Geological history of Mars

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HiRISE image illustrating Steno's law of superposition. The dark-toned lava flow overlies (is younger than) the light-toned terrain at right. The ejecta of the crater at centre overlies both units, indicating that the crater is younger than both units. Lava flow and crater ejecta.JPG
HiRISE image illustrating Steno's law of superposition. The dark-toned lava flow overlies (is younger than) the light-toned terrain at right. The ejecta of the crater at centre overlies both units, indicating that the crater is younger than both units.

The geological history of Mars follows the physical evolution of Mars as substantiated by observations, indirect and direct measurements, and various inference techniques. Methods dating back to 17th-century techniques developed by Nicholas Steno, including the so-called law of superposition and stratigraphy, used to estimate the geological histories of Earth and the Moon, are being actively applied to the data available from several Martian observational and measurement resources. These include landers, orbiting platforms, Earth-based observations, and Martian meteorites.

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Observations of the surfaces of many Solar System bodies reveal important clues about their evolution. For example, a lava flow that spreads out and fills a large impact crater is likely to be younger than the crater. On the other hand, a small crater on top of the same lava flow is likely to be younger than both the lava and the larger crater since it can be surmised to have been the product of a later, unobserved, geological event. This principle, called the law of superposition, along with other principles of stratigraphy first formulated by Nicholas Steno in the 17th century, allowed geologists of the 19th century to divide the history of the Earth into the familiar eras of Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic. The same methodology was later applied to the Moon [1] and then to Mars. [2]

Another stratigraphic principle used on planets where impact craters are well preserved is that of crater number density. The number of craters greater than a given size per unit surface area (usually a million km2) provides a relative age for that surface. Heavily cratered surfaces are old, and sparsely cratered surfaces are young. Old surfaces have many big craters, and young surfaces have mostly small craters or none at all. These stratigraphic concepts form the basis for the Martian geologic timescale.

Relative ages from stratigraphy

Stratigraphy establishes the relative ages of layers of rock and sediment by denoting differences in composition (solids, liquids, and trapped gasses). Assumptions are often incorporated about the rate of deposition, which generates a range of potential age estimates across any set of observed sediment layers.

Absolute ages

The primary technique for calibrating the ages to the Common Era calendar is radiometric dating. Combinations of different radioactive materials can improve the uncertainty in an age estimate based on any one isotope.

By using stratigraphic principles, rock units' ages can usually only be determined relative to each other. For example, knowing that Mesozoic rock strata making up the Cretaceous System lie on top of (and are therefore younger than) rocks of the Jurassic System reveals nothing about how long ago the Cretaceous or Jurassic Periods were. Other methods, such as radiometric dating, are needed to determine absolute ages in geologic time. Generally, this is only known for rocks on Earth. Absolute ages are also known for selected rock units of the Moon based on samples returned to Earth. There is also a proposal to introduce a moment of instability of liquid water. [3]

Assigning absolute ages to rock units on Mars is much more problematic. Numerous attempts [4] [5] [6] have been made over the years to determine an absolute Martian chronology (timeline) by comparing estimated impact cratering rates for Mars to those on the Moon. If the rate of impact crater formation on Mars by crater size per unit area over geologic time (the production rate or flux) is known with precision, then crater densities also provide a way to determine absolute ages. [7] Unfortunately, practical difficulties in crater counting [8] and uncertainties in estimating the flux still create huge uncertainties in the ages derived from these methods. Martian meteorites have provided datable samples that are consistent with ages calculated thus far, [9] but the locations on Mars from where the meteorites came (provenance) are unknown, limiting their value as chronostratigraphic tools. Absolute ages determined by crater density should therefore be taken with some skepticism. [10]

Mars - horizon views (video; 1:24; Odyssey orbiter; THEMIS camera; 9 May 2023)

Crater density timescale

Studies of impact crater densities on the Martian surface [11] [12] have delineated four broad periods in the planet's geologic history. [13] The periods were named after places on Mars that had large-scale surface features, such as large craters or widespread lava flows, that date back to these time periods. The absolute ages given here are only approximate. From oldest to youngest, the time periods are:

Pre-NoachianNoachianHesperianAmazonian (Mars)Geological history of Mars
Martian time periods (millions of years ago)

Epochs:

Geological history of Mars

The date of the Hesperian/Amazonian boundary is particularly uncertain and could range anywhere from 3.0 to 1.5 Gya. [17] Basically, the Hesperian is thought of as a transitional period between the end of heavy bombardment and the cold, dry Mars seen today.

