Middle Chinese finals

In Middle Chinese, the phonological system of medieval rime dictionaries and rime tables, the final is the rest of the syllable after the initial consonant. This analysis is derived from the traditional Chinese fanqie system of indicating pronunciation with a pair of characters indicating the sounds of the initial and final parts of the syllable respectively, though in both cases several characters were used for each sound. Reconstruction of the pronunciation of finals is much more difficult than for initials due to the combination of multiple phonemes into a single class, and there is no agreement as to their values. Because of this lack of consensus, understanding of the reconstruction of finals requires delving into the details of rime tables and rime dictionaries. ^[1]

Finals and rhyme classes

Each final is contained within a single rhyme class, but a rhyme class may contain more than one final: ^[2]

• Several rhyme classes contain both "open" and "closed" finals, thought to be distinguished by the absence or presence of a medial /w/.
• Six rhyme classes contain finals that appear to be distinguished according to the absence or presence of medial /j/: 戈 (closed) -wa, -jwa (rows 1 and 3); 麻-æ, -jæ (rows 2 and 3); 庚-æng, -jæng (rows 2 and 3); 陌-æk, -jæk (rows 2 and 3); 東-uwng, -juwng (rows 1 and 3); 屋-uwk, -juwk (rows 1 and 3).
• Some so-called chóngniǔ rhyme classes contain two finals after a labial, velar and laryngeal initials, one placed in row 3 and the other in row 4. (The finals are not distinguished after dental or sibilant initials, and scholars disagree on which of the two finals these should be allocated to.) In all such cases, the paired finals have identical outcomes in all modern Chinese dialects as well as in Sino-Japanese borrowings, and are generally palatalized; with sporadic exceptions. ^{[3] [4]} However, in Sino-Vietnamese and Sino-Korean only the row-4 finals have such palatalization. Karlgren ignored the difference, but all modern linguists consider the distinction important, though they do not agree on its realization. Li's and Baxter's transcriptions adopt a convention of using /ji/ the row-4 finals in contrast to /j/ or /i/ for the row-3 finals. ^[5]

Classes of finals

Karlgren noticed that classes of finals from the rime dictionaries were placed in different rows of the rime tables. As three classes of final were confined to the first, second and fourth rows respectively, he named them finals of divisions I, II and IV. The remaining finals he called "division-III finals" because they occurred in the third row of the tables. Some of these (the "pure" or "independent" division-III finals) occurred only in that row, while others (the "mixed" finals) could also occur in the second or fourth rows with some initials. ^[6] Karlgren disregarded the chongniu distinction, but later workers have emphasized its importance. Li Rong, in a systematic comparison of the rhyme tables with a recently discovered early edition of the Qieyun, identified seven classes of finals. The table below lists the combinations of initial and final classes that occur in the Qieyun, with the row of the rime tables in which each combination was placed: ^{[7] [8]}

		div. I	div. II	"division-III" finals				div. IV
				indep.	mixed	chongniu
Labials		1	2	3	3	3	4	4
Dental	stops	1						4
Retroflex			2		3	3
Lateral		1			3	3		4
Dental	sibilants	1			4	4		4
Palatal					3	3
Retroflex			2		2	2
Velars		1	2	3	3	3	4	4
Laryngeals		1	2	3	3	3	4	4

The mixed and chongniu finals, though designated as division-III finals, are spread across rows 2 and 4 as well as row 3 of the tables. To handle these cases, a distinction is made between the row that the homophone class is placed in and the "division" of its final. This article distinguishes rows by Arabic numerals 1 2 3 4 and divisions by Roman numerals I II III IV. In addition, chóngniǔ finals in division III are notated in the table of final outcomes below as III/3 or III/4, depending on the row in which they occur.

Significance of the division

There are correspondences between certain divisions and the presence or absence of medial glides in later dialects, in ways that differ depending on the class of the initial (e.g. velar, labial, retroflex, etc.). There are also clear co-occurrence restrictions between initials and divisions, in that initials from certain of these same classes can occur with finals only from certain divisions. The LMC authors of this system appear to have been aware of these classes of initials, and seem to have determined the separation into divisions partly on the basis of the co-occurrence relationships and partly on the medial glides, although it is debated how the exact classification was made. It is important to remember that the authors of this system were attempting to use LMC phonology to reconstruct EMC phonology (although they probably thought of it more in terms of trying to harmonize the way that words were normally pronounced with the rather different system of rhymes and homophones as laid out in the Qieyun).

The clearest difference is between division III and other divisions, with division III generally corresponding to palatal initials and/or finals with palatal (i.e. high-front) vowels or glides. In addition, divisions I and IV allow exactly the same set of initials in EMC, suggesting that the distinction between the two postdates the EMC period. Division-IV syllables are commonly thought to reflect a diphthong containing a vocalic glide /i/ in LMC, corresponding to an EMC mid-front monophthong, variously reconstructed as /ɛ/,/e/ or ɪ. Beyond this, there is no consensus.

Karlgren, and many authors following him, suggest that neither divisions I nor II had any medial other than /w/ or /u/, with division I corresponding to back vowels and division II to front vowels. Some authors have suggested that division II corresponded not so much to front vowels as to centralized vowels. Many authors have recently suggested that division-II syllables consistently had a medial /r/ in Old Chinese, although this appeared to have already disappeared by EMC, so it's unclear exactly how this would have been carried forward into LMC. (Some have suggested that the system of divisions dates back at least to the time of the Qieyun (c. 600 AD), and reflects a medial /ɣ/ present very early on in the EMC period.)

List of finals

The following table lists Early Middle Chinese (EMC) reconstructed "finals" (i.e. all of the syllable other than the initial consonant), according to different authors. It also lists the corresponding Late Middle Chinese (LMC) outcomes according to Pulleyblank. The table does not explicitly list finals ending in /p/, /t/ or /k/ (the so-called "entering tone" syllables), but these can easily be derived by substituting /p/ for /m/, /t/ for /n/, and /k/ for /ŋ/. Some columns are not strictly in IPA.

Some LMC outcomes are conditioned by the EMC initials, which are represented using the following codes:

• G = guttural (velar or laryngeal, i.e. a back consonant)
• P = labial (includes labiodental)
• PG = labial or guttural (i.e. a grave consonant)
• A = acute consonant (anything not in PG)
• SR = EMC retroflex sibilant
• ST = alveolar sibilant
• M = /m/
• RXLʔ = EMC retroflex, EMC palatal sibilant, /l/ or /ʔ/

The rhyme groups (攝) are given per Yunjing , and the rhyme classes consist of Qieyun rhyme name, division number (一 to 四), and rounding (開 or 合). Division-III rhymes may have the letter m after them when belonging to "mixed division-III", or letters A and B indicating rhyme doublets, otherwise they are "pure" division-III rhymes.

