheed Martin Space and Boeing Defense, Space & Security. The company designs, assembles, sells and launches rockets, but the company subcontracts out the production of rocket engines and solid rocket boosters.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cygnus (spacecraft)</span> Uncrewed cargo spacecraft developed by Orbital Sciences

Cygnus is an expendable American automated cargo spacecraft designed for International Space Station (ISS) resupply missions. Initially developed by Orbital Sciences Corporation with financial support from NASA under the Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) program. To create Cygnus, Orbital paired a pressurized cargo module, largely based on the Multi-Purpose Logistics Module, built by Thales Alenia Space and previously used by the Space Shuttle for ISS resupply, with a service module based on Orbital's GEOStar, a satellite bus. After a successful demonstration flight in 2013, Orbital was chosen to receive a Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) contract. A larger Enhanced Cygnus was introduced in 2015. Orbital Sciences was renamed Orbital ATK in 2015 and Northrop Grumman purchased Orbital in 2018 and has continued to operate Cygnus missions. A further enlarged Mission B Cygnus is expected to be introduced in 2025.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NASA</span> American space and aeronautics agency

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration is an independent agency of the U.S. federal government responsible for the civil space program, aeronautics research, and space research. Established in 1958, it succeeded the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) to give the U.S. space development effort a distinct civilian orientation, emphasizing peaceful applications in space science. It has since led most of America's space exploration programs, including Project Mercury, Project Gemini, the 1968–1972 Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station, and the Space Shuttle. Currently, NASA supports the International Space Station (ISS) along with the Commercial Crew Program, and oversees the development of the Orion spacecraft and the Space Launch System for the lunar Artemis program.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Falcon Heavy</span> SpaceX heavy-lift launch vehicle

Falcon Heavy is a heavy-lift launch vehicle with partial reusability that can carry cargo into Earth orbit, and beyond. It is designed, manufactured and launched by American aerospace company SpaceX.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2019 in spaceflight</span>

This article documents notable spaceflight events during the year 2019.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rocket Lab Electron</span> Two-stage small launch vehicle, 200-300 kg to LEO

Electron is a two-stage, partially reusable orbital launch vehicle developed by Rocket Lab, an American aerospace company with a wholly owned New Zealand subsidiary. Electron services the commercial small satellite launch market. It's the third most launched small-lift launch vehicle in history. Its Rutherford engines are the first electric-pump-fed engine to power an orbital-class rocket. Electron is often flown with a kickstage or Rocket Lab's Photon spacecraft. Although the rocket was designed to be expendable, Rocket Lab has recovered the first stage twice and is working towards the capability of reusing the booster. The Flight 26 (F26) booster has featured the first helicopter catch recovery attempt. Rocket Lab has, however, abandoned the idea of catching Electron.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Firefly Alpha</span> Two-stage operational orbital rocket, about 1,070 kg to LEO

Firefly Alpha is a two-stage orbital expendable small lift launch vehicle developed by the American company Firefly Aerospace to compete in the commercial small satellite launch market. Alpha is intended to provide launch options for both full vehicle and rideshare customers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2020s in spaceflight</span>

This article documents expected notable spaceflight events during the 2020s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2022 in spaceflight</span>

The year 2022 witnessed the number of launches of SpaceX's Falcon rocket family surpassing the CNSA's Long March rocket family, making the United States the country with the highest number of launches in 2022 instead of China. This year also featured the first successful launch of Long March 6A, Nuri, Angara 1.2, Vega C, Kinetica-1, and Jielong-3. National space agencies' activities in this year is also marred by the Russian invasion of Ukraine, leading to tension between Roscosmos and Western space agencies, threats of ending collaboration on the International Space Station (ISS), and delays on space missions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2026 in spaceflight</span>

This article documents expected notable spaceflight events during the year 2026.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2025 in spaceflight</span>

Spaceflight in 2025 promises to follow the 2020s trend of record breaking orbital launches and increased developments in lunar, Mars and low-earth orbit exploration.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2027 in spaceflight</span>

This article documents expected notable spaceflight events during the year 2027.

