Sapovirus

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Sapporo virus
Sappovirus.jpg
Transmission electron micrograph of Sapporo viruses
Virus classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
(unranked): Virus
Realm: Riboviria
Kingdom: Orthornavirae
Phylum: Pisuviricota
Class: Pisoniviricetes
Order: Picornavirales
Family: Caliciviridae
Genus: Sapovirus
Species:
Sapporo virus

Sapovirus is a genetically diverse genus of single-stranded positive-sense RNA, non-enveloped viruses within the family Caliciviridae . [1] [2] Together with norovirus, sapoviruses are the most common cause of acute gastroenteritis (commonly called the "stomach flu" although it is not related to influenza) in humans and animals. [3] [4] It is a monotypic taxon containing only one species, the Sapporo virus. [5]

Natural hosts for the virus are humans and swine. The virus is transmitted through oral/fecal contact. Sapovirus commonly occurs in children and infants and therefore is often spread in nurseries and daycares; however, it has also been found in long-term care facilities. [6] This could be due to a lack of personal hygiene and sanitation measures. Common symptoms include diarrhea and vomiting. [7] The sapovirus was initially discovered in an outbreak of gastroenteritis in an orphanage in Sapporo, Japan, in 1977. [8]

Transmission route and host susceptibility

Sapovirus is spread via the fecal–oral route. Infected individuals expel more than particles/gram of feces or vomit. Particles from the infected individual remain viable for years, and an infectious dose can be as few as 10 particles. Contamination of work surfaces, hands, etc. can cause a vast number of new infections. Infection may occur if the particles are inhaled, such as when the particles are aerosolized when those who are infected vomit, or when the toilet is flushed after an infected individual vomits. Other forms of transmission include the excessive handling of foods by an infected individual (this most commonly occurs in a restaurant setting), consumption of shellfish that lived in waters contaminated with infected fecal matter, and the ingestion of water that has been contaminated. [9]

Symptoms

After an incubation period of 1–4 days, signs of illness start to arise. Symptoms of sapovirus are very similar to those of norovirus. The most common symptoms are vomiting and diarrhea. However, additional symptoms may occur, including chills, nausea, headache, abdominal cramps, myalgia, and fever though it is very rare. While patients frequently start to show symptoms after the 1–4 day incubation period, there have been cases in which an individual is asymptomatic. Although the individual does not show symptoms, they are still capable of spreading the virus through the general mode of transmission, which is the oral-fecal route. [3]

Prevention

General sanitary hygiene is the most important method of preventing sapovirus. This can be done by thoroughly washing hands after using the restroom and before eating/preparing food. Alcohol-based hand sanitizer is ineffective against sapovirus. Contaminated surfaces should be cleaned with disinfectant or solutions containing bleach. Other preventative measures include avoiding contact and sharing drinks/food with infected individuals.

In hospital settings

Treatment

There is no specific medication for individuals infected with sapovirus. Sapovirus cannot be treated with antibiotics because it is not a bacterial infection. Treatments include symptom support such as rehydrating the individual. [9]

Viral classification

Structure and genome

Sapovirus is a non-enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus about 7.7kb in size. The virus has a 3'-end poly(A) tail but not a 5' cap. Sapovirus has an icosahedral structure that contains 180 subunits (T=3). The diameter of the capsid is between 27 and 40 nm. [10] Like other caliciviruses, the capsid of the sapovirus has round intends on its surface. However, its "Star of David" surface morphology distinguishes it from other caliciviruses. [3]

Sapovirus' genome is organized into two (possibly three) well-known open reading frames (ORFs). ORF1 encodes for nonstructural proteins and for VP1, the main capsid protein. VP1 has two standard domains, shell (S) and protruding (P). The S protein's function is to "form the scaffold around the nucleic acid", while the P protein is important in forming a "homodimer with the receptors". [11] ORF2 encodes for minor structural polyproteins, VP2. While there have been predictions of a third ORF (ORF3), there is no proof for what its function is. [3]