rhyme group	rhyme class	Karlgren	Li Rong	Wang Li	Baxter	Pan Wuyun	Zhengzhang	Zhu Jianing	Pulleyblank [a]		Abraham Y.S. Chan
									EMC	LMC	Jinling	Luoyang
果	歌一開	ɑ	ɑ	ɑ	a	ɑ	ɑ	ɑ	a[ɑ]	a[ɑ], Pua[ɑ]	ɑ	ɐ
	戈三開m	i̯ɑ	iɑ	ĭɑ	ja	i̯ɑ	ɨɑ	jɑ	ɨa[ɨɑ]	ia[iɑ]		œ
	戈一合	uɑ	uɑ	uɑ	wa	ʷɑ	uɑ	uɑ	wa[wɑ]	ua[uɑ]	wɑ	wɐ
	戈三合m	i̯wɑ	iuɑ	ĭuɑ	jwa	ʷi̯ɑ	ɨuɑ	juɑ	ua[uɑ]	ya[yɑ]		wœ
假	麻二開	a	a	a	æ	ɰæ	ɣa	a	aɨ(ɛɨ)	aː[ɑː], Gjaː[Gjɑː]	æ	ɛ
	麻三開m	i̯a	ia	ĭa	jæ	iæ	ia	ja	ia[iɑ]	ia[iɑ]	jæ	jɛ
	麻二合	wa	ua	ĭwa	wæ	ʷɰæ	ɣua	ua	waɨ(wɛɨ)	waː[wɑː]	wæ	wɛ
遇	模一合	uo	o	u	u	u̯o	uo	u	ɔ	uə̆[uɔ]	u	ə
	魚三合m	i̯wo	iɔ	ĭo	jo	iɤ	ɨʌ	jo	ɨə̆	iə̆[iɛ],SRəə̆[SRɤ] (yə̆[yɛ],SRuə̆[SRuɔ])	œ	ø
	虞三合m	i̯u	io	ĭu	ju	iu̯o̝	ɨo	ju	uə̆	yə̆[yɛ], SRuə̆[SRuɔ]	ø
蟹	咍一開	ɑ̌i	ɒi	ɒi	oj	o̝i	ʌi	ɒi	əj	aj	əj	əj
	泰一開	ɑi	ɑi	ɑi	ajH	ɑi	ɑi	ɒi	aj		ɑj	ɐj
	皆二開	ə̆i	ɛi	ɐi	ɛj	ɰɛi	ɣɛi	ai	əɨj	aːj, Gjaːj		ɛj
	佳二開	ai	ɛ	ai	ɛ(ɛɨ)	ɰɛ	ɣɛ	æ	aɨj		ɛ
	夬二開		ai	æi	æjH	ɰæi	ɣai	ɐi	aɨj(s)		æj
	祭三開A	i̯ɛi	jɛi	ĭɛi	jiejH	iᴇi	iᴇi	jæi	jiaj	PGjiaj	jej	jej
	祭三開B		iɛi		jejH	ɻiᴇi	ɣiᴇi		iaj	iaj	ej	ej
	廢三開	i̯æi	iɐi	ĭɐi	jojH	iai	ɨɐi	jɐi	ɨaj		øj	øj
	齊四開	iei	ei	iei	ej	ei	ei	iei	ɛj	PGjiaj, Aiaj	ɐj	ɪj
	灰一合	uɑ̌i	uɒi	uɒi	woj	u̯oi	uʌi	uɒi	wəj	uaj	ʏj	ʏj
	泰一合	wɑi	uɑi	uɑi	wajH	ʷɑi	uɑi	uɒi	waj		wɑj	wɐj
	皆二合	wə̆i	uɛi	wɐi	wɛj	ʷɰɛi	ɣuɛi	uai	wəɨj	waːj		wɛj
	佳二合	wai	uɛ	wai	wɛ(wɛɨ)	ʷɰɛ	ɣuɛ	uæ	waɨj		wɛ
	夬二合	wai	uai	wæi	wæjH	ʷɰæi	ɣuai	uɐi	waɨj(s)		wæj
	祭三合A	i̯wɛi	juɛi	ĭwɛi	jwiejH	ʷiᴇi	iuᴇi	juæi	jwiaj	PGjyaj	wjej	wjej
	祭三合B		iuɛi		jwejH	ʷɻiᴇi	ɣiuᴇi		wiaj	yaj	wej	wej
	廢三合	i̯wæi	iuɐi	ĭwɐi	jwojH	ʷiai	ʉɐi	juɐi	uaj		wøj	wøj
	齊四合	iwei	uei	iwei	wej	ʷei	wei	iuei	wɛj	Gjyaj	wɐj	wɪj
止	支三開B	iě	ie	ĭe	je	ɻiᴇ	ɣiᴇ	ie	iə̆	i,SRṛ,STẓ	e	i
	支三開A		je		jie	iᴇ	iᴇ	iɪ	jiə̆	PGji	je	ji
	脂三開A	i	ji	i	jij	i	iɪ	iɪi	ji		ji
	脂三開B		i		ij	ɻi	ɣiɪ	iei	i	i, SRṛ,STẓ	i	i
	之三開m		iə	ĭə	i	ɨ	ɨ	i	ɨ			e
	微三開	ěi	iəi	ĭəi	jɨj	iɤi	ɨi	iəi	ɨj	i	yj	yj
	支三合A	wiě	jue	ĭwe	jwie	ʷiᴇ	iuᴇ	iuɪ	jwiə̆	PGjyj	wje	wji
	支三合B		iue		jwe	ʷɻiᴇ	ɣiuᴇ	iue	wiə̆	yj, SRuj	we	wi
	脂三合B	wi	ui	wi	wij	ʷɻi	ɣiuɪ	iuei	wi		wi
	脂三合A		jui		jwij	ʷi	iuɪ	iuɪi	jwi	PGjyj	wji	wji
	微三合	wěi	iuəi	ĭwəi	jwɨj	ʷiɤi	ʉi	iuəi	uj	yj	wyj	wyj
效	豪一開	ɑu	ɑu	ɑu	aw	ɑu	ɑu	ɑu	aw	(u)aw	ɑw	ɐw
	肴二開	au	au	au	æw	ɰæu	ɣau	au	aɨw	aːw, Gjaːw	ɛw	ɛw
	宵三開B	i̯ɛu	iɛu	ĭɛu	jew	ɻiᴇu	ɣiᴇu	iau	iaw	iaw	ew	ew
	宵三開A		jɛu		jiew	iᴇu	iᴇu	iæu	jiaw	PGjiaw, Aiaw	jew	jew
	蕭四開	ieu	eu	ieu	ew	eu	eu	iɛu	ɛw		ɪw	ɪw
流	侯一開	ə̆u	u	əu	uw	u	əu	əu	əw	əw	ʉ	u
	尤三開m	iə̆u	iu	ĭəu	juw	iu	ɨu	iəu	uw	iw, SRəw,Məw	y	y
	幽三開A	i̯ĕu	iĕu	iəu	jiw	ɨu	iɪu	iɪu	jiw	jiw	iw	iw
咸	覃一開	ɑ̌m	ɒm	ɒm	om	əm	ʌm	əm	əm	am	ɔm	ɔm
	談一開	ɑm	ɑm	ɑm	am	ɑm	ɑm	ɑm	am		ɑm	ɐm
	咸二開	ə̆m	ɐm	ɐm	ɛm	ɰɛm	ɣɛm	æm	əɨm	aːm, Gjaːm	ɛm	ɛm
	銜二開	am	am	am	æm	ɰæm	ɣam	am	aɨm		æm
	鹽三開A	i̯ɛm	jɛm	ĭɛm	jiem	iᴇm	iᴇm	iæm	jiam	PGjiam	jem	jem
	鹽三開B		iɛm		jem	ɻiᴇm	ɣiᴇm	iam	iam	iam	em	em
	嚴三開	i̯æm	iɐm	ĭɐm	jæm	iam	ɨɐm	iɑm	ɨam		øm	øm
	添四開	iem	em	iem	em	em	em	iɛm	ɛm	PGjiam, Aiam	ɪm	ɪm
	凡三合	i̯wæm	iuɐm	ĭwɐm	jom/jwom?	iu̯am	ʉɐm	iuam	uam	iam	œm	øm
深	侵三開B	i̯əm	iəm	ĭĕm	im	ɻim	ɣiɪm	iem	im	im, SRəm	im	im
	侵三開A		jəm		jim	im	iɪm	iɪm	jim	PGjim	jim	jim
山	寒一開	ɑn	ɑn	ɑn	an	ɑn	ɑn	ɑn	an	an	ɑn	ɐn
	刪二開	an	an	an	æn	ɰæn	ɣan	æn	aɨn	aːn, Gjaːn	æn	ɛn
	山二開	ə̆n	ɛn	æn	ɛn	ɰɛn	ɣɛn	an	əɨn		ɛn
	仙三開A	i̯ɛn	jɛn	ĭɛn	jien	iᴇn	iᴇn	iæn	jian	PGjian	jen	jen
	仙三開B		iɛn		jen	ɻiᴇn	ɣiᴇn	ian	ian	ian	en	en
	元三開	i̯æn	iɐn	ĭɐn	jon	iɤn	ɨɐn	iɑn	ɨan		øn	øn
	先四開	ien	en	ien	en	en	en	iɛn	ɛn	PGjian, Aian	ɪn	ɪn
	桓一合	uɑn	uɑn	uɑn	wan	ʷɑn	uɑn	uɑn	wan	uan	wɑn	wɐn
	刪二合	wan	uan	wan	wæn	ʷɰæn	ɣuan	uæn	waɨn	waːn	wæn	wɛn
	山二合	wə̆n	uɛn	wæn	wɛn	ʷɰɛn	ɣuɛn	uan	wəɨn		wɛn
	仙三合A	i̯wɛn	juɛn	ĭwɛn	jwien	ʷiᴇn	iuᴇn	iuæn	jwian	PGjyan	wjen	wjen
	仙三合B		iuɛn		jwen	ʷɻiᴇn	ɣiuᴇn	iuan	wian	yan	wen	wen
	元三合	i̯wæn	iuɐn	ĭwɐn	jwon	ʷiɤn	ʉɐn	iuɑn	uan		wøn	wøn
	先四合	iwen	uen	iwen	wen	ʷen	wen	iuɛn	wɛn	jyan	wɪn	wɪn
臻	痕一開	ən	ən	ən	on	ən	ən	ən	ən	ən	ən	ən
	臻三開B	i̯ɛn	iɛn	ĭæn	in	in	ɪn	en	in	in, SRən	in	in
	眞三開B	i̯ēn	iēn	ĭĕn		ɻin	ɣiɪn	ien
	眞三開A		jēn		jin	ɪn	iɪn	iɪn	jin	PGjin	jin	jin
	欣三開	i̯ən	iən	ĭən	jɨn	ɨn	ɨn	iən	ɨn	in	in	yn
	魂一合	u̯ən	uən	uən	won	u̯on	uən	uən	wən	un	ʏn	ʏn
	眞三合B	i̯wēn	iuēn	ĭĕn	win	ʷɻin	ɣiuɪn	iuen	win	yn	win	win
	諄三合B	i̯uēn	iuēn	ĭwĕn
	諄三合A		juēn		jwin	ʷin	iuɪn	iuɪn	jwin	PGjyn	jwin	jwin
	文三合	i̯uən	iuən	ĭuən	jun	iun	ɨun	iuən	un	yn, SRut	yn	yn
宕	唐一開	ɑŋ	ɑŋ	ɑŋ	aŋ	ɑŋ	ɑŋ	ɑŋ	aŋ[ɑŋ]	aŋ[ɑŋ]	ɑŋ	ɐŋ
	陽三開m	i̯aŋ	iaŋ	ĭaŋ	jaŋ	iaŋ	ɨɐŋ	iɑŋ	ɨaŋ[ɨɑŋ]	iaŋ[iɑŋ], SRaːŋ[SRɑːŋ]	œŋ	œŋ
	唐一合	wɑŋ	uɑŋ	uɑŋ	waŋ	ʷɑŋ	wɑŋ	uɑŋ	waŋ[wɑŋ]	uaŋ[uɑŋ]	wɑŋ	wɐŋ
	陽三合m	i̯waŋ	iuaŋ	ĭwaŋ	jwaŋ	ʷiaŋ	ʉɐŋ	iuaŋ	uaŋ[uɑŋ]	yaŋ[yɑŋ]	wœŋ	wœŋ
江	江二開	ɔŋ	ɔŋ	ɔŋ	æwŋ	oŋ	ɣʌŋ	oŋ	aɨwŋ	ɰɔŋ	ɔŋ	ɔŋ
曾	登一開	əŋ	əŋ	əŋ	oŋ	əŋ	əŋ	əŋ	əŋ	əə̆ŋ[ɤŋ]	oŋ	oŋ
	蒸三開m	i̯əŋ	iəŋ	ĭəŋ	iŋ	ɨŋ	ɨŋ	iəŋ	iŋ	iə̆ŋ[iɛŋ], iə̆k[iɛk], SRəə̆k[SRɤk]	iŋ	iŋ
	登一合	wəŋ	uəŋ	uəŋ	woŋ	ʷəŋ	wəŋ	uəŋ	wəŋ	uə̆ŋ[uɔŋ]	woŋ	woŋ
	蒸三合m	i̯wəŋ	iuəŋ	ĭwəŋ	wiŋ	ʷɨŋ	wɨŋ	iuəŋ	wiŋ	yə̆ŋ[yɛŋ]	wiŋ	wiŋ
梗	庚二開	æŋ	ɐŋ	ɐŋ	æŋ	ɰæŋ	ɣæŋ	aŋ	aɨjŋ	aːjŋ, Gjaːjŋ	æŋ	ɛŋ
	耕二開	ɛŋ	ɛŋ	æŋ	ɛŋ	ɰɛŋ	ɣɛŋ	æŋ	əɨjŋ		ɛŋ
	庚三開B	i̯æŋ	iɐŋ	ĭɐŋ	jæŋ	iaŋ	ɣiæŋ	iaŋ	iajŋ	ɰiæŋ	eŋ	jɛŋ
	清三開B	i̯ɛŋ	iɛŋ	ĭɛŋ	jeŋ	－	iᴇŋ	iæŋ	iajŋ	iajŋ		eŋ
	清三開A		jɛŋ		jieŋ	iᴇŋ	iᴇŋ		jiajŋ	PGjiajŋ, Aiajŋ	jeŋ	jeŋ
	青四開	ieŋ	eŋ	ieŋ	eŋ	eŋ	eŋ	iɛŋ	ɛjŋ		ɪŋ	ɪŋ
	庚二合	wæŋ	uɐŋ	wɐŋ	wæŋ	ʷɰæŋ	wɣæŋ	uaŋ	waɨjŋ	waːjŋ	wæŋ	wɛŋ
	耕二合	wɛŋ	uɛŋ	wæŋ	wɛŋ	ʷɯɛŋ	wɣɛŋ	uæŋ	wəɨjŋ		wɛŋ
	庚三合B	i̯wæŋ	iuɐŋ	ĭwɐŋ	jwæŋ	ʷɰiæŋ	wɣiæŋ	iuaŋ	wiajŋ	yajŋ	weŋ	wjɛŋ
	清三合B	i̯wɛŋ	iuɛŋ	ĭwɛŋ	jweŋ	－	wiᴇŋ	iuæŋ	wiajŋ			weŋ
	清三合A		juɛŋ		jwieŋ	ʷiᴇŋ	wiᴇŋ		jwiajŋ	jyajŋ	wjeŋ	wjeŋ
	青四合	iweŋ	ueŋ	iweŋ	weŋ	ʷeŋ	weŋ	iuɛŋ	Kwɛjŋ		wɪŋ	wɪŋ
通	東一合	uŋ	uŋ	uŋ	uwŋ	uŋ	uŋ	uŋ	əwŋ	əwŋ	ʉŋ	ʉŋ
	冬一合	uoŋ	oŋ	uoŋ	owŋ	u̯oŋ	uoŋ	uoŋ	awŋ		uŋ	əŋ
	東三合m	iuŋ	iuŋ	ĭuŋ	juwŋ	iuŋ	ɨuŋ	iuŋ	uwŋ	iwŋ, SRəwŋ,Məwŋ	yŋ	yŋ
	鍾三合m	i̯woŋ	ioŋ	ĭwoŋ	jowŋ	io̝ŋ	ɨoŋ	iuoŋ	uawŋ	ywŋ	øŋ	øŋ