Mineral alteration timescale

In 2006, researchers using data from the OMEGA Visible and Infrared Mineralogical Mapping Spectrometer on board the Mars Express orbiter proposed an alternative Martian timescale based on the predominant type of mineral alteration that occurred on Mars due to different styles of chemical weathering in the planet's past. They proposed dividing the history of Mars into three eras: the Phyllocian, Theiikian and Siderikan. [18] [19]

Geological history of Mars

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Olympus Mons</span> Martian volcano, tallest point on Mars

Olympus Mons is a large shield volcano on Mars. It is over 21.9 km high as measured by the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA), about 2.5 times the elevation of Mount Everest above sea level. It is Mars's tallest volcano, its tallest planetary mountain, and is approximately tied with Rheasilvia on Vesta as the tallest mountain currently discovered in the Solar System. It is associated with the volcanic region of Tharsis Montes. It last erupted 25 million years ago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amazonis Planitia</span> Planitia on Mars

Amazonis Planitia is one of the smoothest plains on Mars. It is located between the Tharsis and Elysium volcanic provinces, to the west of Olympus Mons, in the Amazonis and Memnonia quadrangles, centered at 24.8°N 196.0°E. The plain's topography exhibits extremely smooth features at several different lengths of scale. A large part of the Medusae Fossae Formation lies in Amazonis Planitia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elysium (volcanic province)</span> 2nd-largest volcanic region of Mars

Elysium, located in the Elysium and Cebrenia quadrangles, is the second largest volcanic region on Mars, after Tharsis. The region includes the volcanoes Hecates Tholus, Elysium Mons and Albor Tholus. The province is centered roughly on Elysium Mons at 24.7°N 150°E. Elysium Planitia is a broad plain to the south of Elysium, centered at 3.0°N 154.7°E. Another large volcano, Apollinaris Mons, lies south of Elysium Planitia and is not part of the province. Besides having large volcanoes, Elysium has several areas with long trenches, called fossa or fossae (plural) on Mars. They include the Cerberus Fossae, Elysium Fossae, Galaxias Fossae, Hephaestus Fossae, Hyblaeus Fossae, Stygis Fossae and Zephyrus Fossae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">North Polar Basin (Mars)</span> Large basin in the northern hemisphere of Mars

The North Polar Basin, more commonly known as the Borealis Basin, is a large basin in the northern hemisphere of Mars that covers 40% of the planet. Some scientists have postulated that the basin formed during the impact of a single, large body roughly 2% of the mass of Mars, having a diameter of about 1,900 km early in the history of Mars, around 4.5 billion years ago. However, the basin is not currently recognized as an impact basin by the IAU. The basin is one of the flattest areas in the Solar System, and has an elliptical shape.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Isidis Planitia</span> Crater on Mars

Isidis Planitia is a plain located within a giant impact basin on Mars, located partly in the Syrtis Major quadrangle and partly in the Amenthes quadrangle. At approximately 1,900 km (1,200 mi) in diameter, it is the third-largest confirmed impact structure on the planet, after the Hellas and Utopia basins. Isidis was likely the last major basin to be formed on Mars, having formed approximately 3.9 billion years ago during the Noachian period. Due to dust coverage, it typically appears bright in telescopic views, and was mapped as a classical albedo feature, Isidis Regio, visible by telescope in the pre-spacecraft era.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crater counting</span>