There have been at least 21 complete genomes for sapovirus analyzed and identified already, all of which can be classified into five categories (GI-GV), which can further be divided into different genetic clusters. Four of the five groups (GI, GII, GIV, GV) can infect humans and these four groups correspond to the four antigenically distinct strains of sapovirus: Sapporo, Houston, London, and Stockholm. [9] While there are at least 21 genotypes for this virus, new ones continue to be reported in America, Asia, and Europe. [12]

GenusStructureSymmetryCapsidGenomic arrangementGenomic segmentation
SapovirusIcosahedralT=3Non-envelopedLinearMonopartite

Laboratory diagnosis

Nucleic acid detection methods

Reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) is the most commonly used detection tool for sapovirus because of its broad reactivity, sensitivity, speed, and specificity. Because of the diversity of the sapovirus, hundreds of primers have been designed in order to specifically target and amplify RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. This can be used to "partially characterize the Sapovirus and investigate the similarity of the detected Sapovirus." [3]

Virus particle detection

"Sapoviruses are morphologically distinguishable from other gastroenteritis pathogens (e.g., norovirus, rotavirus, astrovirus, or adenovirus) by their typical "Star of David" surface morphology under the electron microscope. However, this has low sensitivity compared to nucleic acid detection methods." [3]

Antigen detection methods

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) have been used to detect human sapovirus from clinical samples. While ELISA can be used to detect human sapovirus antigens, it is not commonly used. The diversity of the many strains of sapovirus makes it difficult to detect the wide array of antigens that may be present. Because there are so many possible antigens, ELISA is not as accurate or as sensitive as the nucleic acid detection methods. [3]

Replication cycle

The exact replication cycle of sapovirus has not been determined; however, it is thought to have the same or similar cytoplasmic replication cycle that other caliciviruses display. The cytoplasmic replication cycle is as follows:

  1. Entry into the host cell is achieved by attachment to host receptors, which mediates endocytosis of the virus into the host cell.
  2. Uncoating and release of the viral genomic RNA into the cytoplasm.
  3. VPg is removed from the viral RNA, which is then translated into a processed ORF1 polyprotein to yield the replication proteins.
  4. Replication occurs in viral factories. A dsRNA genome is synthesized from the genomic ssRNA(+).
  5. The dsRNA genome is transcribed/replicated thereby providing viral mRNAs/new ssRNA(+) genomes.
  6. Subgenomic RNA translation gives rise to the capsid protein and VP2.
  7. Assembly of new virus particles and release by cell lysis." [10]

History

Using electron microscopy, the sapovirus was first seen in diarrheic stool samples from the United Kingdom in 1977 and was soon known as a gastroenteritis pathogen. While the virus was first seen in the United Kingdom, "the prototype strain of the genus Sapovirus was from another outbreak in Sapporo, Japan in 1982." [3] The first complete genome of sapovirus was interpreted from the Manchester strain in the United Kingdom in 1993. Formerly, sapoviruses were called "Sapporo-like viruses"; however, in 2002, they were changed to the species Sapporo virus, genus Sapovirus, in the family Caliciviridae. "Currently, the family Caliciviridae consists of five established genera: Sapovirus, Norovirus, Lagovirus, Vesivirus, and Nebovirus." [3]

Outbreaks

December 2013

One positive result for sapovirus infection was confirmed at Gisborne Hospital in New Zealand. Two additional cases were found in staff members and five additional patients were put into isolation. Hospital staff used precautionary measures by using personal protection when entering rooms. [8]

June 2007

Fifty five faculty members of a college in Taipei County had been diagnosed with sapovirus infection.