Modern reflexes

See also: Sino-Japanese vocabulary § Correspondences between Middle Chinese and on'yomi

See also: Hokkien phonology § Historical phonology and internal differences

The following tables show the general development of Early Middle Chinese finals in modern languages.

The languages are as follows:

• Chinese languages (except Min), including:
  • Cantonese (Yue), with three varieties: Standard Cantonese (Guanzhou—Hong Kong), Watlam (Yulin), and Taishanese
  • Moiyen Hakka
  • Nanchang Gan
  • Wu, with three varieties: Kaihua, Wenzhou and Shanghai
  • Mandarin, with three varieties: Lianshui (Lower Yangtze), Wuhan (Upper Yangtze), and Beijing (or Standard Mandarin)

• Min languages, including:
  • Northern Min, with two varieties: Wuyishan and Jian'ou
  • Central Min (Yong'an)
  • Eastern Min, with two varieties: Fuzhou and Ningde
  • Hinghwa (Pu-Xian Min)
  • Southern Min, including:
    • Choanchew (Quanzhou) Hokkien, represented by a conservative variety of the rimebook Lūi-im Biāu-ngō͘ (彙音妙悟), somewhat different from modern urban Quanzhou dialect
    • Changchew (Zhangzhou) Hokkien, represented by modern urban Zhangzhou dialect
    • Teochew, represented by the Swatow dialect

• Sino-Xenic pronunciations, including:
  • Sino-Japanese Go-on and Kan-on, with spelling based on historical kana orthography
  • Sino-Korean
  • Sino-Vietnamese

A single MC final may have multiple modern outcomes, depending on the MC initial. The initials are indicated using the following codes:

• P — labials (p, ph, b, m)
• F — MC labials becoming fricatives (f, w, or h(u)) in modern languages
• T — dental plosives (t, th, d, n)
• S — dental sibilants (ts, tsh, dz, s, z)
• K — velars (k, kh, g, ŋ) and gutturals (x, h, ʔ, y)
• Tr — retroflex plosives (tr, trh, dr)
• Sy — palatal sibilants (tsy, tsyh, dzy, sy, zy)
• Sr — retroflex sibilants (tsr, tsrh, dzr, sr)

The finals 來l and 娘nr may behave like T and Tr respectively, but sometimes they have different patterns.

