Supreme People's Procuratorate

Last updated
Supreme People's Procuratorate of the People's Republic of China
中华人民共和国最高人民检察院
Supreme People's Procuratorate of P.R.China's badge .svg
Emblem of the People's Procuratorate of the People's Republic of China
Zui Gao Jian Da Men .jpg
External gate of the Supreme People's Procuratorate
Agency overview
Formed27 September 1954;69 years ago (1954-09-27)
TypeChina's highest legal supervision agency
JurisdictionPeople's Republic of China
Headquarters Beijing
Agency executives
  • Ying Yong,
    Prosecutor-General
  • Tong Jianming,
    Executive Deputy Prosecutor-General
  • Sun Qian,
    Deputy Prosecutor-General
  • Zhang Xueqiao,
    Deputy Prosecutor-General
  • Chen Guoqing,
    Deputy Prosecutor-General
  • Liu Wei,
    Head of the Disciplinary Inspection and Supervision Team
  • Pan Yiqin,
    Director of the Political Department
  • Gong Ming,
    Deputy Prosecutor-General
  • Zhang Zhijie,
    Deputy Prosecutor-General
Parent agency National People's Congress
Website www.spp.gov.cn OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg

The Supreme People's Procuratorate of the People's Republic of China (SPP) is the highest national agency responsible for legal prosecution and prosecutorial investigation in China. The SPP reports to the National People's Congress (NPC).

Contents

The Procuratorate acts as a public prosecutor for criminal cases, conducting both the relevant investigations and prosecutions of such cases. The agency also reviews the legal rulings of the local and special procuratorates, the lower people's courts, and issues judicial interpretations.

Conceived initially in 1949 as the Supreme People's Prosecutor's Office, the agency was renamed the Supreme People's Procuratorate in 1954. The Procuratorate was abolished during the Cultural Revolution, before being re-instated in 1978. Between the 1990s to 2010s, the agency experienced a host of reforms pertaining to its selection of personnel, internal organization and role in the management of corruption.

Beginning in March 2018, the Supreme People's Procuratorate no longer undertakes the initial investigation of corruption cases by government officials; this task is undertaken by the newly formed National Supervisory Commission.

The Supreme People's Procuratorate is organized into ten specialized prosecutor's offices, which operate under the direction of a Procuratorial Committee. Led by a Prosecutor-General, the Procuratorate is also composed of several Deputy Prosecutors-General and additional prosecutors. The Prosecutor-General is appointed by the NPC, which also elects the other members of the Supreme People's Procuratorate at the Prosecutor-General's recommendation. The current Prosecutor-General of the People's Republic of China is Ying Yong.

History

Origins

The most rudimentary version of the Supreme People's Procuratorate was established in September 1949 with the promulgation of the Organic Law of the Central People's Government. [1] Initially titled the "People's Prosecutor-General's Office", the Supreme People's Procuratorate was the first national agency tasked with the supervision of the law in the newly founded People's Republic of China. [1]

The responsibilities of the initial Procuratorate were formalized in the 1951 Statutes. [1] As described by academics Ginsburgs and Stahnke, the agency's powers encompassed:

Alongside these functions, the Procuratorate was able to prosecute anyone deemed suspicious and warranting investigation and could request information from other state organs to assist with the prosecutorial process. [1] The Procuratorate also had the ability to establish an office in each local government area to supervise and lead the judicial system in the locality. [1] However, the Procuratorate was largely inactive following its inception. [1] This changed in 1953 when investigation departments within the body were created. [1]

Rise and early years

In 1954, the People's Prosecutor-General's Office was renamed the "Supreme People's Procuratorate" at the first session of the First National People's Congress. [2] The new Procuratorate was formally enacted in the 1954 State Constitution subsequently adopted by the Congress, [2] retaining its legal supervisory role. The jurisdiction of the Procuratorate was established as encompassing all government bodies, public functionaries and citizens of China, except the Central People's Government, which oversaw the agency's operation. [1]