Long term care facilities 2002–2009

"Using data from the Oregon and Minnesota public health departments, researchers investigated 2161 gastroenteritis outbreaks between 2002 through 2009. Of these, 142 outbreaks (7 percent) were found to be norovirus-negative, and 93 of these were further tested for other gastrointestinal viruses including sapovirus, astrovirus, adenovirus, and rotavirus. Sapovirus was identified in 21 outbreaks (23 percent), with 66 percent of these occurring in long term care facilities. Close to half of these cases occurred in 2007 alone." The researchers further explained that while the proportion of sapovirus occurring in the long-term care facilities was high, it was likely an artifact of legally mandated outbreak reporting. [6]

Associated diseases

Norovirus is most commonly associated with sapovirus. Norovirus and sapovirus genomes are very closely related; the distinction between the two can only be made from the differences in their coding strategy and reading frames. Noroviruses, along with sapoviruses, are the most common cause of gastroenteritis and therefore show the same symptoms as each other. [13]

Astrovirus , like sapovirus, causes gastroenteritis in children and the elderly, especially those who are immunocompromised. While sapovirus has two ORFs, Astrovirus has three. Astrovirus also has 6 recombinant strains. Astrovirus replicates within the cytoplasm and propagates readily in the GI tract. [9]

Rotavirus , like norovirus, astrovirus, and sapovirus, causes gastroenteritis. Rotavirus, however, is much more lethal, causing 37% of deaths in children with diarrhea and 215,000 deaths worldwide. [14]

Animal viruses

Sapoviruses have been identified in bats, California sea lions, dogs, pigs and mink. [15] [16]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">RNA virus</span> Subclass of viruses

An RNA virus is a virus—other than a retrovirus—that has ribonucleic acid (RNA) as its genetic material. The nucleic acid is usually single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) but it may be double-stranded (dsRNA). Notable human diseases caused by RNA viruses include the common cold, influenza, SARS, MERS, COVID-19, Dengue virus, hepatitis C, hepatitis E, West Nile fever, Ebola virus disease, rabies, polio, mumps, and measles.

<i>Rotavirus</i> Specific genus of RNA viruses

Rotaviruses are the most common cause of diarrhoeal disease among infants and young children. Nearly every child in the world is infected with a rotavirus at least once by the age of five. Immunity develops with each infection, so subsequent infections are less severe. Adults are rarely affected. Rotavirus is a genus of double-stranded RNA viruses in the family Reoviridae. There are nine species of the genus, referred to as A, B, C, D, F, G, H, I and J. Rotavirus A is the most common species, and these rotaviruses cause more than 90% of rotavirus infections in humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Norovirus</span> Type of viruses that cause gastroenteritis

Norovirus, also known as Norwalk virus and sometimes referred to as the winter vomiting disease, is the most common cause of gastroenteritis. Infection is characterized by non-bloody diarrhea, vomiting, and stomach pain. Fever or headaches may also occur. Symptoms usually develop 12 to 48 hours after being exposed, and recovery typically occurs within one to three days. Complications are uncommon, but may include dehydration, especially in the young, the old, and those with other health problems.

<i>Hepadnaviridae</i> Family of viruses

Hepadnaviridae is a family of viruses. Humans, apes, and birds serve as natural hosts. There are currently 18 species in this family, divided among 5 genera. Its best-known member is hepatitis B virus. Diseases associated with this family include: liver infections, such as hepatitis, hepatocellular carcinomas, and cirrhosis. It is the sole accepted family in the order Blubervirales.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sedoreoviridae</span> Family of viruses

Sedoreoviridae is a family of double-stranded RNA viruses. Member viruses have a wide host range, including vertebrates, invertebrates, plants, protists and fungi. They lack lipid envelopes and package their segmented genome within multi-layered capsids. Lack of a lipid envelope has allowed three-dimensional structures of these large complex viruses to be obtained, revealing a structural and likely evolutionary relationship to the cystovirus family of bacteriophage. There are currently 97 species in this family, divided among 15 genera in two subfamilies. Reoviruses can affect the gastrointestinal system and respiratory tract. The name "reo-" is an acronym for "respiratory enteric orphan" viruses. The term "orphan virus" refers to the fact that some of these viruses have been observed not associated with any known disease. Even though viruses in the family Reoviridae have more recently been identified with various diseases, the original name is still used.