References

  1. ↑ Hennigan, W.J. (July 23, 2020). "America Really Does Have a Space Force. We Went Inside to See What It Does". Time. Retrieved September 22, 2022.
  2. ↑ Hambling, David (October 4, 2020). "What would the world do without GPS?". BBC. Retrieved September 22, 2022.
  3. ↑ Erwin, Sandra (March 28, 2022). "Biden's 2023 defense budget adds billions for U.S. Space Force". Space News. Retrieved September 22, 2022.
  4. ↑ "Chapter 509 — Commercial Space Launch Activities". United States Code ~ Office of the Law Revision Counsel. U.S. House of Representatives. Retrieved December 22, 2016.
  5. ↑ Reagan, Ronald W. (October 30, 1984). "Statement on Signing the Commercial Space Launch Act - October 30, 1984". Internet Archive. Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Service. p. 1688.
  6. ↑ Roulette, Joey (December 10, 2021). "Jeff Bezos Is Getting Astronaut Wings. But Soon, the F.A.A. Won't Award Them". New York Times. Retrieved September 16, 2022.
  7. ↑ Betz, Eric (March 5, 2021). "The Kármán Line: Where does space begin?". Astronomy.com. Retrieved September 17, 2022.
  8. ↑ Gibbs, Yvonne, ed. (February 28, 2014). "NASA Armstrong Fact Sheet: X-15 Hypersonic Research Program". NASA. Retrieved October 4, 2015. 4,520 mph (Mach 6.7 on Oct. 3, 1967,
  9. ↑ Jacopo Prisco (July 28, 2020). "X-15: The fastest manned rocket plane ever". CNN. Retrieved November 12, 2020.
  10. ↑ Alexander, C. C.; Grimwood, J. M.; Swenson, L. S. (1966). This New Ocean: a History of Project Mercury (PDF). US: NASA. ISBN   1934941875.
  11. ↑ Catchpole, John (2001). Project Mercury - NASA's First Manned Space Programme . Chichester, UK: Springer Praxis. ISBN   1-85233-406-1.
  12. ↑ Hacker, Barton C.; Grimwood, James M. (1977). On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini (PDF). NASA SP-4203. Washington, D.C.: National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
  13. ↑ Compton, William David (1989). Where no man has gone before : a history of Apollo lunar exploration missions. NASA history series. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration. OCLC   18223277. NASA SP-4214.
  14. ↑ Murray, Charles; Cox, Catherine Bly (1989). Apollo: The Race to the Moon. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN   0-671-61101-1. LCCN   89006333. OCLC   19589707.
  15. ↑ "Air Force to Develop Manned Orbiting Laboratory" (PDF) (Press release). Department of Defense. December 10, 1963. Retrieved April 9, 2020.
  16. ↑ "Timeline: Key dates in U.S. space shuttle program". Reuters. July 5, 2011. Retrieved September 17, 2022.
  17. ↑ "Shuttle–Mir History/Shuttle Flights and Mir Increments". NASA. Archived from the original on November 11, 2001. Retrieved March 30, 2007.
  18. ↑ Belew, L. F.; Stuhlinger, E. (January 1973). "EP-107 Skylab: A Guidebook. Chapter IV: Skylab Design and Operation". NASA History. Retrieved September 17, 2022.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  19. ↑ "Spacelab: Space Shuttle Flew Europe's First Space Module 30 Years Ago". Space.com. December 2, 2013.
  20. ↑ Edward Clinton Ezell; Linda Neuman Ezell (1978). "The Partnership: A History of the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project". NASA. Archived from the original on May 24, 2011. Retrieved May 4, 2011.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  21. ↑ Clark, Stephen (March 1, 2017). "NASA buys up to five more seats on future Soyuz missions". SpaceFlightNow. Retrieved September 24, 2022.
  22. ↑ Howell, Elizabeth (August 24, 2022). "International Space Station: Facts about the orbital laboratory". space.com. Retrieved September 17, 2022.
  23. ↑ Connolly, John F. (October 2006). "Constellation Program Overview" (PDF). NASA Constellation Program Office. Retrieved October 23, 2014.
  24. ↑ "President Barack Obama on Space Exploration in the 21st Century". Office of the Press Secretary. April 15, 2010. Archived from the original on July 19, 2012. Retrieved July 4, 2012.
  25. ↑ "Today – President Signs NASA 2010 Authorization Act". Universetoday.com. Archived from the original on February 5, 2021. Retrieved November 20, 2010.
