Plants of this genus are perennialherbs growing from rhizomes. There are three large leaf-like bracts arranged in a whorl about a scape that rises directly from the rhizome. There are no true aboveground leaves but sometimes there are scale-like leaves on the underground rhizome. The bracts are photosynthetic and are sometimes called leaves. The inflorescence is a single flower with three green or reddish sepals and three petals in shades of red, purple, pink, white, yellow, or green. At the center of the flower there are six stamens and three stigmas borne on a very short style, if any. The fruit is fleshy and capsule-like or berrylike. The seeds have large, oily elaiosomes.[3][4]
Occasionally individuals have four-fold symmetry, with four bracts (leaves), four sepals, and four petals in the blossom.[7][bettersourceneeded]. The tetramerous condition has been described for several species of Trillium including T.chloropetalum, T.erectum, T.grandiflorum, T.maculatum, T.sessile, and T.undulatum.[8]
Taxonomy
In 1753, Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus established the genus Trillium by recognizing three species, Trillium cernuum, Trillium erectum, and Trillium sessile.[9] The type specimenTrillium cernuum described by Linnaeus was actually Trillium catesbaei,[10] an oversight that subsequently led to much confusion regarding the type species of this genus.
Initially the Trillium genus was placed in the family Liliaceae. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries it was sometimes placed in a smaller family, Trilliaceae.[11] By 1981 Liliaceae had grown to about 280genera and 4,000species.[12] As it became clearer that the very large version of Liliaceae was polyphyletic, some botanists preferred to place Trillium and related genera into that separate family. Others defined a larger family, Melanthiaceae, for a similar purpose, but included several other genera not historically recognized as close relatives of Trillium. This latter approach was followed in 1998 by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, which assigned the genus Trillium, along with its close relative Paris, to the family Melanthiaceae.[13] However, other taxonomists have since preferred to break up the heterogenous Melanthiaceae into several smaller monophyletic families, each with more coherent morphological features, returning Trillium to a resurrected Trilliaceae.[14]
In 1850, German botanist Carl Sigismund KunthsegregatedTrillium govanianumWall. ex D.Don into genus Trillidium.[15] Some authorities consider TrillidiumKunth to be a synonym for TrilliumL.,[16] while others recognize the taxon Trillidium govanianum(Wall. ex D.Don) Kunth based on morphological differences (with other Trillium species) and molecular evidence.[17][18] Still others support the segregation of Trillium undulatumWilld. into genus Trillidium alongside Trillidium govanianum.[14][19]
The Trillium genus has traditionally been divided into two subgenera, Trillium subgenus Trillium and Trillium subgenus Phyllantherum, based on whether the flower is pedicellate or sessile.[21][22] At the time, the former subgenus was considered to be the more primitive group.[23][24][3] Based on molecular systematics, Trillium subgen.Phyllantherum has been shown to be a monophyletic group, but its segregation renders the remaining Trillium subgen.Trilliumparaphyletic.[25]
Trillium subgenus Phyllantherum was named by Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1820,[26] but since he did not provide a description, the name was declared invalid in 2014.[27] At that time, the correct name was thought to be Trillium subgen.Sessilium,[28] which was described by Rafinesque in 1830. However, that name was later found to be incorrect as well.[29]As of July 2022[update], the correct name of the subgenus is TrilliumL. subgen.SessiliaRaf.[30] Its type species is Trillium sessileL.
In 1819, Rafinesque described and named the genus Delostylis,[31] and then placed Trillium stylosumNutt. (now a synonym for Trillium catesbaeiElliott) into the new genus. Reversing himself a decade later, Rafinesque instead placed Trillium stylosum into a new subgenus Delostylium in 1830.[32] Presumably Rafinesque had intended the subgeneric name to replace the earlier generic name, and so the correct name of the former is TrilliumL. subgen.Delostylis(Raf.) Raf..[33][29] Its type species is Trillium catesbaei. Historically, the subgenus has been known as the Catesbaei group.[34][35] The word Delostylis means "with a small but conspicuous style".[36]
Trillium rivale, first described in 1885, was segregated into genus PseudotrilliumS.B.Farmer in 2002.[18] The name Pseudotrillium rivale(S.Watson) S.B.Farmer is widely recognized.