Crater counting is a method for estimating the age of a planet's surface based upon the assumptions that when a piece of planetary surface is new, then it has no impact craters; impact craters accumulate after that at a rate that is assumed known. Consequently, counting how many craters of various sizes there are in a given area allows determining how long they have accumulated and, consequently, how long ago the surface has formed. The method has been calibrated using the ages obtained by radiometric dating of samples returned from the Moon by the Luna and Apollo missions. It has been used to estimate the age of areas on Mars and other planets that were covered by lava flows, on the Moon of areas covered by giant mares, and how long ago areas on the icy moons of Jupiter and Saturn flooded with new ice.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Athabasca Valles</span> Outflow channel on Mars

The Athabasca Valles are a late Amazonian-period outflow channel system in the central Elysium Planitia region of Mars, located to the south of the Elysium Rise. They are part of a network of outflow channels in this region that are understood to emanate from large fissures in the Martian surface rather than the chaos terrains that source the circum-Chryse outflow channels. The Athabasca Valles in particular emanate from one of the Cerberus Fossae fissures and flow downstream to the southwest, constrained to the south by a wrinkle ridge for over 100 km, before debouching into the Cerberus Palus volcanic plain. The Athabasca Valles are widely understood to be the youngest outflow channel system on the planet.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Volcanism on Mars</span>

Volcanic activity, or volcanism, has played a significant role in the geologic evolution of Mars. Scientists have known since the Mariner 9 mission in 1972 that volcanic features cover large portions of the Martian surface. These features include extensive lava flows, vast lava plains, and the largest known volcanoes in the Solar System. Martian volcanic features range in age from Noachian to late Amazonian, indicating that the planet has been volcanically active throughout its history, and some speculate it probably still is so today. Both Mars and Earth are large, differentiated planets built from similar chondritic materials. Many of the same magmatic processes that occur on Earth also occurred on Mars, and both planets are similar enough compositionally that the same names can be applied to their igneous rocks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amazonis quadrangle</span> Map of Mars

The Amazonis quadrangle is one of a series of 30 quadrangle maps of Mars used by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) Astrogeology Research Program. The Amazonis quadrangle is also referred to as MC-8.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tharsis quadrangle</span> Map of Mars

The Tharsis quadrangle is one of a series of 30 quadrangle maps of Mars used by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) Astrogeology Research Program. The Tharsis quadrangle is also referred to as MC-9 . The name Tharsis refers to a land mentioned in the Bible. It may be at the location of the old town of Tartessus at the mouth of Guadalquivir.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Denning (Martian crater)</span> Crater on Mars

Denning Crater is a large Noachian-age impact crater in the southwestern Terra Sabaea region of the southern Martian highlands, within the Sinus Sabaeus quadrangle. It is located to the northwest of the Hellas impact basin within the furthest outskirts of the Hellas debris apron. The crater is 165 km in diameter and likely formed during the Late Heavy Bombardment, a period of intense bolide impacts affecting the entirety of the Solar System; during the Hesperian period, aeolian processes caused significant degradation of the crater's rim features and infilled the crater's floor. Similar to other large craters in this region of Mars, wind-eroded features are sporadically found on the basin floor. The presence of wrinkle ridges of varying orientations within and around the Denning basin has been correlated to regional tectonic events, including the formation of the Hellas basin itself. The crater was named for British astronomer William Frederick Denning.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Noachian</span> Geological system and early time period of Mars

The Noachian is a geologic system and early time period on the planet Mars characterized by high rates of meteorite and asteroid impacts and the possible presence of abundant surface water. The absolute age of the Noachian period is uncertain but probably corresponds to the lunar Pre-Nectarian to Early Imbrian periods of 4100 to 3700 million years ago, during the interval known as the Late Heavy Bombardment. Many of the large impact basins on the Moon and Mars formed at this time. The Noachian Period is roughly equivalent to the Earth's Hadean and early Archean eons when Earth's first life forms likely arose.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hesperian</span> Era of Mars geologic history