  26. ↑ Bergin, Chris (February 23, 2012). "Acronyms to Ascent – SLS managers create development milestone roadmap". NASA. Archived from the original on April 30, 2012. Retrieved April 29, 2012.
  27. ↑ Mogg, Trevor (August 2, 2022). "NASA video reveals complexity of Lunar Gateway plan". Digital Trends. Retrieved September 16, 2022.
  28. ↑ Davis, Jason (June 11, 2019). "NASA's Artemis program will return astronauts to the moon and give us the first female moonwalker". NBC News. Retrieved September 17, 2022.
  29. ↑ Foust, Jeff (September 24, 2019). "NASA awards long-term Orion production contract to Lockheed Martin". Space News. Retrieved September 24, 2022.
  30. ↑ Sheetz, Michael (April 16, 2021). "Elon Musk's SpaceX beats Bezos' Blue Origin in NASA contest to build astronaut lunar lander". CNBC. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  31. ↑ Viking Sounding Rocket NASM
  32. ↑ Corliss, William (1971) NASA Sounding Rockets NASA SP-4401 pp23, 81
  33. ↑ Vanguard — A History, Chapter 1. Constance M. Green and Milton Lomask, NASA SP-4202. NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Office, NASA Headquarters, Washington, D.C. and http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4202/begin.html
  34. ↑ Project Farside NASM
  35. ↑ "Explorer Program". Planet4589.org. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved April 20, 2018.
  36. ↑ "Explorer Spacecraft Series". History.nasa.gov. Retrieved April 20, 2018.
  37. ↑ "The Pioneer Missions". NASA.gov. March 26, 2007. Retrieved September 17, 2022.
  38. ↑ United States; Central Intelligence Agency; Ruffner, Kevin Conley (1995). CORONA America's first satellite program. Center for the Study of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency. p. xiii. OCLC   42006243.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  39. ↑ Perry, Robert (1973) A History of Satellite Reconnaissance: Samos NRO
  40. ↑ TIROS WMO
  41. ↑ TIROS DARPA
  42. ↑ Transit DARPA
  43. ↑ Hall, R. C. (January 1977). "LUNAR IMPACT: A History of Project Ranger, Part I. The Original Ranger, Chapter Two - ORGANIZING THE CAMPAIGN". NASA History. NASA. Retrieved July 14, 2016.
  44. ↑ Dick, Steven J. "NASA's First 50 Years: Historical Perspectives" (PDF). history.nasa.gov. NASA. p. 12. Retrieved June 17, 2019.
  45. ↑ Hall, R. Cargill (July 1988). "Missile Defense Alarm: The Genesis of Space-based Early Warning" (PDF). NRO.gov. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  46. ↑ Erwin, Sandra (August 4, 2022). "ULA launches the last SBIRS U.S. Space Force missile warning satellite". Space News. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  47. ↑ Orbiting Solar Observatory LASP
  48. ↑ "Mariner to Mercury, Venus and Mars" (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 15, 2017. Retrieved October 19, 2020.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  49. ↑ "Centaur: America's Workhorse in Space". nasa.gov. December 12, 2012. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  50. ↑ Carney, Emily (October 8, 2015). "A deathblow to the Death Star: The rise and fall of NASA's Shuttle-Centaur". ARS Technica. Retrieved September 24, 2022.
  51. ↑ Corliss, William (1967) Scientific Satellites NASA SP-133 p714
  52. ↑ Cargill, R. Cargill (September 2001). "A History of the Military Polar Orbiting Meteorological Satellite Program" (PDF). Office of the Historian National Reconnaissance Office. Retrieved September 16, 2022.
  53. ↑ Byers, Bruce K. (April 1977). "DESTINATION MOON: A History of the Lunar Orbiter Program". NASA. Retrieved December 18, 2010.
  54. ↑ "GAMBIT 1 KH-7 Reconnaissance Satellite". National Museum of the United States Air Force. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  55. ↑ Clark, Stephen (September 19, 2011). "Spy agency pulls back cloak on secret Cold War satellites". SpaceFlightNow. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  56. ↑ "Gambit-1 Fact Sheet" (PDF). NRO.gov. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  57. ↑ Vela DARPA