For Min languages, only the literary reflexes are given.

Open-vowel finals

Groups 果 and 假

Rhyme	Class		歌	戈			歌	戈	麻				麻			戈
	Division		一	一			一	一	二				三			三
	Rounding		開	合			開	合	開			合	開			開	合
Initial			TS	T	S	P	K	K	TrSr	P	K	K	Sy	S	以	K	K
Chinese	Cantonese	Standard	ɔː					uɔː	aː			uaː	ɛː		iɛː	ɛː	œː
		Watlam	ɵ						ɔ				ɛ		iɛ	ɛ	œ
		Taishan	ɔ						a				e		ie	ia
	Hakka	Moiyen	ɔ					uɔ	a			ua	a	ia		io
	Gan	Nanchang	o					uo	a			ua	a	ia
	Wu	Kaihua	o						ɔ		ɔ, iɔ	uɔ	ie			ia	ye
		Wenzhou	əu		o	u			o				ei		i	ɿ	y
		Shanghai	u						o		a, ia	o		ia			yø
	Mandarin	Lianshui	o						a		a, ia	ua	ei	i			y
		Wuhan	o						a		ia	ua	ə	ie		ye
		Beijing	uo				ə	ə, uo	a		ia	ua	ə	iɛ			yɛ
Min	Northern	Wuyishan	o						a			ua	ia			yo
		Jian'ou	ɔ					o	a			ua	ia			iɔ
	Central	Yong'an	aɯ				ɯ		ɒ			uɒ	iɒ			iɯ
	Eastern	Fuzhou	ɔ					uɔ	a			ua	ia			yo	uo
		Ningde	ɔ					u	a			ua	ie			y	u
	Hinghwa	Xianyou	ɒ				ɒ, o	ɒ	a			ua	ia			iɛu	ya
	Southern	Choanchew	o						a		a	ua	ia			io
		Changchew									ɛ
		Teochew									ia
Sino-Xenic	Japanese	Go-on	a					wa	ia	e		we	ia				e
		Kan-on	a						a			wa	ia				a
	Korean		a		wa	a		wa	a			wa	a		ia	a	wa
	Vietnamese		a	wa		a		wa	a			wa	a				wa

Group 止

Rhyme	Class		支 脂	支 脂 之	支 脂 之 微	支 脂 之		支 脂				微
	Division		三
	Rounding		開	開	開	開		合				合
Initial			P	T	K	TrSy	SrS	TrSy	S	Sr	K	K	F
Chinese	Cantonese	Standard	ei		ei, iː	iː		ɵy			uɐi		ei
		Watlam	i					ui		ɔi	uai		i
		Taishan	ei		ei, i	i	u	ui			ei
	Hakka	Moiyen	i			ɿ		ui		ɔi	ui		i
	Gan	Nanchang	i			ɿ		i		ai	ui		i
	Wu	Kaihua	i, e	i		ɿ		ui		ue	ui		i
		Wenzhou	ei		ɿ					ai	uai		ei
		Shanghai	i			ɿ		ø		e	ue		i
	Mandarin	Lianshui	i, ei	ei	i	ɿ		uei	ei	uɛ	uei		ei
		Wuhan	i, ei	i		ɿ		uei	ei	uai	uei		ei
		Beijing	i, ei	i		ɿ		uei		uai	uei		ei
Min	Northern	Wuyishan	ei		i		u	y	əu	ui	əu		ue, ei
		Jian'ou	i				u	y		o	y		i
	Central	Yong'an	i			ɿ		ue			yi	yi, ue	ue
	Eastern	Fuzhou	i	i, ei		ie	y	uei		øy	uei		uei, i
		Ningde	i, ei				ou	oi		øy	oi, ui		ui, i
	Hinghwa	Xianyou	i				o	ui		uoi	ui		uoi, i
	Southern	Choanchew	i				ɯ	ui		ue	ui
		Changchew					u
		Teochew					ə
Sino-Xenic	Japanese	Go-on	i		i, e	i		ui			wi		i
		Kan-on	i					ui			wi	i
	Korean		i		i, ɯi	i	a	u		oi	iu, ui, ue	i, ui	i
	Vietnamese		i				ɨ	ui				i, ui	i

Group 蟹 (open)

Rhyme	Class		咍 泰	咍	泰		皆 夬 佳	皆 佳	祭	祭 齊
	Division		一				二		三	三四
	Rounding		開				開		開	開
Initial			P	TSK	K	T	PTrSr	K	TrSy	P	TS	K
Chinese	Cantonese	Standard	ui	ɔi		aːi			ɐi
		Watlam	ui	ɔi		ai				i	ai
		Taishan	ɔi			ai
	Hakka	Moiyen	i	ɔi		ai			ʅ	i
	Gan	Nanchang	i	ai					ʅ	i
	Wu	Kaihua	e, i	ɛ					ʅ, i	i	e	i
		Wenzhou	ai	e		a			ei			i
		Shanghai	e			a			ʅ	i
	Mandarin	Lianshui	ei	ɛ					ʅ	i
		Wuhan	ei	ai					ʅ	i, ei	i
		Beijing	ei	ai				iɛ	ʅ	i
Min	Northern	Wuyishan	ui	uai, ai		uai	ai		i	ei		i
		Jian'ou	o	uɛ, ai		uɛ	ai		i
	Central	Yong'an	ue	ue, a	a			ia	ʅ	i		e
	Eastern	Fuzhou	uei	ai					ie	ei, i	ɛ, i	ie
		Ningde	ui	ai					i	ei, i	ɛ, i	i
	Hinghwa	Xianyou	uoi	ai					e		e, i	e
	Southern	Choanchew	ue	ai					e	e, i	e, i	e
		Changchew								i
		Teochew							i
Sino-Xenic	Japanese	Go-on	ai				e			e, ai	ai	e
		Kan-on	ai						ei
	Korean		ɛ						ie	ie, i	ie
	Vietnamese		oi	ai					e

Group 蟹 (closed)

Rhyme	Class		灰 泰			皆 夬	佳	廢 祭
	Division		一			二	二	三
	Rounding		合			合	合	合
Initial			P	TS	K	K	K	F	TrSyS	K
Chinese	Cantonese	Standard	uːi	ɵy	uːi, uɐi	uaːi	uaː	ɐi	ɵy	uɐi
		Watlam	ui			uɔi	uɔ	i	ui	ei
		Taishan	ɔi	ui	ɔi	ai	a	ei	ui	uai
	Hakka	Moiyen	i, ɔi	ui	ui, uai	uai	ua	i	ɔi	ui, i
	Gan	Nanchang	i	ui, i	ui, uai	uai	ua	i		ui
	Wu	Kaihua	e		ui, ue	uɛ	uɔ	e	ui
		Wenzhou	ai			a	o	ei	ʅ	u, y
		Shanghai	e	ø	ue	ua	o	i	ø	ue
	Mandarin	Lianshui	ei		uei	uɛ	ua	ei	uei, ei	uei
		Wuhan	ei		uei	uai	ua	ei	uei
		Beijing	ei	uei		uai	ua	ei	uei
Min	Northern	Wuyishan	ui			uai	ua	ue	əu
		Jian'ou	o			uɛ	ua	i	y
	Central	Yong'an	ue			ue	uɒ	yi	ue	yi
	Eastern	Fuzhou	uei	uei, øy	uei	uai	ua	ie	uei	ie
		Ningde	ui	ɔi, øy	ui	uoi	uo	i	ui	i
	Hinghwa	Xianyou	uoi	uoi, ui	uoi	uoi	ua	i	uoi	e
	Southern	Choanchew	ue, ui	ui, ue		uai	ua	ui	ue	ui
		Changchew	ue
		Teochew
Sino-Xenic	Japanese	Go-on	e, ai	ai	we			o	ai	we
		Kan-on	ai		wai			ai	ei	wei
	Korean		ɛ	oi, ɛ	oi	oɛ		iei	iei, iu
	Vietnamese		ui		uai			e	ue