Cultural Revolution

During the Cultural Revolution of 1966 – 1976, the people's procuratorates lost favor as they were perceived as an interference to the ideology of the Chinese Communist Party. [3] Reflecting this sentiment, the Supreme People's Procuratorate was abolished from the 1975 State Constitution alongside all other procuratorates. [3] Following its dissolution, the Procuratorate's powers of legal supervision over the state and individuals were transferred to the police. [4] [5] [6] The Supreme People's Procuratorate was subsequently re-established in 1978 via the reinstatement of the Organic Law of the People's Procuratorates in the 1978 State Constitution. Its renewal served as a mechanism for the Party to oversee and prevent misconduct within the administration. [4]

In 1980, the Supreme People's Procuratorate established a Special Procuratorate to investigate and prosecute the Lin Biao and Jiang Qing "counter-revolutionary cliques." [7] In a trial led by the serving Prosecutor-General Huang Huoqing, the defendants were found guilty of plotting a coup to overthrow the leaders of the Chinese Communist Party during the Cultural Revolution. [7]

Development and reform

In the 1990s, major reforms were made to the Chinese judicial system, including the people's courts and procuratorates. [8] These changes occurred primarily in response to the economic reform of China as a socialist market economy, a development instigated by Deng Xiaoping's southern tour in 1992. [8] In 1995, the Procurator's Law was introduced to "professionalize the judicial personnel" by raising the stringency of the requirements used to select procurators and other procuratorate personnel. [8] Emphasis was placed on the selection of prosecutors and personnel based on merit, performance and experience in legal practice. [8]

Further reform of the Procuratorate accompanied the adoption of the "Implementing Opinions of the Three-Year Procuratorial Reform" in January 2000. [8] This reform affirmed the hierarchy of the procuratorates and formalised the role of the higher procuratorates supervising and directing procuratorates located beneath them. [8] Alongside the reform, a new training program for procurators was introduced from 2001–2005 to manage workforce performance within the Procuratorate. [8]

In December 2018, major alterations were made to the internal organization of the Supreme People's Procuratorate through the restructuring of existing departments and the establishment of ten new prosecutor's offices. [9] Four of these offices were established to handle the prosecution of various types of criminal cases. [9] The remaining six departments oversee "civil, administrative, public interest and juvenile cases, complaints handling, and investigation into duty crimes committed by judicial personnel," respectively, as reported by Xinhua News Agency, China's official state-run media agency. [9]

In November 2020, the Intellectual Property Prosecution Office of the Supreme People's Procuratorate was established to handle the investigation and prosecution of intellectual property rights infringements. [10]

Anti-corruption enforcement

In 1979, the Supreme People's Procuratorate began its involvement in the investigation and prosecution of corruption by establishing a specialized department to investigate economic crimes. [11] Further pressure from student activists and Party members alike in the early 1990s led to the people's procuratorates developing more stringent protocols to manage corruption. [11] Anti-corruption enforcement by the Supreme People's Procuratorate's grew in 1995 with the introduction of three new departments to manage corruption: the Anti-Corruption and Bribery Bureau, the Corruption Prevention Department, and the Anti-Dereliction of Duty and Infringement of Citizens’ Rights Department. [12] However, the Procuratorate's supervision of corruption was later streamlined by legislation from the National People's Congress in late 2014, which resulted in the amalgamation of the agency's three anti-corruption departments into a single anti-corruption authority. [11] [12]

The management of corruption by the Chinese Communist Party was broadly transformed in 2018. [12] At the March meeting of the 13th National People's Congress, a new anti-corruption agency titled the National Supervisory Commission was formally installed to consolidate the various anti-corruption authorities which existed under the Party, including those of the Procuratorate. [12] [13] The Supreme People's Procuratorate role in anti-corruption enforcement was largely rescinded, with all these responsibilities directly transferred to the new National Supervisory Commission. [12] [13] The Procuratorate's anti-corruption personnel saw a similar transition. [13]

Powers and jurisdiction

The Supreme People's Procuratorate serves as the highest prosecutorial power in the People's Republic of China, overseeing the nation's local and special procuratorates. [5] [11] As determined by the Organic Law, the primary function of the Procuratorate is to suppress illegal activities, particularly those which undermine the interests of China's ruling party, the Chinese Communist Party. [5]

The jurisdiction of the Procuratorate encompasses all cases related to criminal law, public and state security, people's courts, prisons, detention centers and labour institutions within the People's Republic of China. [14] The agency does not oversee the prosecution of cases from the special administrative regions of Hong Kong or Macau, except those that are investigated by the Office for Safeguarding National Security of the CPG in the HKSAR. [15]