The Hesperian is a geologic system and time period on the planet Mars characterized by widespread volcanic activity and catastrophic flooding that carved immense outflow channels across the surface. The Hesperian is an intermediate and transitional period of Martian history. During the Hesperian, Mars changed from the wetter and perhaps warmer world of the Noachian to the dry, cold, and dusty planet seen today. The absolute age of the Hesperian Period is uncertain. The beginning of the period followed the end of the Late Heavy Bombardment and probably corresponds to the start of the lunar Late Imbrian period, around 3700 million years ago (Mya). The end of the Hesperian Period is much more uncertain and could range anywhere from 3200 to 2000 Mya, with 3000 Mya being frequently cited. The Hesperian Period is roughly coincident with the Earth's early Archean Eon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hesperia Planum</span> Broad lava plain in the southern highlands of the planet Mars

Hesperia Planum is a broad lava plain in the southern highlands of the planet Mars. The plain is notable for its moderate number of impact craters and abundant wrinkle ridges. It is also the location of the ancient volcano Tyrrhena Mons. The Hesperian time period on Mars is named after Hesperia Planum.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glaciers on Mars</span> Extraterrestrial bodies of ice

Glaciers, loosely defined as patches of currently or recently flowing ice, are thought to be present across large but restricted areas of the modern Martian surface, and are inferred to have been more widely distributed at times in the past. Lobate convex features on the surface known as viscous flow features and lobate debris aprons, which show the characteristics of non-Newtonian flow, are now almost unanimously regarded as true glaciers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Groundwater on Mars</span> Water held in permeable ground

Rain and snow was a regular occurrence on Mars in the past; especially in the Noachian and early Hesperian epochs. Water was theorized to seep into the ground until it reached a formation that would not allow it to penetrate further. Water then accumulated forming a saturated layer. Deep aquifers may still exist.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amazonian (Mars)</span> Time period on Mars

The Amazonian is a geologic system and time period on the planet Mars characterized by low rates of meteorite and asteroid impacts and by cold, hyperarid conditions broadly similar to those on Mars today. The transition from the preceding Hesperian period is somewhat poorly defined. The Amazonian is thought to have begun around 3 billion years ago, although error bars on this date are extremely large. The period is sometimes subdivided into the Early, Middle, and Late Amazonian. The Amazonian continues to the present day.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LARLE crater</span> Class of Martian impact craters

A low-aspect-ratio layered ejecta crater is a class of impact crater found on the planet Mars. This class of impact craters was discovered by Northern Arizona University scientist Professor Nadine Barlow and Dr. Joseph Boyce from the University of Hawaii in October 2013. Barlow described this class of craters as having a "thin-layered outer deposit" surpassing "the typical range of ejecta". "The combination helps vaporize the materials and create a base flow surge. The low aspect ratio refers to how thin the deposits are relative to the area they cover", Barlow said. The scientists used data from continuing reconnaissance of Mars using the old Mars Odyssey orbiter and the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. They discovered 139 LARLE craters ranging in diameter from 1.0 to 12.2 km, with 97% of the LARLE craters found poleward of 35N and 40S. The remaining 3% mainly traced in the equatorial Medusae Fossae Formation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Northeast Syrtis</span>

Northeast Syrtis is a region of Mars once considered by NASA as a landing site for the Mars 2020 rover mission. This landing site failed in the competition with Jezero crater, another landing site dozens of kilometers away from Northeast Syrtis. It is located in the northern hemisphere of Mars at coordinates 18°N,77°E in the northeastern part of the Syrtis Major volcanic province, within the ring structure of Isidis impact basin as well. This region contains diverse morphological features and minerals, indicating that water once flowed here. It may be an ancient habitable environment; microbes could have developed and thrived here.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pre-Noachian</span> Geological system and early time period of Mars

The Pre-Noachian period is a geological system and early time period on Mars marked by intense meteoroid and asteroid impacts, volcanic and tectonic activity, and the potential presence of surface or subsurface water. The era holds significant importance in Mars' history as it witnessed the planet's formation and the shaping of its geological features. However, understanding the Pre-Noachian period remains elusive, as it is the least comprehended among Mars' four geological epochs. Much of the evidence from this period has been obscured by erosion and deposition processes.