Group 遇

Rhyme	Class		魚	模				虞		魚		虞	魚		虞
	Division		三	一				三		三		三	三		三
	Rounding		開	開				合		開		合	開		合
Initial			Sr	S	T	P	K	F	TrSy	TrSy	S	S	來，娘	K	K
Chinese	Cantonese	Standard	ɔː	ou			uː		yː		ɵy
		Watlam	ɵ	u					y
		Taishan	o	u					i		ui
	Hakka	Moiyen	ʅ		u						i
	Gan	Nanchang	u								i
	Wu	Kaihua	u, ɔ	u, uo					y, yo	y
		Wenzhou	əu	øy		u		u, øy	ʅ				øy	y
		Shanghai	u						ʅ			y
	Mandarin	Lianshui	u								y
		Wuhan	ou			u			y		i	y
		Beijing	u								y
Min	Northern	Wuyishan	u						y		əu
		Jian'ou	u						y
	Central	Yong'an	ɒu			u			y
	Eastern	Fuzhou	u	ou, u		uɔ	ou, u		øy, y
		Ningde	u	ou, u		u	ou, u		øy, y
	Hinghwa	Xianyou	ø	ɔu				u	y
	Southern	Choanchew	ɔ					u		ɯ		u	ɯ		u
		Changchew								i
		Teochew	o	ou						ə		u	ə		u
Sino-Xenic	Japanese	Go-on	io	u						io	o	u	o		u
		Kan-on	o					u	iu	io		iu	io		u
	Korean		o					u	iu	ə	iə	ui	iə	ə	u
	Vietnamese		ɨ	o				u		ɨ		u	ɨ		u

Groups 效 and 流

Rhyme	Class		豪	肴		宵	宵 蕭	侯	尤				尤 幽
	Division		一	二		三	三四	一	三				三
	Rounding		開	開		開	開	開	開				開
Initial			PTSK	PTrSr	K	TrSy	PTSK	TSK	Sr	TrSy	來，娘	S	K
Chinese	Cantonese	Standard	ou	aːu		iːu		ɐu
		Watlam	əu	ɔu		iu		au
		Taishan	ɔu			iɔu		eu		iu
	Hakka	Moiyen	au				iau	ɛu		u	iu
	Gan	Nanchang	au			ɛu	iɛu	ɛu		iu
	Wu	Kaihua	əɯ		əɯ, iəɯ	iəɯ		ɯ	iɯ
		Wenzhou	ɜ	uɔ		iɛ		au		ɤu			au
		Shanghai	ɔ		ɔ, iɔ	ɔ	iɔ	ɤ			iɤ
	Mandarin	Lianshui	ɔ		ɔ, iɔ	ɔ	iɔ	əu			iu
		Wuhan	au		iau	au	iau	əu			iəu
		Beijing	au		iau	au	iau	ou			iou
Min	Northern	Wuyishan	au			iu		iəu		iu
		Jian'ou	au			iau		e		iu
	Central	Yong'an	aɯ	o		iɯ		ø		iau
	Eastern	Fuzhou	ɔ	au		ieu		ɛu		ieu
		Ningde	ɔ	au		iɐu		ɛu		iu, eu
	Hinghwa	Xianyou	ɒ	au		ieu				iu
	Southern	Choanchew	o, au	au		iau		ɯo		iu
		Changchew						ɔ
		Teochew	au, o					ou
Sino-Xenic	Japanese	Go-on	au	eu				u	iu	iuu, iu	u	iu	u, iuu
		Kan-on	au			eu		ou	uu	iuu
	Korean		o	io, o	io	io, o	io	u		iu			u, iu
	Vietnamese		au		iau	iəu		əu	ɨu	u	ɨu	u	ɨu, əu

Nasal coda finals

Groups 咸 and 深

Rhyme	Class		談	覃		談	銜 咸		凡	鹽	鹽 添	嚴 鹽 添	鹽	侵
	Division		一				二		三	三	三四	三四	三	三
	Rounding		開				開	開	合	開	開	開	開	開
Initial			K		TS		TrSr	K	F	TrSy	TS	K	P	P	S	K	TrSy	Sr
Chinese	Cantonese	Standard	ɐm		aːm				aːn	iːm			iːn	ɐn	ɐm
		Watlam	ɔm							iɛm		im	ɛn	an	am
		Taishan	am						an	iam			en	in	im			am
	Hakka	Moiyen	am								iam		ian	in	im		əm	ɛm
	Gan	Nanchang	on		on, an	an				ɛn	iɛn			in			ən	ɛn
	Wu	Kaihua	ã					iɛ̃	ã	iɛ̃				iŋ		iŋ, ɛ̃	iŋ, yɛ̃	ɛ̃
		Wenzhou	y, ø		a, ø	a				i				eŋ	aŋ	iaŋ	aŋ
		Shanghai	ø	ø, e	e, ø	e				ø	i			iɲ			əɲ
	Mandarin	Lianshui	æ̃					iaŋ	æ̃	æ̃, iẽ	iẽ			in			ən
		Wuhan	an					an, iɛn	an		iɛn			in			ən
		Beijing	an					iɛn	an		iɛn			in			ən
Min	Northern	Wuyishan	ɔŋ	aŋ					uaiŋ	iŋ				eiŋ		iŋ		aiŋ
		Jian'ou	ɔŋ	aŋ					uaŋ	iŋ				eiŋ				aiŋ
	Central	Yong'an	õ						um	iɛ̃i	ɛ̃i			ã		iã		ĩ
	Eastern	Fuzhou	aŋ						uaŋ	ieŋ				iŋ				eiŋ
		Ningde	am						uaŋ	ɛm		im	ɛŋ	iŋ	im	em, im		ɛm
	Hinghwa	Xianyou	aŋ							ieŋ			ɛŋ	iŋ				ieŋ
	Southern	Choanchew	am						uan	iam			ian	in	im			ɯm
		Changchew																om
		Teochew							uaŋ					iŋ				im
Sino-Xenic	Japanese	Go-on	an	on	an, on	an	en		on	en		en, on	en	in		on	in
		Kan-on	an							en				in
	Korean		am						əm	iəm, əm	iəm, am	iəm, əm	iəm	um	im	ɯm	im	am
	Vietnamese		am							iəm				əm

Groups 山 and 臻 (open)

Rhyme	Class		寒		山 刪		仙	元 仙 先	痕	欣	真
	Division		一		二		三	三四	一	三	三
	Rounding		開		開		開	開	開	開	開
Initial			K	TS	PTrSr	K	TrSy	PTSK	K	K	PK	S	TrSy
Chinese	Cantonese	Standard	ɔːn	aːn			iːn		ɐn
		Watlam	ɔn				iɛn	in	an
		Taishan	ɔn	an			en		in
	Hakka	Moiyen	ɔn	an		an, ian	an	ian	ɛn	iun	in		ən
	Gan	Nanchang	on	an			ɛn	iɛn	ɛn	in	in		ən
	Wu	Kaihua	oŋ	ã		iɛ̃			ɛ̃	ɛ̃, iŋ	iŋ		iŋ, yɛ̃
		Wenzhou	y, ø	a			i		aŋ	iaŋ	eŋ	aŋ
		Shanghai	ø	e		e, i	ø	i	əɲ	iɲ			əɲ
	Mandarin	Lianshui	æ̃			æ̃, iaŋ	iẽ, æ̃	iẽ	ən	in			ən
		Wuhan	an			an, iɛn	an	iɛn	ən	in			ən
		Beijing	an			iɛn	an	iɛn	ən	in			ən
Min	Northern	Wuyishan	uaiŋ		uaiŋ, aiŋ	aiŋ	iŋ		aiŋ	əŋ	eiŋ
		Jian'ou	uiŋ		uiŋ, aiŋ	aiŋ	iŋ		aiŋ	eiŋ
	Central	Yong'an	um		ĩ		ɛ̃i		ĩ	uã	ã		iã
	Eastern	Fuzhou	aŋ				ieŋ		yŋ		iŋ
		Ningde	aŋ				iŋ, ɛŋ		yŋ		iŋ, eŋ
	Hinghwa	Xianyou	aŋ				ɛŋ		ən	yŋ	iŋ
	Southern	Choanchew	an				iɛn		ɯn		in
		Changchew							in
		Teochew	aŋ				ieŋ		əŋ		iŋ
Sino-Xenic	Japanese	Go-on	an		en			en, on	on		in, on	in
		Kan-on	an				en		on	in
	Korean		an				iən		ɯn		in, ɯn	in
	Vietnamese		an				iən		ən