  58. ↑ Nimbus WMO
  59. ↑ Application of Space Technology to Crustal Dynamics NASA Technical Paper 1464, 1979 p21
  60. ↑ Nichols, Robert (1974) Geodetic SECOR Satellite AD/A-002 625
  61. ↑ Stone, Irving (1970) USAF Experiments Support Air Force and Space Digest vol 53 AFA p27
  62. ↑ Corliss, William (1967) Scientific Satellites NASA SP-133 p769-776
  63. ↑ NASA Compendium of Satellite Communications Programs CSC 1975 pp169–224
  64. ↑ Orbiting Astronomical Observatories University of Chicago
  65. ↑ "GAMBIT 3 KH-8 Reconnaissance Satellite". National Museum of the United States Air Force. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  66. ↑ "Gambit-3 Fact Sheet" (PDF). NRO.gov. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  67. ↑ ATS NASA
  68. ↑ Singer, Jeremy (March 1, 2007). "Bandwidth Breakthrough". Air & Space Forces Magazine. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  69. ↑ "DSCS II". Astronautix.com. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  70. ↑ "DSCS III". Astronautix.com. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  71. ↑ "Hexagon Fact Sheet" (PDF). NRO.gov. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  72. ↑ The Past Present and Future of the DoD Space Test Program US Space Force
  73. ↑ "Landsat History". NASA. Retrieved July 5, 2021.
  74. ↑ Foust, Jeff (September 27, 2021). "Atlas 5 launches Landsat 9". Space News. Retrieved September 17, 2022.
  75. ↑ Vonbun, F. (1976) Earth and Ocean Dynamics Program GSFC X-900-76-39 p5
  76. ↑ National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on the Future of the Global Positioning System; National Academy of Public Administration (1995). The global positioning system: a shared national asset: recommendations for technical improvements and enhancements. National Academies Press. p. 16. ISBN   978-0-309-05283-2 . Retrieved August 16, 2013.
  77. ↑ "Space Segment". gps.gov. June 28, 2022. Retrieved September 16, 2022.
  78. ↑ Wulfeck, Andrew (February 28, 2022). "46 years of GOES: How a history of achievements has changed weather forecasting". FoxWeather.com. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  79. ↑ Williams, David R. Dr. (December 18, 2006). "Viking Mission to Mars". NASA . Retrieved February 2, 2014.
  80. ↑ "The Fantastic Voyage of Voyager". The Attic. January 9, 2020. Retrieved March 3, 2020.
  81. ↑ Wall, Mike (November 8, 2021). "New era of 'Great Observatories' may be coming for NASA". space.com. Retrieved September 16, 2022.
  82. ↑ HEAO NASA
  83. ↑ "POES History - Polar-orbiting Satellites: The First to be Launched". noaa.gov. Retrieved September 22, 2022.
  84. ↑ Foust, Jeff (May 30, 2018). "NOAA declares first JPSS weather satellite operational". Space News. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  85. ↑ "NASA's TDRS Era Began During Challenger's Maiden Voyage". NASA.gov. April 4, 2013. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  86. ↑ Ray, Justin (April 8, 2003). "Last Milstar successfully soars to orbital perch". Spaceflight Now. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  87. ↑ "Audit Report - Ultra High Frequency Follow-on Satellite" (PDF). Department of Defense. June 30, 1992. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  88. ↑ Spires, David (April 2022). Assured Access: A History of the US Air Force Space Launch Enterprise, 1947–2020 (PDF). Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Air University Press. p. 231-234. ISBN   9781585663118.
  89. ↑ "A Look Back at the Beginning: How the Discovery Program Came to Be" (PDF). NASA. 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 1, 2011.
  90. ↑ Evans, Ben (June 4, 2020). "Remembering the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory 20 Years after its death". Astronomy. Retrieved September 24, 2022.
  91. ↑ Chandra ESA eoPortal
  92. ↑ "Mars Exploration History". Mars Exploration Program. NASA. Retrieved October 18, 2012.
  93. ↑ Brown, Adrian. "MSL and the NASA Mars Exploration Program: Where we've been, where we're going". The Space Review. Retrieved October 24, 2012.