<i>Caliciviridae</i> Family of viruses

The Caliciviridae are a family of "small round structured" viruses, members of Class IV of the Baltimore scheme. Caliciviridae bear resemblance to enlarged picornavirus and was formerly a separate genus within the picornaviridae. They are positive-sense, single-stranded RNA which is not segmented. Thirteen species are placed in this family, divided among eleven genera. Diseases associated with this family include feline calicivirus, rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus, and Norwalk group of viruses (gastroenteritis). Caliciviruses naturally infect vertebrates, and have been found in a number of organisms such as humans, cattle, pigs, cats, chickens, reptiles, dolphins and amphibians. The caliciviruses have a simple construction and are not enveloped. The capsid appears hexagonal/spherical and has icosahedral symmetry with a diameter of 35–39 nm.

<i>Orthoreovirus</i> Genus of viruses

Orthoreovirus is a genus of viruses, in the family Reoviridae, in the subfamily Spinareovirinae. Vertebrates serve as natural hosts. There are ten species in this genus. Diseases associated with this genus include mild upper respiratory tract disease, gastroenteritis, and biliary atresia. Mammalian orthoreovirus 3 induces cell death preferentially in transformed cells and therefore displays inherent oncolytic properties.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Astrovirus</span> Family of viruses

Astroviruses (Astroviridae) are a type of virus that was first discovered in 1975 using electron microscopes following an outbreak of diarrhea in humans. In addition to humans, astroviruses have now been isolated from numerous mammalian animal species and from avian species such as ducks, chickens, and turkey poults. Astroviruses are 28–35 nm diameter, icosahedral viruses that have a characteristic five- or six-pointed star-like surface structure when viewed by electron microscopy. Along with the Picornaviridae and the Caliciviridae, the Astroviridae comprise a third family of nonenveloped viruses whose genome is composed of plus-sense, single-stranded RNA. Astrovirus has a non-segmented, single stranded, positive sense RNA genome within a non-enveloped icosahedral capsid. Human astroviruses have been shown in numerous studies to be an important cause of gastroenteritis in young children worldwide. In animals, Astroviruses also cause infection of the gastrointestinal tract but may also result in encephalitis, hepatitis (avian) and nephritis (avian).

<i>Feline calicivirus</i> Species of virus

Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a virus of the family Caliciviridae that causes disease in cats. It is one of the two important viral causes of respiratory infection in cats, the other being Felid alphaherpesvirus 1. FCV can be isolated from about 50% of cats with upper respiratory infections. Cheetahs are the other species of the family Felidae known to become infected naturally.

<i>Cowpea chlorotic mottle virus</i> Species of virus

Cowpea chlorotic mottle virus, known by the abbreviation CCMV, is a virus that specifically infects the cowpea plant, or black-eyed pea. The leaves of infected plants develop yellow spots, hence the name "chlorotic". Similar to its "brother" virus, Cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV), CCMV is produced in high yield in plants. In the natural host, viral particles can be produced at 1–2 mg per gram of infected leaf tissue. Belonging to the bromovirus genus, cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV) is a small spherical plant virus. Other members of this genus include the brome mosaic virus (BMV) and the broad bean mottle virus (BBMV).

<i>Torovirus</i> Genus of viruses

Torovirus is a genus of enveloped, positive-strand RNA viruses in the order Nidovirales and family Tobaniviridae. They primarily infect vertebrates, especially cattle, pigs, and horses. Diseases associated with this genus include gastroenteritis, which commonly presents in mammals. Torovirus is the only genus in the monotypic subfamily Torovirinae. Torovirus is also a monotypic taxon, containing only one subgenus, Renitovirus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Viral disease</span> Animal or plant disease resulting from a viral infection

A viral disease occurs when an organism's body is invaded by pathogenic viruses, and infectious virus particles (virions) attach to and enter susceptible cells.