Groups 山 and 臻 (closed)

Rhyme	Class		桓			刪 山	仙	刪	元	仙	元 仙 先	魂				文	淳		文 真 淳
	Division		一			二	三	二	三	三	三四	一				三	三		三
	Rounding		合			合	合	合	合	合	合	合				合	合		合
Initial			P	T	K	K	TrSrSy	Sr	F	S	K	P	T	S	K	F	TrSy	S	K
Chinese	Cantonese	Standard	uːn	yːn	uːn	uaːn	yːn	aːn		yːn		uːn	ɵn	yːn	uɐn	ɐn	ɵn		uɐn
		Watlam	un	yn	un	uɔn	yn	ɔn		yn		un	yn		uan	an			uan
		Taishan	ɔn			an	un	an		un		ɔn		un
	Hakka	Moiyen	an	ɔn	uɔn	uan	ian	ɔn	an	ian		un							iun
	Gan	Nanchang	on		uon	uan	on		an	yon		ən			un		ən	in
	Wu	Kaihua	ɛ̃	uã			yɛ̃	uã	ã	yɛ̃		ɛ̃	uɑ̃			ɛ̃	yŋ
		Wenzhou	ø		y	a	y	ø	a	y		aŋ	ø		aŋ		oŋ
		Shanghai	ø		uø	ue	ø		e	yø		əɲ			uəɲ	əɲ		yɲ
	Mandarin	Lianshui	õ			uæ̃	õ	uæ̃	æ̃	yẽ		ən			uən	ən	uən	yn
		Wuhan	an		uan				an	yɛn		ən			uən	ən	yn	in	yn
		Beijing	an	uan					an	yɛn		ən	uən			ən	uən	yn
Min	Northern	Wuyishan	uaiŋ				yiŋ	uaiŋ		yiŋ		uiŋ					əŋ
		Jian'ou	uiŋ				yiŋ	uiŋ	uaiŋ	yiŋ		ɔŋ					œyŋ
	Central	Yong'an	um				yɛ̃i, ɛ̃i	um		ɛ̃i	yɛ̃i	uã
	Eastern	Fuzhou	uaŋ				uɔŋ	uaŋ		uɔŋ		uoŋ			uŋ
		Ningde	uoŋ				uŋ	uoŋ		uŋ		oŋ			uŋ	uŋ, oŋ
	Hinghwa	Xianyou	uoŋ				yøŋ	uoŋ		yøŋ		uoŋ
	Southern	Choanchew	uan				uan					un
		Changchew
		Teochew	uaŋ				uaŋ					uŋ
Sino-Xenic	Japanese	Go-on	an		wan	wen	en		on	en	on, wen	on				un, on	iun		un, in, on
		Kan-on	an		wan		en	an		en	wen	on				un	iun		un, in
	Korean		an		oan		iən	an	ən, an	ən	uən, iən	on, un			on	un			iun, un
	Vietnamese		an	uan			uiən	uan	iən, an	uiən		on				ən	uən

Groups 宕, 曾 and 深 (open)

Rhyme	Class		唐	陽			登		蒸			庚 耕		庚 清 青	庚 清
	Division		一	三			一		三			二		三四	三
	Rounding		開	開			開		開			開		開	開
Initial			PTSK	Sr	SK	TrSy	P	TSK	TrSy	P	K	P	TrSrK	PTKS	TrSy
Chinese	Cantonese	Standard	ɔːŋ		œːŋ		ɐŋ		ɪŋ			aːŋ		ɪŋ, ɛːŋ
		Watlam	uŋ		a		aŋ		ɛŋ			a		ɛŋ
		Taishan	ɔŋ		iaŋ		aŋ		en			aŋ		en, iaŋ
	Hakka	Moiyen	ɔŋ		iɔŋ	ɔŋ	ɛn		ən	ɛn	in	aŋ		in, iaŋ	ən, aŋ
	Gan	Nanchang	ɔŋ		iɔŋ	ɔŋ	uŋ	ɛn	in			uŋ	aŋ	in, iaŋ	ɛn, aŋ
	Wu	Kaihua	ã, oŋ	uã, ioŋ	iã		əŋ		iŋ	ã	iŋ	əŋ		iŋ
		Wenzhou	uɔ	uɔ, yɔ	i		oŋ	aŋ	eŋ		iaŋ	iɛ		eŋ
		Shanghai	ɑ̃		iã	ã		əɲ		iɲ		ã		iɲ	əɲ
	Mandarin	Lianshui	aŋ	uaŋ	iaŋ	aŋ	oŋ	ən		in		oŋ	ən	in	ən
		Wuhan	aŋ	yaŋ	iaŋ	aŋ	oŋ	ən		in		oŋ	ən	in	ən
		Beijing	aŋ	uaŋ	iaŋ	aŋ	əŋ			iŋ		əŋ		iŋ	əŋ
Min	Northern	Wuyishan	oŋ		yɔŋ		aiŋ		iŋ	aiŋ	iŋ	aiŋ		eiŋ, iaŋ	iŋ, iaŋ
		Jian'ou	ɔŋ		iɔŋ		aiŋ		eiŋ	aiŋ	iŋ	aiŋ		eiŋ, iaŋ
	Central	Yong'an	am		iam		ĩ		iã	ã		ĩ		ĩ, ã
	Eastern	Fuzhou	ouŋ		uɔŋ		eiŋ		iŋ			eiŋ		iŋ, iaŋ
		Ningde	ɔŋ		yŋ		ɛŋ		eŋ	iŋ	eŋ	ɛŋ		eŋ, iɛŋ
	Hinghwa	Xianyou	ɒŋ		yøŋ		ɛŋ		iŋ			ɛŋ		iŋ, ɛŋ
	Southern	Choanchew	aŋ, ɔŋ	ɔŋ	iɔŋ		iŋ	ɯŋ	iŋ, in	iŋ
		Changchew			iaŋ			iŋ
		Teochew	aŋ	uaŋ	iaŋ		eŋ
Sino-Xenic	Japanese	Go-on	au	iau, au	au	iau	ou		iou			iau
		Kan-on	au	iau, au	iau		ou		iou			au		ei
	Korean		aŋ		iaŋ		uŋ	ɯŋ	ɯŋ, iŋ	iŋ	ɯŋ	ɛŋ		iəŋ
	Vietnamese		aŋ		ɨəŋ		aŋ		ɨŋ	aŋ		ajŋ		ɪjŋ

Groups 宕, 曾, 深, 江 and 通 (closed)