  94. ↑ Wind ESA eoPortal
  95. ↑ Brissett, Wilson (July 28, 2017). "Space Launch Competition". Air & Space Forces Magazine. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  96. ↑ Graham, William (June 20, 2012). "ULA Atlas V marks 50th EELV launch by lofting NROL-38 uphill". NASA Spaceflight. Retrieved September 24, 2022.
  97. ↑ Chandra, A. M. and Ghosh, S. K. (2006) Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System Alpha Science International p48-51
  98. ↑ Earth System Science Pathfinder NASA
  99. ↑ NASA (1999) EOS Reference Manual p15, 19, 22
  100. ↑ Taylor, Nola (February 1, 2018). "Earth Observing System: Monitoring the Planet's Climate". Space.com. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  101. ↑ Solar Terrestrial Probes program (STP) NASA
  102. ↑ Harbaugh, Jennifer (June 18, 2019). "New Frontiers Program". NASA. Retrieved August 31, 2020.
  103. ↑ TacSat-1 eoPortal.org
  104. ↑ University Nanosatellite Program
  105. ↑ David, Leonard (November 17, 2006). "U.S. Air Force Pushes For Orbital Test Vehicle". Space.com. Archived from the original on July 24, 2008. Retrieved November 17, 2006.
  106. ↑ Gallop, J.D. (October 27, 2019). "U.S. Airforce's X-37B returns to Earth with a 'boom' and a new record for spaceflight". USA Today. Retrieved September 24, 2022.
  107. ↑ Atkinson, David and Lavoie, Anthony (2012) The Lunar Precursor Robotic Program AIAA
  108. ↑ Brinton, Turner (August 16, 2010). "U.S. Air Force Launches 1st AEHF Communications Sat". Space News. Retrieved September 22, 2022.
  109. ↑ Erwin, Sandra (September 16, 2020). "U.S. Space Command to begin testing the last satellite of the AEHF-MILSTAR constellation". Space News. Retrieved September 22, 2022.
  110. ↑ "Living With a Star Program Missions" . Retrieved December 17, 2020.
  111. ↑ Erwin, Sandra (February 22, 2022). "U.S. and international partners to share launch cost of new communications satellite". Space News. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  112. ↑ Earth Systematic Missions NASA
  113. ↑ Cosmic Origins NASA
  114. ↑ Panek, Richard (December 25, 2021). "The James Webb Space Telescope Has Launched: Now Comes the Hard Part". Scientific American. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
  115. ↑ WSF WMO
  116. ↑ "How One Overlooked Company Paved the Way for Blue Origin and SpaceX". Inverse.com. October 7, 2021. Retrieved September 17, 2022.
  117. ↑ Foust, Jeff (October 22, 2021). "Space Adventures no longer planning Crew Dragon flight". Space News. Retrieved September 17, 2022.
  118. ↑ Sharp, Tim (March 5, 2019). "SpaceShipOne: The First Private Spacecraft". space.com. Retrieved September 17, 2022.
  119. ↑ "SpaceShipOne". National Air and Space Museum. Retrieved September 17, 2022.
  120. ↑ Wattles, Jackie (December 14, 2018). "Virgin Galactic reaches 50-mile space". edition.cnn.
  121. ↑ Grush, Lauren (December 13, 2018). "Virgin Galactic's spaceplane finally makes it to space for the first time". The Verge. Retrieved December 13, 2018.
  122. ↑ Doug Mohney (May 7, 2015). "Will Jeff Bezos Speed Past Virgin Galactic to Tourist Space?". TechZone360.
  123. ↑ Foust, Jeff (June 21, 2018). "Blue Origin plans to start selling suborbital spaceflight tickets by next year". SpaceNews. Retrieved June 25, 2018.
  124. ↑ Eric Ralph (September 14, 2018). "SpaceX has signed a private passenger for the first BFR launch around the Moon". Archived from the original on September 14, 2018. Retrieved September 14, 2018.
  125. ↑ Grush, Loren (September 14, 2018). "SpaceX says it will send someone around the Moon on its future monster rocket". The Verge . Archived from the original on September 14, 2018. Retrieved September 15, 2018.
  126. ↑ Wall, Mike (June 14, 2018). "Want to Take a 10-Day Trip to the Space Station? It'll Cost You US$55 Million". Space.com. Retrieved June 14, 2018.
  127. ↑ Davenport, Christian. "Jared Isaacman, who led the first all-private astronaut mission to orbit, has commissioned 3 more flights from SpaceX". Washington Post. Retrieved February 15, 2022.