As specified in the Constitution of the People's Republic of China, the Supreme People's Procuratorate nominally exerts its powers independently, without interference from "any administrative organ, social organization or individual." [16] However, like the Supreme People's Court, the Supreme People's Procuratorate must report to the National People's Congress, the highest state body in China. [17]

Prosecution and litigation

The Supreme People's Procuratorate acts as a public prosecutor by handling both the investigation and prosecution of criminal cases in court, [5] [18] [8] thus functioning as a civil law inquisitorial system. [19] Such systems are also seen in Japan and socialist legal systems. [19] Within the Procuratorate, criminal prosecution is overseen by four specialized departments that oversee "regular crimes, serious crimes, duty crimes, and new-type crimes," respectively. [9] The agency reviews and arbitrates on which criminal suspects should be investigated and which criminal cases should be taken to a public prosecution. [10] It may also initiate public interest litigation. [20] [ better source needed ]

Exterior view of the Supreme People's Procuratorate headquarters Zui Gao Jian Zhu Lou .jpg
Exterior view of the Supreme People's Procuratorate headquarters

The Supreme People's Procuratorate conducts reviews of rulings and investigations performed by local and special procuratorates. [21] Additionally, for all types of cases, the Procuratorate may protest any rulings of the lower people's courts that it deems inappropriate or flawed by lodging a formal appeal with the Supreme People's Court. [14] [21] For civil and administrative cases, including intellectual property cases, this intervention mainly occurs after the court has handed down a legally binding and enforceable decision. [10] The Procuratorate may act in this manner by choice or when petitioned by a litigant involved in a given case. [10]

Judicial interpretations

The Procuratorate, either independently or in conjunction with the Supreme People's Court, may also issue judicial interpretations, which are official and legally binding interpretations of the law. [21] These interpretations may serve as "replies" to individual cases, reminiscent of Roman law, or apply more broadly. [22] Despite theoretically possessing less legal authority than the law, academics C.H. van Rhee and Yulin Fu perceive the Procuratorate's judicial interpretations as being "almost as effective as law" in court. [22]

Supervision of the state

Between the 1980s to the early 2010s, the Supreme People's Procuratorate investigated and prosecuted corruption and bribery through its anti-corruption departments. [13] The Supreme People's Procuratorate also assisted the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection with the prosecution of party members relegated to a form of extralegal detention known as Shuanggui . [21] Shuanggui is a procedure used to extract evidence and confessions from CCP members under investigation. [23] Material obtained using Shuanggui was passed onto the Procuratorate and used in the prosecution of party members. [23]

As of March 2018, the Supreme People's Procuratorate no longer performs these responsibilities. [13] [12] These powers have instead been assumed by the National Supervisory Commission, which campaigns against corruption in conjunction with the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection – the anti-graft agency of the Chinese Communist Party. [13] [12] Some academics prompted that these changes have reduced the overall power of the Procuratorate. [13]

Organisation

The lobby of the main building of the Supreme People's Procuratorate Zui Gao Jian Zhu Lou Da Ting .jpg
The lobby of the main building of the Supreme People's Procuratorate

The Supreme People's Procuratorate is led by a Procuratorial Committee, which oversees the operation of the Procuratorate under the direction of the Prosecutor-General. [2] The agency is further organised into ten prosecutor's offices, which each oversee a specific type of crime or litigation. [9] [24] Various additional departments, such as the Political Work Department, also exist within the Procuratorate, to oversee additional affairs. [25] Several subordinate institutions are also directly affiliated with the Procuratorate. [25]

The organisation of the Supreme People's Procuratorate is detailed below: [9] [24] [25] [26] [10]