Gastroenterocolitis is a condition characterized by inflammation of the stomach, small intestines, and colon.

<i>Hepatitis B virus</i> Species of the genus Orthohepadnavirus

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a partially double-stranded DNA virus, a species of the genus Orthohepadnavirus and a member of the Hepadnaviridae family of viruses. This virus causes the disease hepatitis B.

<i>Picobirnavirus</i> Genus of viruses

Picobirnavirus is a genus of double-stranded RNA viruses. It is the only genus in the family Picobirnaviridae. Although amniotes, especially mammals, were thought to serve as hosts, it has been recently suggested that these viruses might infect bacteria and possibly some other invertebrates. If they do infect bacteria, then they are Bacteriophages. There are three species in this genus. Associated symptoms include gastroenteritis in animals and humans, though the disease association is unclear.

Vesivirus is a genus of viruses, in the family Caliciviridae. Swine, sea mammals, and felines serve as natural hosts. There are two species in this genus. Diseases associated with this genus include: respiratory disease, Feline calicivirus (FCV); conjunctivitis, and respiratory disease.

<i>Lagovirus</i> Genus of viruses

Lagovirus is a genus of viruses, in the family Caliciviridae. Lagomorphs serve as natural hosts. There are two species in this genus. Diseases associated with this genus include: necrotizing hepatitis leading to fatal hemorrhages.

Aichivirus A formerly Aichi virus (AiV) belongs to the genus Kobuvirus in the family Picornaviridae. Six species are apart of the genus Kobuvirus, Aichivirus A-F. Within Aichivirus A, there are six different types including human Aichi virus, canine kobuvirus, murine kobuvirus, Kathmandu sewage kobuvirus, roller kobuvirus, and feline kobuvirus. Three different genotypes are found in human Aichi virus, represented as genotype A, B, and C.

This glossary of virology is a list of definitions of terms and concepts used in virology, the study of viruses, particularly in the description of viruses and their actions. Related fields include microbiology, molecular biology, and genetics.

<i>Avian metaavulavirus 2</i> Species of virus

Avian metaavulavirus 2, formerly Avian paramyxovirus 2, is a species of virus belonging to the family Paramyxoviridae and genus Metaavulavirus. The virus is a negative strand RNA virus containing a monopartite genome. Avian metaavulavirus 2 is one of nine species belonging to the genus Metaavulavirus. The most common serotype of Avulavirinae is serotype 1, the cause of Newcastle disease (ND). Avian metaavulavirus 2 has been known to cause disease, specifically mild respiratory infections in domestic poultry, including turkeys and chickens, and has many economic effects on egg production and poultry industries. The virus was first isolated from a strain in Yucaipa, California in 1956. Since then, other isolates of the virus have been isolated worldwide.