  128. ↑ Foust, Jeff (August 1, 2022). "December launch planned for Polaris Dawn". SpaceNews. Retrieved August 3, 2022.
  129. ↑ Foust, Jeff (September 16, 2014). "NASA Selects Boeing and SpaceX for Commercial Crew Contracts". Space News. Retrieved September 17, 2022.
  130. ↑ Sheetz, Michael (August 31, 2022). "NASA taps SpaceX for 5 more astronaut missions worth $1.4 billion". CNBC. Retrieved September 17, 2022.
  131. ↑ Foust, Jeff (June 13, 2022). "FAA environmental review to allow Starship orbital launches after changes". Space News. Retrieved September 24, 2022.
  132. ↑ Sheetz, Michael (October 25, 2021). "Bezos' Blue Origin unveils private space station 'business park' to be deployed later this decade". CNBC. Retrieved September 24, 2022.
  133. ↑ Butrica, Andrew J. (1997) Beyond the Ionosphere: Fifty Years of Satellite Communications NASA SP-4217
  134. ↑ COMSAT History
  135. ↑ Westar Mission and Spacecraft Library
  136. ↑ Conard, James W. (1988) Handbook of Communications Systems Management Auerbach p324
  137. ↑ Applications Satellites House Committee on Science and Technology 1983
  138. ↑ Rees, David W. E. (1991) Satellite Communications Wiley p250-251
  139. ↑ Johnson, Greg (June 16, 1987). "General Dynamics Plans to Build 18 Atlas Rockets". LA Times. Retrieved September 18, 2022.
  140. ↑ "Martin Marietta to buy General Dynamics Space Systems". UPI Archives. December 22, 1993. Retrieved September 18, 2022.
  141. ↑ Amos, Jonathan (January 11, 2019). "SpaceX launch completes Iridium satellite refresh". BBC. Retrieved September 22, 2022.
  142. ↑ Orlando, Anthony (June 19, 2022). "SpaceX sends off Globalstar satellite in third launch of the weekend". News 13 Orlando. Retrieved September 22, 2022.
  143. ↑ "Much Anticipated WorldView-1 Satellite Launched". Space News. June 29, 2004. Retrieved September 22, 2022.
  144. ↑ Harwood, William (July 14, 2014). "SpaceX Falcon 9 boosts Orbcomm data sats to orbit". CBS News. Retrieved September 22, 2022.
  145. ↑ "Creation of International Launch Services". ilslaunch.com. June 10, 1995. Retrieved September 18, 2022.
  146. ↑ "Lockheed Martin To Sell ILS Stake, Market Atlas 5 Missions On Its Own". Via Satellite. September 11, 2006. Retrieved September 22, 2022.
  147. ↑ Foust, Jeff (April 24, 2020). "Sea Launch "frozen" after ships moved to Russia". Space News. Retrieved September 22, 2022.
  148. ↑ Henry, Caleb (June 20, 2019). "Ariane 5 lofts satellites for AT&T, Eutelsat". Space News. Retrieved September 22, 2022.
  149. ↑ Henry, Caleb (May 20, 2019). "EchoStar selling broadcast business, including nine satellites, to Dish for $800 million". Space News. Retrieved September 22, 2022.
  150. ↑ Foust, Jeff (June 6, 2021). "SpaceX launches SiriusXM satellite". Space News. Retrieved September 22, 2022.
  151. ↑ Mann, Adam (May 20, 2020). "SpaceX now dominates rocket flight, bringing big benefits—and risks—to NASA". Science.org. Retrieved September 22, 2022.
  152. ↑ "Commercial Orbital Transportation Services – A New Era in Spaceflight" (PDF). NASA. February 2014. NASA/SP-2014-617. Retrieved June 4, 2014.
  153. ↑ Roulette, Joey (April 19, 2021). "Amazon buys nine ULA rocket launches for its space internet satellites". The Verge. Retrieved September 22, 2022.
  154. ↑ "NASA Awards Space Station Commercial Resupply Services Contracts". NASA, December 23, 2008.
  155. ↑ Erwin, Sandra (May 25, 2022). "BlackSky, Maxar, Planet win 10-year NRO contracts for satellite imagery". Space News. Retrieved September 22, 2022.
  156. ↑ Foust, Jeff (September 16, 2022). "Rocket Lab launches Japanese radar imaging satellite on 30th Electron mission". Space News. Retrieved September 22, 2022.
  157. ↑ Orlando, Anthony (September 18, 2022). "SpaceX launches 54 Starlink satellites into orbit, after scrubbing five times due to weather". news 13 Orlando. Retrieved September 22, 2022.
  158. ↑ Foust, Jeff (May 31, 2019). "NASA awards contracts to three companies to land payloads on the moon". Space News. Retrieved September 17, 2022.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.