Executive bodies

Internal departments

  • General Affairs Office (Press Office)
  • The First Prosecutor's Office (Regular Crime Prosecutor's Office)
  • The Second Prosecutor's Office (Serious Crime Prosecutor's Office)
  • The Third Prosecutor's Office (Occupational Crime Prosecutor's Office)
  • The Fourth Prosecutor's Office (Economic Crime Prosecutor's Office)
  • Fifth Prosecutor's Office (Judicial Personnel Crime Prosecutor's Office)
  • Sixth Prosecutor's Office (Civil Prosecutor's Office)
  • Seventh Prosecutors' Office (Administrative Prosecutors' Office)
  • The Eighth Prosecutor's Office (Public Interest Litigation Prosecutor's Office)
  • The Ninth Procuratorate (Juvenile Case Prosecutor's Office)
  • Tenth Prosecutor's Office (Complaint and Appeal Prosecutor's Office)
  • Legal Policy Research Office
  • International Cooperation Bureau
  • Political Work Department
  • Planning, Financial and Equipment Bureau
  • Investigation Supervision Department
  • Reporting and Charges Center
  • Bureau of Retired Officers
  • Intellectual Property Prosecution Office

Subordinate institutions

Members

View of the Procuratorate Committee of the Supreme People's Procuratorate from the chair of Prosecutor-General Zhang Jun Zui Gao Jian Jian Cha Wei Yuan Hui Hui Yi Shi .jpg
View of the Procuratorate Committee of the Supreme People's Procuratorate from the chair of Prosecutor-General Zhang Jun

Prosecutor-General

The Supreme People's Procuratorate is led by a Prosecutor-General, who serves as the Chief Grand Prosecutor and President of the Procuratorate. [16] The office of the Prosecutor-General serves a five-year term, corresponding with the term length of the National People's Congress. [16] Each Prosecutor-General may serve a maximum of two terms. [5]

The Prosecutor-General of the Supreme People's Procuratorate is elected by the National People's Congress, in accordance with the Procurators Law of the People's Republic of China. [27] The National People's Congress also carries the executive ability to remove a serving Prosecutor-General from power. [17] The current serving Prosecutor-General of the Supreme People's Procuratorate is Zhang Jun. [28] Zhang was elected to the position of Prosecutor-General in March 2018 at the first session of the 13th National People's Congress. [28]

Other members of the Procuratorate

In addition to the Prosecutor-General, the Supreme People's Procuratorate is also composed of multiple Deputy Prosecutors-General, members of the Procuratorial Committee and additional procurators. [5] [29] All other members of the Procuratorate are appointed by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress [29] at the Prosecutor-General's recommendation. [5] Likewise, members may be removed from the Procuratorate at the will of the People's Congress and the Prosecutor-General. [29] The current Deputy Prosecutors-General of the Supreme People's Procuratorate are Tong Jianming, [9] Sun Qian, [30] Zhang Xueqiao, [31] Chen Guoqing [32] and Yang Chunlei. [33]

List of Prosecutors-General

Prosecutor-General of the Supreme People's Prosecutor's Office of the Central People's Government

Prosecutor-General of the Supreme People's Procuratorate of the People's Republic of China

See also

Further reading

Related Research Articles

The Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP) is the office or official charged with the prosecution of criminal offences in several criminal jurisdictions around the world. The title is used mainly in jurisdictions that are or have been members of the Commonwealth of Nations.

Procurator may refer to:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prosecutor</span> Legal profession

A prosecutor is a legal representative of the prosecution in states with either the adversarial system, which is adopted in common law, or inquisitorial system, which is adopted in civil law. The prosecution is the legal party responsible for presenting the case in a criminal trial against the defendant, an individual accused of breaking the law. Typically, the prosecutor represents the state or the government in the case brought against the accused person.

The judicial system of Ukraine is outlined in the 1996 Constitution of Ukraine. Before this there was no notion of judicial review nor any Supreme court since 1991's Ukrainian independence when it started being slowly restructured.

The Law of the People's Republic of China, officially referred to as the socialist legal system with Chinese characteristics, is the legal regime of China, with the separate legal traditions and systems of mainland China, Hong Kong, and Macau.

The origin of the current law of the People's Republic of China can be traced back to the period of the early 1930s, during the establishment of the Chinese Soviet Republic. In 1931 the first supreme court was established. Though the contemporary legal system and laws have no direct links to traditional Chinese law, their impact and influence of historical norms still exist.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Military court (China)</span> Military unit

The Military Court of the People's Liberation Army is the highest level military court of the Chinese armed forces. It is a Deputy Theater grade (副战区级) unit organized under dual leadership: administratively under the direct supervision of the Political and Legal Commission of the Central Military Commission, and operationally as a Specialized People's Court under the jurisdiction of the Supreme People's Court

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Detention (imprisonment)</span> Process whereby a state or private citizen lawfully holds a person, removing their freedom

Detention is the process whereby a state or private citizen lawfully holds a person by removing their freedom or liberty at that time. This can be due to (pending) criminal charges preferred against the individual pursuant to a prosecution or to protect a person or property. Being detained does not always result in being taken to a particular area, either for interrogation or as punishment for a crime. An individual may be detained due a psychiatric disorder, potentially to treat this disorder involuntarily. They may also be detained for to prevent the spread of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis.