References

  1. ↑ Vinjé, J; Estes, MK; Esteves, P; Green, KY; Katayama, K; Knowles, NJ; L'Homme, Y; Martella, V; Vennema, H; White, PA; ICTV Report Consortium (November 2019). "ICTV Virus Taxonomy Profile: Caliciviridae". The Journal of General Virology. 100 (11): 1469–1470. doi: 10.1099/jgv.0.001332 . PMC   7011698 . PMID   31573467.
  2. ↑ "ICTV Report Caliciviridae".
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Oka, Tomoichiro; Wang, Qiuhong; Katayama, Kazuhiko; Saif, Linda J. (1 January 2015). "Comprehensive Review of Human Sapoviruses". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 28 (1): 32–53. doi:10.1128/CMR.00011-14. ISSN   0893-8512. PMC   4284302 . PMID   25567221.
  4. ↑ Razizadeh, Mohammad Hossein; Khatami, Alireza; Zarei, Mohammad (8 October 2021). "Global molecular prevalence and genotype distribution of Sapovirus in children with gastrointestinal complications: A systematic review and meta‐analysis". Reviews in Medical Virology. 32 (3): e2302. doi:10.1002/rmv.2302. PMID   34626019. S2CID   238528430.
  5. ↑ "Virus Taxonomy: 2018b Release". International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). March 2019. Retrieved 1 May 2019.
  6. 1 2 Lee, Lore E.; Cebelinski, Elizabeth A.; Fuller, Candace; Keene, William E.; Smith, Kirk; Vinjé, Jan; Besser, John M. (2012). "Sapovirus Outbreaks in Long-Term Care Facilities, Oregon and Minnesota, USA, 2002–2009". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 18 (5): 873–876. doi:10.3201/eid1805.111843. PMC   3358050 . PMID   22516204.
  7. ↑ "Virus Page". web.stanford.edu. Retrieved 5 November 2017.
  8. 1 2 Harker-Smith, Marino (2 December 2013). "Sapovirus - New Zealand: (GI) hospital outbreak". Gisborne Herald . Retrieved 2 November 2017– via ProMED-mail.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 Barer, Mike (17 January 2011). "Caliciviruses and Astroviruses". In Greenwood, David (ed.). Medical Microbiology: A Guide to Microbial Infections: pathogenesis, immunity, laboratory diagnosis and control. pp. 579–586. ISBN   978-0702051197.
  10. 1 2 "Viral Zone". ExPASy. Retrieved 15 June 2015.
  11. ↑ Miyazaki, Naoyuki; Taylor, David W.; Hansman, Grant S.; Murata, Kazuyoshi (1 March 2016). "Antigenic and Cryo-Electron Microscopy Structure Analysis of a Chimeric Sapovirus Capsid". Journal of Virology. 90 (5): 2664–2675. doi:10.1128/JVI.02916-15. ISSN   0022-538X. PMC   4810723 . PMID   26699644.
  12. ↑ Tsinda, Emmanuel Kagning; Malasao, Rungnapa; Furuse, Yuki; Gilman, Robert H.; Liu, Xiaofang; Apaza, Sonia; Espetia, Susan; Cama, Vitaliano; Oshitani, Hitoshi (26 October 2017). "Complete Coding Genome Sequences of Uncommon GII.8 Sapovirus Strains Identified in Diarrhea Samples Collected from Peruvian Children". Genome Announcements. 5 (43): e01137–17. doi:10.1128/genomeA.01137-17. ISSN   2169-8287. PMC   5658493 . PMID   29074655.
  13. ↑ Farkas, T.; Zhong, W. M.; Jing, Y.; Huang, P. W.; Espinosa, S. M.; Martinez, N.; Morrow, A. L.; Ruiz-Palacios, G. M.; Pickering, L. K. (1 July 2004). "Genetic diversity among sapoviruses". Archives of Virology. 149 (7): 1309–1323. doi:10.1007/s00705-004-0296-9. ISSN   0304-8608. PMID   15221533. S2CID   35990669.
  14. ↑ Tate, Jacqueline E.; Burton, Anthony H.; Boschi-Pinto, Cynthia; Parashar, Umesh D.; World Health Organization–Coordinated Global Rotavirus Surveillance Network (1 May 2016). "Global, Regional, and National Estimates of Rotavirus Mortality in Children". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 62 Suppl 2: S96–S105. doi: 10.1093/cid/civ1013 . ISSN   1537-6591. PMID   27059362.
  15. ↑ Meng XJ (January 2012). "Emerging and Re-emerging Swine Viruses". Transboundary and Emerging Diseases. 59: 85–102. doi: 10.1111/j.1865-1682.2011.01291.x . PMID   22225855.
  16. ↑ Tse, H.; Chan, W. M.; Li, K. S.; Lau, S. K.; Woo, P. C.; Yuen, K. Y. (2012). "Discovery and Genomic Characterization of a Novel Bat Sapovirus with Unusual Genomic Features and Phylogenetic Position". PLOS ONE. 7 (4): e34987. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0034987 . PMC   3325917 . PMID   22514697.
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