Trillium govanianum, first described in 1839, was segregated into genus TrillidiumKunth in 1850.[15] However, the name Trillidium govanianum(Wall. ex D.Don) Kunth is not widely recognized.
Trillium undulatum, first described in 1801, was segregated into genus Trillidium in 2018,[19] but the name Trillidium undulatum(Willd.) Floden & E.E.Schill. is controversial and not widely recognized.
Phylogenetic analysis places Trillidium govanianum and Trillidium undulatum together in a clade with high support.[37] However, since Trillium and Trillidium are both individually and collectively monophyletic, it is a matter of choice whether or not to recognize genus Trillidium.
Excluding the segregate taxa listed above, the remaining taxa separate into four clades with the following names:[29]
Traditionally, Trillium subgen.Trillium has included all pedicellate-flowered species (which is a paraphyletic group), but in 2022, the subgenus was circumscribed as a clade of fourteen (14) species.[38] Its type species is Trillium erectumL. Historically, the subgenus has been known as the Erectum group.[34][39][40][35][41]
Trillium subgen.Callipetalon was described by Jayne A.Lampley and Edward E.Schilling in 2022.[42] The word Callipetalon means "beautiful petal", a reference to "the famously beautiful flowers" of its type species, Trillium grandiflorum(Michx.) Salisb.[43] Historically, the subgenus has been known as the Grandiflorum group.[34][39][40][35][41]
This leads to a four-part concept of Trillium that sharply contrasts with the traditional pedicellate vs.sessile dichotomy outlined previously.[44]
Subgenus Trillium
Trillium subgen.Trillium, the Erectum group, is a group of pedicellate-flowered trilliums that includes Trillium erectum. The subgenus was circumscribed as a clade of fourteen (14) species in 2022.[38] Species in this subgenus have pedicellate flowers (on a stalk) with three distinct stigmas (no style) and solid green leaves (not mottled). They are distributed across North America and Asia. Hybrids are common within this subgenus (the only group of pedicellate-flowered trilliums with natural hybrids).
Trillium camschatcenseKer Gawl.[48][49] – NE China (Jilin), Japan, Korea, Kuril Islands, E Russia (Primorsky Krai, Khabarovsk Krai, Kamchatka Peninsula, Sakhalin)
Trillium cernuumL. – Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Saskatchewan; Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin; Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Trillium erectumL. – New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Quebec; Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia
Trillium flexipesRaf. – Ontario; Alabama, Arkansas,[6] Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland,[6] Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin
Trillium × hagaeMiyabe & Tatew.[52] (Trillium camschatcense × Trillium tschonoskii) – Japan, E Russia (S Sakhalin)
Trillium hibbersonii(T.M.C.Taylor & Szczaw.) D.O'Neill & S.B.Farmer – British Columbia
Trillium × komaroviiH.Nakai & Koji Ito[53] (Trillium camschatcense × unknown) – Japan, E Russia (Primorsky Krai)
Trillium tschonoskiiMaxim.[58][59] – Bhutan, China (Anhui, Fujian, Gansu, Hubei, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Tibet Autonomous Region, Yunnan, Zhejiang), NE India (Sikkim), Japan, Korea, Kuril Islands, Myanmar, Russia (Sakhalin), Taiwan
Trillium vaseyiHarb. – Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee
Trillium × yezoenseTatew. ex J.Samej.[60] (Trillium apetalon × Trillium camschatcense) – Japan
Subgenus Callipetalon
Trillium subgen.Callipetalon, the Grandiflorum group, is a group of pedicellate-flowered trilliums that includes Trillium grandiflorum. The subgenus was circumscribed as a clade of three (3) species in 2022.[43] Species in the subgenus have pedicellate flowers (on a stalk) and solid green leaves (except T.ovatum on the west coast of California, which occasionally has mottled leaves). The stigmas are fused together at their bases (basally connate) but lack a definite style. They are distributed across North America (but not Asia). Flowers were and still are consumed and used by indigenous peoples in various regions of North America.