Xiao Yang was a Chinese judge and politician. He served as minister of Justice from 1993 to 1998 and President of the Supreme People's Court from 1998 to 2008. His tenure as China's Chief Justice was marked by the implementation of major reforms. A key reform was his restoration of the Supreme Court's right of final review for capital punishment cases, which resulted in a sharp reduction in the number of executions in China after 2006. Another of his reforms was to professionalize the rank of judges by requiring most new judges to pass the National Judicial Examination. He also advocated judicial independence in the country, but was ultimately unsuccessful.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Public procurator</span> Officer of state who investigates and prosecutes crime in some continental jurisdictions

A public procurator is an officer of a state charged with both the investigation and prosecution of crime. The office is a feature of a civil law inquisitorial rather than common law adversarial system. Countries such as Japan, China, Russia, Indonesia and Lithuania adopt the procuratorial system.

The International Association of Anti-Corruption Authorities (IAACA) is an independent and non-political anti-corruption organization established at its inaugural Annual Conference and General Meeting held in Beijing, China in October 2006. The main objective of the organization is to promote the effective implementation of the UN Convention Against Corruption, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 31 October 2003, and to assist anti-corruption authorities in the world in preventing and fighting against corruption. Currently, over 160 ACAs from different countries and jurisdictions have joined IAACA as members.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Anticorruption Directorate</span> Romanian anti-corruption agency

The National Anticorruption Directorate, formerly National Anticorruption Prosecution Office, is the Romanian agency tasked with preventing, investigating and prosecuting corruption-related offenses that caused a material damage to the Romanian state. The institution deals with the fight against high corruption offences, which have caused damage greater than €200,000 or if the object of the crime is property or sums of money amounting to over €10,000.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ministry of Justice (Taiwan)</span> Taiwanese ministry responsible for law

The Ministry of Justice is a ministerial level body of the government of the Republic of China (Taiwan), responsible for carrying out various regulatory and prosecutorial functions.

The 2nd Session of the 11th National People's Congress is the annual meeting of the highest legislative body of the People's Republic of China, which was held in March 2009 at the Great Hall of the People in Beijing. The event began on March 5 and lasted until March 13. The Congress was followed closely because of the possible impact any policy changes would have on the Chinese and world economy. Major issues discussed at the Congress include the 2007–2008 financial crisis, Economy of China, curbing unemployment, and social welfare.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ying Yong</span> Chinese politician

Ying Yong is a Chinese politician and lawyer who is currently serving as the Prosecutor-General of the Supreme People's Procuratorate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Supervisory Commission</span> Highest supervisory and anti-corruption authority of China

The National Supervisory Commission is the highest supervisory and anti-corruption authority of the People's Republic of China. Formed in 2018 by an amendment to the Constitution, the Commission holds the same constitutional status as that of the State Council, of the Supreme People's Court, and of the Supreme People's Procuratorate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prosecutor General of Armenia</span>

The Prosecutor General's Office of Armenia is a government agency tasked for supervising the public procurator system in Armenia, exercising its authority through the Prosecutor General of Armenia. It oversees the enforcement of Armenian law by law enforcement agencies such as the Police of Armenia and the National Security Service. The office is located on 5 Vazgen Sargsyan Street, Yerevan. The current Prosecutor General is Anna Vardapetyan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">People's Police (China)</span> Civil police force of the Peoples Republic of China

The People's Police is the national civilian police force of the People's Republic of China. Police in China have a variety of roles in addition to enforcing the law, they are also responsible for the maintenance of social stability, and in this sense policing in China performs not just a law enforcement function but a political function as well. The majority of national police forces are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Public Security (MPS).

Meng Yongshan is a former Chinese procurator. As of June 2021 he was under investigation by China's top anti-corruption agency. Previously he served as chief prosecutor and party branch secretary of Qinghai People's Procuratorate.