Rhyme	Class		陽		唐	登 蒸	耕	庚	清	庚 青	江				東	東 冬	東 鍾
	Division		三		一	一三	二	二	三	三四	二				一	一	三
	Rounding		合		合	合	合	合	合	合	合				合	合	合
Initial			F	K	K	K	K	K	K	K	Sr	Tr	P	K	P	TSK	F	TrSy	S	K
Chinese	Cantonese	Standard	ɔːŋ	uɔːŋ		uɐŋ		uaːŋ	ɪŋ	wɪŋ	œːŋ		ɔːŋ		uŋ
		Watlam	uŋ			uoŋ	ua		uɛŋ		uŋ			aŋ	ɔŋ
		Taishan	ɔŋ			aŋ			ien	en	ɔŋ				əŋ
	Hakka	Moiyen	ɔŋ			ɛn	ɛŋ	uaŋ	ɛn, iun	iuŋ	uŋ	ɔŋ			uŋ				iuŋ
	Gan	Nanchang	ɔŋ	uɔŋ		ŋ		uaŋ	yŋ		ɔŋ				uŋ					uŋ, iuŋ
	Wu	Kaihua	ã	uã		oŋ		uɛ̃	yŋ		ioŋ		ã, oŋ		oŋ	oŋ, əŋ	əŋ	ioŋ	oŋ	oŋ, ioŋ
		Wenzhou	uɔ	yɔ	uɔ	oŋ		iɛ	ioŋ		yɔ		uɔ		oŋ				yɔ, oŋ
		Shanghai	ɑ̃	uɑ̃		oŋ		uɑ̃	ioŋ, iɲ	ioŋ	ɑ̃				oŋ					oŋ, ioŋ
	Mandarin	Lianshui	aŋ	uaŋ		oŋ		ən	in, ioŋ		uaŋ		aŋ	aŋ, iaŋ	oŋ					ioŋ
		Wuhan	aŋ	uaŋ		oŋ		uən	yn, ioŋ		uaŋ		aŋ	aŋ, iaŋ	oŋ					ioŋ
		Beijing	aŋ	uaŋ		uŋ		əŋ	iŋ, yuŋ		uaŋ		aŋ	iaŋ	əŋ	uŋ	əŋ	uŋ		yuŋ
Min	Northern	Wuyishan	oŋ	yoŋ	oŋ	əŋ		oŋ	əŋ		ɔŋ				əŋ
		Jian'ou	ɔŋ	uaŋ		ɔŋ		uaŋ	eiŋ	œyŋ	ɔŋ							œyŋ
	Central	Yong'an	um	iam	um	am		um	uã		am	iam	am		ã			am
	Eastern	Fuzhou	uɔŋ			eiŋ		uaŋ	iŋ	iŋ	ouŋ		auŋ	ouŋ	uŋ			yŋ
		Ningde	ɔŋ			ɛŋ		uoŋ	eŋ		ɔŋ				oŋ			yŋ, øŋ
	Hinghwa	Xianyou	ɒŋ			ɛŋ			yŋ		ɒŋ		aŋ		ɒŋ			yøŋ
	Southern	Choanchew	ɔŋ, aŋ		ɔŋ			iŋ			ɔŋ		aŋ		ɔŋ, aŋ			iɔŋ
		Changchew
		Teochew	uaŋ, aŋ		uaŋ	oŋ		uaŋ		ioŋ	uaŋ		aŋ		oŋ, aŋ			oŋ		ioŋ
Sino-Xenic	Japanese	Go-on	au	wau		ou	wau		iau		ou				u	u, uu		iu, u, iuu, uu		u, uu
		Kan-on	au	iau	wau	ou	wau		ei		au				ou		iou, ou	iuu, iou
	Korean		aŋ	oaŋ		oeŋ, oŋ, uŋ	oiŋ		iəŋ		aŋ				oŋ		uŋ, oŋ	iuŋ, uŋ, oŋ, ioŋ
	Vietnamese		awŋ	uəŋ	uaŋ		uajŋ	uaŋ	uɪjŋ		awŋ	aŋ			əwŋ		uwŋ, awŋ	uwŋ

Stop coda finals

In Middle Chinese phonology, finals with the stop codas (-p, -k, -t) are classified as the entering tone equivalents of nasal coda finals (-m, -ŋ, -n). Many modern languages preserve this correspondence.

Japanese transforms the stop coda into a full mora: -k into -ku or -ki, -t into -tu or -ti, and -p into -fu (the latter may manifest as uː, oː, or iuː in modern Japanese).

Some languages, including most dialects of Mandarin, some varieties of Wu, as well as Inland Min, have lost the stop coda, and the stop coda finals became open-vowel finals in them.

Groups 咸 and 深

Rhyme	Class		盍	合		盍	狎 洽		乏	葉	葉 帖	業 葉 帖	緝
	Division		一				二		三	三	三四	三四	三
	Rounding		開				開		合	開	開	開	開
Initial			K		TS		TrSr	K	F	TrSy	TS	K	S	K	TrSy
Chinese	Cantonese	Standard	ɐp		aːp				aːt	iːp			ɐp
		Watlam	ɔp						ɔt	iɛp		ip	ap
		Taishan	ap						at	iap			ip
	Hakka	Moiyen	ap								iap		ip		əp
	Gan	Nanchang	ot		ot, at	at				ɛt	iɛt		it		ət
	Wu	Kaihua	ʌʔ	uʌʔ	ʌʔ			ʌʔ, iɛʔ	ʌʔ	iɛʔ			ieʔ		ieʔ, yɛʔ
		Wenzhou	y, ø		a, ø	a			o	i			ai	iai	ai
		Shanghai	ɐʔ		aʔ					ɐʔ	iɪʔ				əʔ
	Mandarin	Lianshui	oʔ		æʔ			æʔ, iaʔ	æʔ	ieʔ					əʔ
		Wuhan	o		a			ia, a	a	ə	iɛ		i		ɿ
		Beijing	ə		a			ia	a	ə	iɛ		i		ɿ
Min	Northern	Wuyishan	o		a				ua	i			ei	i
		Jian'ou	ɔ		a				ua	ie			i
	Central	Yong'an	ɯ		ɒ				uɒ	iɛ	ɛ		i		ɿ
	Eastern	Fuzhou	aʔ						uaʔ	ieʔ			iʔ	eiʔ	eiʔ
		Ningde	ap						uak	ɛp			ip	ep	ɛp
	Hinghwa	Xianyou	aʔ						aʔ	ɛʔ	ieʔ		iʔ
	Southern	Choanchew	ap						uat	iap			ip
		Changchew
		Teochew							uak
Sino-Xenic	Japanese	Go-on	afu	ofu	afu, ofu	afu	efu		ofu	efu		efu, ofu	ifu	ofu	ifu
		Kan-on	afu							efu			ifu
	Korean		ap						əp	iəp, əp	iəp, ap	iəp, əp	ip	ɯp	ip
	Vietnamese		ap							iəp			əp

Groups 山 and 臻 (open)

Rhyme	Class		曷		鎋 黠		薛	月 薛 屑	迄	質
	Division		一		二		三	三四	三	三
	Rounding		開		開		開	開	開	開
Initial			K	TS	PTrSr	K	TrSy	PTSK	K	PK	S	TrSy
Chinese	Cantonese	Standard	ɔːt	aːt			iːt		ɐt
		Watlam	ɔt				iɛt		at
		Taishan	ɔt	at			et		it
	Hakka	Moiyen	ɔt	at				iat	iut	it		ət
	Gan	Nanchang	ot	at			ɛt	iɛt	it			ət
	Wu	Kaihua	ɔʔ	ʌʔ		ɔʔ	iɛʔ		ieʔ
		Wenzhou	y, ø	a			i		ai	i	ai
		Shanghai	ɐʔ	aʔ			ɐʔ	iɪʔ				ɐʔ
	Mandarin	Lianshui	oʔ	æʔ			ieʔ		iʔ			əʔ
		Wuhan	o	a		a, ia	ɛ	iɛ	i			ɿ
		Beijing	ə	a		ia	ə	iɛ	i			ɿ
Min	Northern	Wuyishan	uai		yai	ai	i		əu	ei
		Jian'ou	uɛ			ai	iɛ		i
	Central	Yong'an	uɒ	uɒ, ɒ	ɒ	a	ya	e	i			ɿ
	Eastern	Fuzhou	aʔ				ieʔ		yʔ	eiʔ
		Ningde	ak				ik, ɛk		øk	ik, ek
	Hinghwa	Xianyou	aʔ				ɛʔ		yʔ	iʔ
	Southern	Choanchew	at				iɛt		ɯt	it
		Changchew							it
		Teochew	ak				iek		ək	ik
Sino-Xenic	Japanese	Go-on	ati		eti			eti, oti	oti	iti, oti	iti
		Kan-on	atu				etu		itu
	Korean		al				iəl		ɯl	il
	Vietnamese		at				iət		ət

Groups 山 and 臻 (closed)