Trillium grandiflorum(Michx.) Salisb. – Nova Scotia, Ontario, Quebec; Alabama, Connecticut, Delaware, District of Columbia, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin
Trillium nivaleRiddell – Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, West Virginia, Wisconsin
Trillium scouleriRydb. ex Gleason – Alberta, British Columbia; Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Washington, Wyoming
Subgenus Delostylis
Trillium subgen.Delostylis, the Catesbaei group, is a group of pedicellate-flowered trilliums that includes Trillium catesbaei. The subgenus was circumscribed as a clade of seven (7) species in 2022.[61] Species in this subgenus have pedicellate flowers (except for one variety of T.pusillum) with a definite style and solid green leaves (not mottled). Distribution is restricted to the southeastern and south central United States.
Trillium catesbaeiElliott – Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee
Trillium pusillumMichx. – Alabama, Arkansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Mississippi, Missouri, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia
Trillium subgen.Sessilia, the sessile-flowered trilliums, is a group of species that includes Trillium sessile. The subgenus was circumscribed as a clade of twenty-six (26) species in 2022.[62] Species in this subgenus have sessile flowers (no flower stalk), erect petals (except in T.stamineum), and mottled leaves (except in T.petiolatum and occasionally in plants of other sessile-flowered species).[22]
Trillium sessileL. – Alabama, Arkansas, District of Columbia, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Missouri, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia
The following pair of taxa do not fit into any of the above groups since they are markedly different from other Trillium species. There is evidence to support the segregation of these species into a separate genus (Trillidium) but the proposal is controversial.
Trillium govanianumWall. ex D.Don[63][64][65] – NE Afghanistan, Bhutan, China (Tibet Autonomous Region, Yunnan), N + NE India (Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Sikkim, Uttarakhand), Nepal, N Pakistan
Trillium undulatumWilld. – New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec; Connecticut, Georgia, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia
Trillium tennesseenseE. E. Schill & Floden is considered by some authorities to be a synonym for Trillium lancifoliumRaf.[66]
Trillium parviflorumV.G.Soukup is an accepted name by some authorities[67][68] while others regard this name as a synonym of T.albidum subsp. parviflorum(V.G.Soukup) K.L.Chambers & S.C.Meyers.[69][70]
Trillium ×crockerianumHalda was originally described as a hybrid with parents Trillium ovatum and Trillium rivale,[72] but since the latter is now a member of genus Pseudotrillium, the hybrid has become an undescribed intergeneric hybrid, and therefore its taxonomic placement is uncertain.[73]
Distribution
Trillium species are native to North America and Asia.[3][4][74]
North America
More than three dozen Trillium species are found in North America,[3] most of which are native to eastern North America. Just six species are native to western North America: T.albidum, T.angustipetalum, T.chloropetalum, T.kurabayashii, T.ovatum, and T.petiolatum. Of these, only T.ovatum is pedicellate-flowered.
Canada
Trillium species are found across Canada, from Newfoundland to southern British Columbia. The greatest diversity of species are found in Ontario, Quebec, and Nova Scotia.[3]
In Asia, the range of Trillium species extends from the Himalayas across China, Korea, Japan, and eastern Russia to the Kuril Islands. The greatest diversity of Trillium species is found on the islands of Japan and Sakhalin.
A fully general dichotomous key requires a mature, flowering plant.[3][77][78][79] The first step is to determine whether or not the flower sits on a pedicel, which determines the subgenus. (Any mature plant may be identified to this extent, even if it is not in bloom.) Identification proceeds based on flower parts, leaves, and other characteristics. A combination of characteristics is usually required to identify the plant.