Zhang Bencai is a former Chinese editor and procurator. As of June 2022 he was under investigation by China's top anti-corruption agency. Previously he served as procurator-general of Shanghai Municipal People's Procuratorate.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Ginsburgs, George; Stahnke, Arthur (December 1964). "The Genesis of the People's Procuratorate in Communist China 1949–1951". The China Quarterly . 20: 1–37. doi:10.1017/S0305741000048323. ISSN   0305-7410. S2CID   154662934.
  2. 1 2 3 Ginsburgs, George; Stahnke, Arthur (June 1968). "The People's Procuratorate in Communist China: The Institution Ascendant, 1954–1957". The China Quarterly . 34: 82–132. doi:10.1017/S0305741000014442. ISSN   0305-7410. S2CID   154473730.
  3. 1 2 Kim, Chin (1977-01-01). "The 1975 Constitution of the People's Republic of China". Hastings International and Comparative Law Review. 1 (2): 1. ISSN   0149-9246. Archived from the original on 2021-05-13. Retrieved 2021-05-12.
  4. 1 2 Kim, Chin; Kearley, Timothy (1979-01-01). "The 1978 Constitution of the People's Republic of China". Hastings International and Comparative Law Review. 2 (2): 251. ISSN   0149-9246. Archived from the original on 2021-05-13. Retrieved 2021-05-12.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Wang, Chang; Madson, Nathan H (2013). Inside China's legal system. Oxford, Cambridge, England; New Delhi, India: Elsevier Science & Technology. ISBN   978-0-85709-461-2. OCLC   878805962.
  6. ↑ Wedeman, Andrew (2013). "Corruption". In Ogden, Chris (ed.). Handbook of China's governance and domestic politics. London and New York: Routledge. p. 182.
  7. 1 2 3 "Trial of Lin-Jiang Cliques Begins" (PDF). Beijing Review . 48: 3. 1 December 1980. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 May 2021. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Keyuan, Zou (2002). "Judicial Reform in China: Recent Developments and Future Prospects". The International Lawyer . 36 (3): 1039–1062. ISSN   0020-7810. JSTOR   40707698.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "China's top procuratorate restructures". Xinhua . Archived from the original on January 3, 2019. Retrieved 2021-05-14.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 Mok, Susan (9 April 2021). "The Role of the Procuratorate in Intellectual Property Cases". China Law & Practice. Archived from the original on 25 May 2021. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
  11. 1 2 3 4 Chen, Lyric (2017-10-05). "Who Enforces China's Anti-corruption Laws? Recent Reforms of China's Criminal Prosecution Agencies and the Chinese Communist Party's Quest for Control". Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review. 40 (2): 139. ISSN   0277-5417. Archived from the original on 2021-05-12. Retrieved 2021-05-12.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Li, Li; Wang, Peng (27 May 2019). "From Institutional Interaction to Institutional Integration: The National Supervisory Commission and China's New Anti-corruption Model". The China Quarterly . 240: 967–989. doi:10.1017/S0305741019000596. ISSN   0305-7410. S2CID   191834438.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Smith, Tobias (2019-04-11). "Power Surge: China's New National Supervisory Commission". In Golley, Jane; Jaivin, Linda; Farrelly, Paul J.; Strange, Sharon (eds.). China Story Yearbook: Power (1st ed.). ANU Press. doi: 10.22459/csy.2019 . ISBN   978-1-76046-280-2. S2CID   242919674. Archived from the original on 2021-05-26. Retrieved 2021-05-26.
  14. 1 2 Woo, Margaret (2013). "Justice". In Ogden, Chris (ed.). Handbook of China's governance and domestic politics. London and New York: Routledge. p. 56.
  15. ↑ Law of the People's Republic of China on Safeguarding National Security in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (56). National People's Congress. 1 July 2020. Archived 2020-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
  16. 1 2 3 "Constitution of the People's Republic of China". english.www.gov.cn. Archived from the original on 2020-11-23. Retrieved 2021-05-12.