Rhyme	Class		末			黠 鎋	月	薛		月 薛 屑	沒				物	術		物 質 術
	Division		一			二	三	三		三四	一				三	三		三
	Rounding		合			合	合	合		合	合				合	合		合
Initial			P	T	K	K	F	TrSrSy	S	K	P	T	S	K	F	TrSy	S	K
Chinese	Cantonese	Standard	uːt	yːt	uːt	uaːt	aːt	yːt			uːt	ɵt	yːt	uɐt	ɐn	ɵn		uɐt
		Watlam	ut	yt	ut	uɔt	ɔt	yt			ut	yt		uat	at			uat
		Taishan	ɔt			at		ut			ɔt		ut
	Hakka	Moiyen	at	ɔt	uɔt	uat	at	iat			ut							iut
	Gan	Nanchang	ot		uot	uat	at	ot	yot		ət			ut		ət	it
	Wu	Kaihua	ʌʔ	ɔʔ	uʌʔ		ʌʔ	yoʔ	iɛʔ	yɛʔ	ʌʔ	uʌʔ			ʌʔ	yeʔ
		Wenzhou	ø		o			y			ø			y	ai	y
		Shanghai	ɐʔ		uɐʔ		aʔ	oʔ	iɪʔ	ioʔ	ɐʔ			uəʔ	ɐʔ		uoʔ	ioʔ
	Mandarin	Lianshui	oʔ			uæʔ	æʔ	oʔ	yeʔ		ɔʔ	əʔ	ɔʔ	uəʔ	əʔ	uəʔ	iɔʔ	yeʔ
		Wuhan	o			ua	a	ye	iɛ	yɛ	u	ou		u		y	i	y
		Beijing	uo			ua	a	uo	yɛ		uo	u					y
Min	Northern	Wuyishan	uai	ui	uai			y			o	ui				y	əu
		Jian'ou	uɛ	ɔ	ua		uɛ	yɛ			ɔ	u	o			y
	Central	Yong'an	uɒ					ye	e	ye	ue					yi
	Eastern	Fuzhou	uaʔ					uɔʔ		uɔʔ, yɔʔ	uɔʔ	ouʔ		uɔʔ	uʔ
		Ningde	uok					uk		ɔk, yk	uk	ɔk			uk
	Hinghwa	Xianyou	uoʔ					yøʔ			uoʔ
	Southern	Choanchew	uat	uat, ut	uat	uat, ut	uat			uat, iɛt	ut
		Changchew
		Teochew	uak	uk	uak	uk	uak				uk
Sino-Xenic	Japanese	Go-on	ati		wati	weti	oti	eti		oti, weti	oti				uti, oti	iuti		uti, iti, oti
		Kan-on	atu		watu		atu	etu		wetu	otu				utu	iutu		utu, itu
	Korean		al		oal		əl, al	iəl		uəl, iəl	ol, al	ol, ul		ol	ul			iul, ul
	Vietnamese		at	uat			iət, at	uiət			ot				ət	uət

Groups 宕, 曾 and 深 (open)

Rhyme	Class			藥		鐸	德		職		陌 麥		陌 昔 錫	昔
	Division			三		一	一		三		二		三四	三
	Rounding			開		開	開		開		開		開	開
Initial				SK	TrSy	PTSK	P	TSK	TrSy	K	P	TrSrK	PTKS	TrSy
Chinese	Cantonese	Standard		œːk		ɔːk	ɐk		ɪk		aːk		ɪk, ɛːk
		Watlam		a		uk	ak		ɛk		a		ɛk
		Taishan		iak		ɔk	ak		et		ak		et, iak	iak
	Hakka	Moiyen		iɔk	ɔk		ɛt		ət		ak		it, iak	ak
	Gan	Nanchang		iɔʔ	ɔʔ		ɛʔ		it		aʔ		it, iaʔ	aʔ
	Wu	Kaihua		iɛʔ		ɔʔ	ʌʔ		ieʔ		ʌʔ		ieʔ
		Wenzhou		ia	a	o	ai	e	ei	iai	a		ei
		Shanghai		iaʔ	aʔ	oʔ		ɐʔ		iɪʔ	aʔ		iɪʔ	ɐʔ
	Mandarin	Lianshui		iaʔ	aʔ		ɔʔ	əʔ		iʔ	ɔʔ	əʔ	iʔ	əʔ
		Wuhan		io	o		ə		ɿ	i	ə		i	ɿ
		Beijing	lit	ye	uo	uo, ə	uo	ə	ɿ	i	uo	ə	i	ɿ
			col	iau	au		ei		—		ai	ai, iɛ	—
Min	Northern	Wuyishan		yo		o	ie		i		ie		ei, ia	i, ia
		Jian'ou		iɔ		ɔ	ɛ		i		ɛ		i, ia
	Central	Yong'an		iɯ		aɯ	a		ɿ	i	ɒ, a		i, iɒ	ɿ
	Eastern	Fuzhou		uɔʔ		ouʔ	eiʔ	aiʔ	eiʔ		eiʔ, aiʔ		eiʔ	eiʔ
		Ningde		yk		ɔk	ɛk		ek, ik		ɛk		ek, ik	ek
	Hinghwa	Xianyou		yøʔ		ɒʔ	ɛʔ		iʔ		ɛʔ		iʔ, ɛʔ	iʔ
	Southern	Choanchew		iɔk		ak, ɔk	ik	ɯk	ik, it	ik
		Changchew		iak				ik
		Teochew				ak	ek
Sino-Xenic	Japanese	Go-on		aku	iaku	aku	oku		iki	oku	iaku
		Kan-on		iaku		aku	oku		ioku		aku		eki
	Korean			iak		ak	uk	ɯk	ik	ɯk	ɛk		iək
	Vietnamese			ɨək		ak			ɨk	ak	ajk		ɪjk

Groups 宕, 曾, 深, 江 and 通 (closed)

Rhyme	Class			鐸	德 職	麥	昔	覺				屋	屋 沃	屋 燭
	Division			一	一三	二	三	二				一	一	三
	Rounding			合	合	合	合	合				合	合	合
Initial				K	K	K	K	Sr	Tr	P	K	P	TSK	F	TrSy	S	K
Chinese	Cantonese	Standard		uɔːk	uɐŋ		ɪk	œːk		ɔːk		uk
		Watlam		uk	uok	ua	uɛk	uk			ak	ɔk
		Taishan		ɔk	ak		et	ɔk				ək
	Hakka	Moiyen		ɔk	ɛt	ak	it	ɔk				uk				iuk
	Gan	Nanchang		ɔʔ	uɛʔ	uaʔ	yʔ	ɔʔ				uʔ					iuʔ
	Wu	Kaihua		uʌʔ			yeʔ	iɔʔ		ɔʔ		ɔʔ, əʔ		əʔ	yoʔ	əʔ	yoʔ
		Wenzhou		o	ai	o	y	yo		o		u	əu, u	u	əu	yo, iəu
		Shanghai		oʔ			ioʔ, yiʔ	oʔ				oʔ					ioʔ
	Mandarin	Lianshui		uaʔ	ɔʔ		ieʔ	uaʔ		aʔ	aʔ, iaʔ	ɔʔ					iɔʔ
		Wuhan		o	uə		y	o			o, io	u	ou, u	u	ou		iou
		Beijing	lit	uo			i	uo			ye	u					y
			col	—						au	iau	—			iou		—
Min	Northern	Wuyishan		o	ui		ia	o				u			əu
		Jian'ou		ua	o		i	ɔ				u			y
	Central	Yong'an		ɯ	ue	ɯ	iɒ	aɯ				u	u, ɒu	u	y
	Eastern	Fuzhou		uɔʔ		eiʔ	iʔ	ouʔ		auʔ	ouʔ	uʔ			øyʔ, yʔ
		Ningde		ɔk		ɛk	ik	ɔk				uk, ok			yk, øk
	Hinghwa	Xianyou		ɒʔ		ɛʔ	yʔ	ɒʔ			aʔ	ɒʔ			yøʔ
	Southern	Choanchew		ɔk		ik		ɔk		ak		ɔk, ak			iɔk
		Changchew
		Teochew		uak	ok	uak						ok, ak			ok, iok		iok
Sino-Xenic	Japanese	Go-on		waku	oku	iaku		aku		oku	aku	oku		uku, oku	iku, uku, oku
		Kan-on		waku	oku	waku	eki	aku				oku		uku, ioku	iku, iuku, ioku
	Korean			oak	ok, uk	oik	iək	ak				ok			iuk, uk, ok, iok
	Vietnamese			uak		uajk	ɪjk	ak				əwk		uwk

Notes

1. The table uses the notation in Pulleyblank (1991), which differs in some ways from Pulleyblank (1984).

References

Footnotes

1. Norman (1988), pp. 36–38.
2. Baxter (1992), pp. 62–63.
3. Schuessler (2009), pp. 8–9.
4. Pan & Zhang (2015), pp. 86–87.
5. Baxter (1992), pp. 75–79.
6. Branner (2006), p. 24.
7. Branner (2006), p. 25.
8. Baxter (1992), pp. 63–81.

Works cited

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External links

• Introduction to Chinese Historical Phonology, Guillaume Jacques
• Historical Chinese Phonology/Philology at Technical Notes on the Chinese Language Dialects Dylan W.H. Sung