Identification of a non-flowering, non-fruiting plant with bare leaves may be difficult. Although some species of Trillium have petioles (leaf stalks) and/or distinctive leaf shapes, these features are seldom sufficient to identify the plant down to the species level.
In eastern North America, jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum) is often mistaken for bare-leaved Trillium. Both species are about the same height with trifoliate leaves but the former lacks 3-way rotational symmetry and has leaf veins unlike those of Trillium.
Ecology
Trilliums are myrmecochorous, that is, ants act as agents of seed dispersal. Each seed of a ripe fruit has a white fleshy appendage called an elaiosome. Ants are attracted to the elaiosome, so much so they often bore holes into the fruit instead of waiting for it to drop off on its own.[80] The ants carry the seeds back to their nest where they eat the elaiosomes and discard the seeds. Here the seeds eventually germinate, an average of about 1meter away from the parent plant.
Yellow jackets (Vespula spp.) and other wasps are similarly attracted to elaiosomes. The wasps carry off the seeds and feed on the elaiosomes an average of about 1.4meters away from the parent plant. Yellow jackets are documented seed dispersers for at least three species of Trillium (T.catesbaei, T.cuneatum, T.undulatum).[82]
Hybrids
As of February 2022[update], Plants of the World Online recognizes five named hybrids,[2] four in Asia and one in North America. Three of the Asian hybrids, T. × hagae, T. × miyabeanum, and T. × yezoense, are well studied,[83] but little is known about the Asian hybrid T. × komarovii. One of its parents is T.camschatcense but the other parent is unknown.[53]
The only named hybrid in North America is T. × crockerianum whose type specimen was collected in Del Norte County, California.[72] As originally described, its parents are Trillium ovatum and Trillium rivale, but the latter species is now a member of genus Pseudotrillium, and so T. × crockerianum has become an intergeneric hybrid.
In 1982, Haga and Channell crossed the Asiatic species Trillium camschatcense with several North American species. Of those, the crosses with T.erectum, T.flexipes, and T.vaseyi produced solid, seemingly viable seed. Seeds of the cross between T.camschatcense and T.erectum flowered in 9 to 10years.[84]
Disease
Diseased T. grandiflorum with virescent petals, extra petals, and other abnormalities
Various Trillium species are susceptible to a greening disorder caused by bacterial organisms called phytoplasmas that alter the morphology of infected plants.[85] Symptoms of phytoplasma infection include abnormal green markings on the petals (floral virescence), extra leaves (phyllody), and other abnormal characteristics.[86] Infected populations occur throughout the species range but are prevalent in Ontario, Michigan, and New York.[87]
For many years, this condition was thought to originate from mutation, and so many of these forms were given taxonomic names now known to be invalid. In 1971, Hooper, Case, and Meyers used electron microscopy to detect the presence of mycoplasma-like organisms (i.e., phytoplasmas) in T.grandiflorum with virescent petals. The means of transmission was not established but leafhoppers were suspected.[88]As of November 2021[update], the insect vector for Trillium greening disorder is unknown.