  17. 1 2 Bo, Zhiyue (2013). "State power and governance structures". In Ogden, Chris (ed.). Handbook of China's governance and domestic politics. London and New York: Routledge. p. 18.
  18. ↑ Wedeman, Andrew (2004). "The Intensification of Corruption in China". The China Quarterly . 180 (180): 895–921. doi:10.1017/S0305741004000670. ISSN   0305-7410. JSTOR   20192410. S2CID   2920856.
  19. 1 2 Weidong, Ji (2013). "The Judicial Reform in China: The Status Quo and Future Directions". Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies. 20 (1): 185. doi:10.2979/indjglolegstu.20.1.185. ISSN   1080-0727. S2CID   204400267.
  20. ↑ "中华人民共和国人民检察院组织法 (2018年)". China Law Translate. 2018-10-28. Archived from the original on 2021-05-26. Retrieved 2021-05-26.
  21. 1 2 3 4 Qi, Ding (2019-08-09). The Power of the Supreme People's Court: Reconceptualizing Judicial Power in Contemporary China (1 ed.). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780429199479. ISBN   978-0-429-19947-9. S2CID   158352070.
  22. 1 2 van Rhee, Cornelis Hendrik; Fu, Yulin, eds. (2017). Supreme Courts in Transition in China and the West. Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice. Vol. 59. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-52344-6. ISBN   978-3-319-52343-9. Archived from the original on 2023-02-06. Retrieved 2021-05-28.
  23. 1 2 ""Special Measures"". Human Rights Watch. 2016-12-06. Archived from the original on 2021-05-11. Retrieved 2021-05-12.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  24. 1 2 "最高检组建十个业务机构 突出系统性整体性重构性_中华人民共和国最高人民检察院". www.spp.gov.cn. Archived from the original on 2021-05-26. Retrieved 2021-05-26.
  25. 1 2 3 "Supreme People's Procuratorate_china.org.cn". www.china.org.cn. Archived from the original on 2021-05-26. Retrieved 2021-05-26.
  26. ↑ "Audit Commission – What's new". www.aud.gov.hk. Archived from the original on 2021-09-23. Retrieved 2021-05-28.
  27. ↑ "Procurators Law of the People's Republic of China". www.npc.gov.cn. Archived from the original on 2021-05-12. Retrieved 2021-05-12.
  28. 1 2 3 "Zhang Jun elected procurator-general of China's Supreme People's Procuratorate". Xinhua . Archived from the original on March 18, 2018. Retrieved 2021-05-12.
  29. 1 2 3 "laws". www.npc.gov.cn. Archived from the original on 2021-10-20. Retrieved 2021-05-28.
  30. ↑ "Chinese procurators to improve skills in handling cybercrime cases". Xinhua . Archived from the original on 2021-02-26. Retrieved 2021-05-14.
  31. ↑ "China's procuratorates to beef up public interest litigation for wildlife protection". China News Service . Archived from the original on 2021-05-14. Retrieved 2021-05-14.
  32. ↑ "China Focus: Chinese prosecutors increase efficiency in addressing public complaints". Xinhua . Archived from the original on May 14, 2021. Retrieved 2021-05-14.
  33. ↑ "China strengthens resolving administrative disputes – China.org.cn". www.china.org.cn. Archived from the original on 2021-02-24. Retrieved 2021-05-14.
  34. ↑ "Wilson Center Digital Archive". digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org. Archived from the original on 2021-06-02. Retrieved 2021-05-31.
  35. ↑ "Wilson Center Digital Archive". digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org. Archived from the original on 2021-06-02. Retrieved 2021-05-31.
  36. 1 2 Manion, Melanie (2009-06-30). Corruption by Design. Harvard University Press. ISBN   978-0-674-04051-9. Archived from the original on 2023-02-06. Retrieved 2021-06-06.
  37. ↑ "China Vitae : Biography of Zhang Siqing". www.chinavitae.com. Archived from the original on 2021-06-02. Retrieved 2021-05-31.
  38. ↑ "China Vitae : Biography of Han Zhubin". www.chinavitae.com. Archived from the original on 2021-06-02. Retrieved 2021-05-31.
  39. ↑ "China Vitae : Biography of Jia Chunwang". www.chinavitae.com. Archived from the original on 2021-06-02. Retrieved 2021-05-31.
  40. ↑ "China Vitae : Biography of Cao Jianming". www.chinavitae.com. Archived from the original on 2021-06-02. Retrieved 2021-05-31.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.