References

  1. ↑ For reviews of this topic, see:
    • Mutch, T. A. (1970). Geology of the Moon: A Stratigraphic View. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
    • Wilhelms, D. E. (1987). The Geologic History of the Moon. USGS Professional Paper 1348.
  2. ↑ Scott, D. H.; Carr, M. H. (1978). Geologic Map of Mars. Reston, Virginia: United States Geological Survey. Miscellaneous Investigations Set Map 1-1083.
  3. ↑ Czechowski, L., et al., 2023. The formation of cone chains in the Chryse Planitia region on Mars 771 and the thermodynamic aspects of this process. Icarus, 772 doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2023.115473
  4. ↑ Neukum, G.; Wise, D.U. (1976). "Mars: A Standard Crater Curve and Possible New Time Scale". Science. 194 (4272): 1381–1387. Bibcode:1976Sci...194.1381N. doi:10.1126/science.194.4272.1381. PMID   17819264.
  5. ↑ Neukum, G.; Hiller, K. (1981). "Martian ages". J. Geophys. Res. 86 (B4): 3097–3121. Bibcode:1981JGR....86.3097N. doi: 10.1029/JB086iB04p03097 .
  6. ↑ Hartmann, W. K.; Neukum, G. (2001). "Cratering Chronology and Evolution of Mars". In Kallenbach, R.; et al. (eds.). Chronology and Evolution of Mars. Space Science Reviews. Vol. 12. pp. 105–164. ISBN   0792370511.
  7. ↑ Hartmann, W.K. (2005). "Martian Cratering 8: Isochron Refinement and the Chronology of Mars". Icarus. 174 (2): 294. Bibcode:2005Icar..174..294H. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2004.11.023.
  8. ↑ Hartmann, W.K. (2007). "Martian cratering 9: Toward Resolution of the Controversy about Small Craters". Icarus. 189 (1): 274–278. Bibcode:2007Icar..189..274H. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2007.02.011.
  9. ↑ Hartmann 2003 , p. 35
  10. ↑ Carr 2006 , p. 40
  11. ↑ Tanaka, K. L. (1986). "The Stratigraphy of Mars". Journal of Geophysical Research, Seventeenth Lunar and Planetary Science Conference Part 1, 91(B13), E139–E158.
  12. ↑ Melosh, H.J., 2011. Planetary surface processes. Cambridge Univ. Press., pp. 500
  13. ↑ Caplinger, Mike. "Determining the age of surfaces on Mars". Archived from the original on February 19, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-02.
  14. ↑ Carr, M. H.; Head, J. W. (2010). "Geologic History of Mars" (PDF). Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 294 (3–4): 185–203. Bibcode:2010E&PSL.294..185C. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.06.042.
  15. ↑ Fuller, Elizabeth R.; Head, James W. (2002). "Amazonis Planitia: The role of geologically recent volcanism and sedimentation in the formation of the smoothest plains on Mars" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 107 (E10): 5081. Bibcode:2002JGRE..107.5081F. doi: 10.1029/2002JE001842 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-04-13. Retrieved 2012-01-06.
  16. ↑ Salese, F.; Di Achille, G.; Neesemann, A.; Ori, G. G.; Hauber, E. (2016). "Hydrological and sedimentary analyses of well-preserved paleofluvial-paleolacustrine systems at Moa Valles, Mars". Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets (121): 194–232. doi: 10.1002/2015JE004891 .
  17. ↑ Hartmann 2003 , p. 34
  18. ↑ Williams, Chris. "Probe reveals three ages of Mars" . Retrieved 2007-03-02.
  19. ↑ Bibring, Jean-Pierre; Langevin, Y; Mustard, JF; Poulet, F; Arvidson, R; Gendrin, A; Gondet, B; Mangold, N; et al. (2006). "Global Mineralogical and Aqueous Mars History Derived from OMEGA/Mars Express Data". Science. 312 (5772): 400–404. Bibcode:2006Sci...312..400B. doi: 10.1126/science.1122659 . PMID   16627738.

Citations

  • Carr, Michael, H. (2006). The Surface of Mars. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-0-521-87201-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Hartmann, William, K. (2003). A Traveler's Guide to Mars: The Mysterious Landscapes of the Red Planet. Mew York: Workman. ISBN   0-7611-2606-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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