Phytoplasmas were positively identified in T.grandiflorum and T.erectum in Ontario in 2016. Phylogenetic analysis supported the grouping of the phytoplasmas isolated from infected plants as a related strain of 'Candidatus Phytoplasma pruni' (subgroup 16SrIII-F) with 99% sequence identity.[89] This subgroup of phytoplasmas is associated with various other diseases, including milkweed yellows, Vacciniumwitches' broom, and potato purple top.[90]
Picking parts off a trillium plant can kill it even if the rhizome is left undisturbed.[91] Some species of trillium are listed as threatened or endangered and collecting these species may be illegal. Laws in some jurisdictions may restrict the commercial exploitation of trilliums and prohibit collection without the landowner's permission. In the US states of Michigan[91] and Minnesota[92] it is illegal to pick trilliums. In New York it is illegal to pick the red trillium.[93]
In 2009, the Ontario Trillium Protection Act, a Private Members Bill, was proposed in the Ontario legislature that would have made it illegal to in any way injure the common Trillium grandiflorum (white trillium) in the province (with some exceptions), however the bill was never passed.[94] The rare Trillium flexipes (drooping trillium) is also protected by law in Ontario, because of its decreasing Canadian population.[95]
High white-tailed deer population density has been shown to decrease or eliminate trillium in an area, particularly white trillium.[96] As such height of trillium can be used as an indicator for white-tailed deer population density within forested and urban areas to help forest regeneration.[97]
Some species are harvested from the wild to an unsustainable degree. This is particularly dire in the case of T.govanianum, whose high selling price as a folk medicine has motivated harvesters to destroy swathes of ecologically sensitive Himalayan forests, causing mudslides.[98]
Medicinal uses
Several species contain sapogenins. They have been used traditionally as uterine stimulants, the inspiration for the common name birthwort. In a 1918 publication, Joseph E. Meyer called it "beth root", probably a corruption of "birthroot". He claimed that an astringent tonic derived from the root was useful in controlling bleeding and diarrhea.[99]
Culture
Ontario trillium emblem on an Ottawa courthouse sign.
Citizen scientists regularly report observations of Trillium species from around the world. T.grandiflorum, T.erectum, and T.ovatum (in that order) are the most often observed Trillium species.[101]
In the 1990s, the activist Michael Page established the use of the trillium as a symbol of bisexuality[103], and in 2001, Francisco Javier Lagunes Gaitán and Miguel Angel Corona designed a Mexican variant of the bisexual pride flag, which is emblazoned with an emblem of a trillium.[104][105][106]
Trillium chloropetalum, also known as giant trillium, giant wakerobin, or common trillium, is a species of flowering plant in the family Melanthiaceae. It is endemic to the western U.S. state of California, being especially frequent in and around the San Francisco Bay Area.
Trillium erectum, the red trillium, also known as wake robin, purple trillium, bethroot, or stinking benjamin, is a species of flowering plant in the family Melanthiaceae. The plant takes its common name "wake robin" by analogy with the European robin, which has a red breast heralding spring. Likewise Trillium erectum is a spring ephemeral plant whose life-cycle is synchronized with that of the forests in which it lives. It is native to the eastern United States and eastern Canada from northern Georgia to Quebec and New Brunswick.
Trillium grandiflorum, the white trillium, large-flowered trillium, great white trillium, white wake-robin or French: trille blanc, is a species of flowering plant in the family Melanthiaceae. A monocotyledonous, herbaceous perennial, the plant is native to eastern North America, from northern Quebec to the southern parts of the United States through the Appalachian Mountains into northernmost Georgia and west to Minnesota. There are also several isolated populations in Nova Scotia, Maine, southern Illinois, and Iowa.
Wake-robin, wakerobin, or wake robin are used in the common names of several species of flowering plants, including:
Trillium ovatum, the Pacific trillium, also known as the western wakerobin, western white trillium, or western trillium, is a species of flowering plant in the family Melanthiaceae. It is the most widespread and abundant trillium in western North America. Its type specimen was gathered by Meriwether Lewis during the return trip of the Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1806.
Trillium luteum, the yellow trillium or yellow wakerobin, is a species of flowering plant in the bunchflower family Melanthiaceae. It is a member of the Trillium cuneatum complex, a closely related group of sessile-flowered trilliums. The species is endemic to the southeastern United States, especially in and around the Great Smoky Mountains of eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina.
Trillium flexipes, known as the nodding wakerobin, bent trillium, or drooping trillium, is a species of flowering plant in the family Melanthiaceae. It is found from Minnesota to Ohio, south to Tennessee, with isolated populations in New York, Pennsylvania, Alabama, and other states. It is an endangered species in Ontario and threatened in North Carolina.
Trillium undulatum, commonly called painted trillium, painted lady, or trille ondulé in French, is a species of flowering plant in the bunchflower family Melanthiaceae. It is also known as smiling wake robin or striped wake-robin. The specific epithet undulatum means "wavy", which refers to the wavy edges of the flower petals. The plant is found from Ontario in the north to northern Georgia in the south and from Michigan in the west to Nova Scotia in the east.
Trillium cuneatum, the little sweet betsy, also known as whip-poor-will flower, large toadshade, purple toadshade, and bloody butcher, is a species of flowering plant in the family Melanthiaceae. It is a member of the Trillium cuneatum complex, a subgroup of the sessile-flowered trilliums. It is native to the southeastern United States but is especially common in a region that extends from southern Kentucky through central Tennessee to northern Alabama. In its native habitat, this perennial plant flowers from early March to late April. It is the largest of the eastern sessile-flowered trilliums.
Trillium sessile is a species of flowering plant in the bunchflower family Melanthiaceae. The specific epithet sessile means "attached without a distinct stalk", an apparent reference to its stalkless flower. It is commonly known as toadshade or toad trillium. It is also called sessile trillium or sessile-flowered wake-robin, however it is not the only member of the genus with a sessile flower.
Trillium cernuum is a species of flowering plant in the bunchflower family Melanthiaceae. The specific epithet cernuum means "drooping, curving forwards, facing downwards", a distinctive habit of its flower. It is commonly called nodding trillium or nodding wakerobin since the flower is invariably found nodding beneath the leaves. It is sometimes referred to as the northern nodding trillium to distinguish from Trillium rugelii, a similar nodding species native to the southern Appalachian Mountains. It is also called the whip-poor-will flower since presumably its bloom coincides with the spring arrival of the migrating bird with the same name.
Trillium sulcatum is a species of flowering plant in the bunchflower family Melanthiaceae. It is a member of the Erectum group, a group of species typified by Trillium erectum. The specific name sulcatum means "furrowed, grooved, or sulcate", which describes the tips of the sepals. It is most abundant on the Cumberland Plateau in central Tennessee and eastern Kentucky where it blooms in April and May. The species is commonly known as the southern red trillium or furrowed wakerobin.
Trillium pusillum is a species of flowering plant in the family Melanthiaceae known by the common names dwarf trillium, least trillium and dwarf wakerobin. It is native to the southeastern and south-central United States from Oklahoma to Maryland.
In botany, sessility is a characteristic of plant organs such as flowers or leaves that have no stalk. Plant parts can also be described as subsessile, that is, not completely sessile.
Trillium recurvatum, the prairie trillium, toadshade, or bloody butcher, is a species of perennial herbaceous flowering plant in the family Melanthiaceae. It is native to parts of central and eastern United States, where it is found from Iowa south to Texas and east to North Carolina and Pennsylvania. It grows in mesic forests and savannas, often in calcareous soils. It is also known as bloody noses, red trillium, prairie wake-robin, purple trillium, and reflexed trillium, in reference to its reflexed sepals.
Trillium petiolatum, the Idaho trillium, also known as the long-petioled trillium or round-leaved trillium, is a species of flowering plant in the family Melanthiaceae. It is native to the northwestern United States, in Idaho, Oregon, and Washington. Its type specimen was gathered by Meriwether Lewis during the return trip of the Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1806.
Trillium crassifolium, the Wenatchee Mountains trillium, is a species of flowering plant in the bunchflower family Melanthiaceae. It was previously thought to be endemic to the Wenatchee Mountains in Washington but recent findings suggest its range extends into Oregon and Idaho as well.
Trillium maculatum, the spotted wakerobin or spotted trillium, is a species of flowering plant in the family Melanthiaceae. It is a member of the Trillium cuneatum complex, a closely related group of sessile-flowered trilliums. The species is endemic to the southeastern United States, ranging across Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, and northern Florida.
Trillium hibbersonii is a species of flowering plant in the bunchflower family Melanthiaceae. The specific epithet hibbersonii honors the English Canadian surveyor John Arthur Hibberson (1881–1955) who first collected this plant in 1938 on Vancouver Island in British Columbia. Hibberson and his son propagated the trilliums, selling them to buyers in England and other European countries. In 1968, Leonard Wiley coined the Latin name Trillium hibbersonii, a name that has since been used by horticulturists without reservation.
Trillium georgianum, the Georgia dwarf trillium, is a species of flowering plant in the family Melanthiaceae. It is one of the rarest, and perhaps most threatened species in the Trillium pusillum species complex. It is the sole representative of the complex in the U.S. state of Georgia.
1 2 3 4 "Trillium". County-level distribution maps from the North American Plant Atlas (NAPA). Biota of North America Program (BONAP). 2014. Retrieved 10 August 2019.
↑ Kevin Kirkland, Two 4-petaled trilliums found, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, May 11, 2013; Trillium erectum and Trillium grandiflorum examples are given.
↑ Zomlefer, Wendy B.; Williams, Norris H.; Whitten, W. Mark; Judd, Walter S. (2001). "Generic Circumscription and Relationships in the Tribe Melanthieae (Liliales, Melanthiaceae), with Emphasis on Zigadenus: Evidence from ITS and trnL-F Sequence Data". American Journal of Botany. 88 (9): 1657–1669. doi:10.2307/3558411. JSTOR3558411. PMID21669700.
1 2 Kunth, Karl Sigismund (1850). "Trillidium". Enumeratio Plantarum Omnium Hucusque Cognitarum, Secundum Familias Naturales Disposita, Adjectis Characteribus, Differentiis et Synonymis. 5. Stutgardiae et Tubingae [Stuttgart and Tübingen]: 120. Retrieved 30 November 2021.
↑ "Trillium". State-level distribution maps from the North American Plant Atlas (NAPA). Biota of North America Program (BONAP). 2014. Retrieved 10 August 2019.
↑ Ohara, M.; Higashi, S. (1987). "Interference by ground beetles with the dispersal by ants of seeds of Trillium species (Liliaceae)". The Journal of Ecology. 75 (4): 1091–98. Bibcode:1987JEcol..75.1091O. doi:10.2307/2260316. JSTOR2260316.
↑ Nuffer, B. (April 2009). "Red Trillium". New York State Conservationist. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. Archived from the original on 2011-05-10. Retrieved 2011-05-23.
Meredith, Clayton; Frances, Anne; Highland, Amy; Oliver, Leah; Floden, Aaron; Gaddy, L.L.; Knapp, Wesley; Leaman, Danna; Leopold, Susan; Littlefield, Tara; Raguso, Robert; Schilling, Edward; Schotz, Alfred; Walker, Anna; Wayman, Kjirsten (2022). The Conservation Status of Trillium in North America. Hockessin, DE and Albuquerque, NM: Mt. Cuba Center, and New Mexico BioPark Society. ISBN979-8-9850471-0-3. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
Patrick, Thomas S. (August 1986), The trilliums of eastern North America (mimeographed handout), Knoxville: University of Tennessee, pp.1–7, retrieved 30 March 2023
Wayman, Kjirsten A.; Reilly, Matthew J.; Petlewski, Alaina R. (December 2023). "Taxonomic insights from floral scents of western North American sessile-flowered Trillium". American Journal of Botany. 110 (12). doi:10.1002/ajb2.16255. PMID37938811.
Friesner, Ray C. (1929). "The genus Trillium in Indiana". Butler University Botanical Studies. Butler University Botanical Studies: Vol. 1, Article 4. 1 (1). Retrieved 28 September 2021.
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