Walker-Hooper Site (47-GL-65) | |
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Location | Green Lake County, Wisconsin |
Coordinates | 43°43′44″N89°15′54″W / 43.72889°N 89.26500°W |
Area | 60 acres |
Location in Wisconsin |
The Walker-Hooper Site (47-GL-65) is a multicomponent prehistoric site complex located on the Grand River in the Upper Fox River drainage area in Green Lake County, Wisconsin. It consisted of at least 2 village sites and several mound groups (all of which are destroyed today). It was excavated by S.A. Barrett under the auspices of the Milwaukee Public Museum in 1921 and again in 1967 by Guy Gibbon of the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. The major component of the site is an Upper Mississippian Oneota palisaded village. Other components were also present, mainly Late Woodland but also including Archaic, Early Woodland and Middle Woodland. [1] [2]
The site is located in the Carolinian Biotic Province as defined by Cleland. [3] The environment of the immediate site surroundings included prairie, oak-hickory forest and marshland. [1]
The 1921 excavations focused on the burial mounds present on the site. There were at least 6 groups of mounds, and a total of 38 burials were recovered. Mound 1 of Mound Group 4 was interesting in that it was shaped in the form of a bear effigy. [2]
Of the 38 burials, 23 were flexed, 8 were extended and 7 were indeterminate due to poor preservation or disturbance. The adults were almost all flexed, while the extended burials were generally infant or child burials. Grave goods were present in some burials, including pottery vessels and other artifacts. Some burials contained charcoal, implying a fire was built as part of the burial ceremony. [2]
In addition, several “camp sites” and refuse pits were excavated, which contained animal bone, pot sherds, shell fragments and stone and bone tools and fragments. [2]
The following artifacts were recovered from the 1921 excavations: [2]
Some of these artifacts are illustrated and discussed further below.
The 1967 excavations yielded 2 rows of post molds interpreted as palisades; 2 oval-shaped houses; sheet middens; and 66 cache and refuse pits containing cultural debris such as pot sherds, lithic debitage and animal bone. [1]
The houses measured 35 x 10 feet and 20 x 11 feet. Similar houses at the Huber Phase sites of Anker [4] and Oak Forest [5] in the Chicago area measured from 25–55 feet wide by 12–15 feet wide. The cache and refuse pits were located both within and outside the structures, although the ones outside structures tended to be larger. [1]
The following artifacts were recovered from the 1967 excavations: [1]
Some of these artifacts are illustrated and discussed further below.
Animal remains were only reported from the 1967 excavations. The major species were deer and fish (especially freshwater drum, bass and northern pike). Some of the other species present were mussels, beaver, elk, dog, bear, otter, duck and common loon. [1] These remains were not modified into tools like the bone tools described elsewhere in this article, and may be considered food remains or, in the case of the dog and bear, possibly the remains of ceremonial activities. Dog sacrifice and dog meat consumption was observed to have ceremonial and religious implications in early Native American tribes. Bear worship and ceremonialism has also been recorded in the ethnological record. [6]
Many of the bones were deliberately smashed, implying they were extracting marrow or bone grease. [1]
Significantly, the estimated pounds of meat of the fish bones recovered indicate that fish provided an equal portion of the diet compared to the mammal bone, which means the inhabitants were heavily reliant on aquatic resources. [1]
Despite a close proximity to prairie habitat, there were no bison remains recovered from the site. It has been suggested that bison did not range east of the Mississippi River until after A.D. 1600. [7]
Plant remains were only reported from the 1967 excavations. Maize cobs and kernels, and hickory nut shell, were the most abundant. Present in trace amounts were beans, squash, acorn and hazelnut. [1]
The hickory nut shell was smashed into small pieces which implies that the inhabitants were smashing the nuts, boiling in water and skimming the oil off the top. [1]
Archaeologists often find pottery to be a very useful tool in analyzing a prehistoric culture. It is usually very plentiful at a site and the details of manufacture and decoration are very sensitive indicators of time, space and culture. [8]
The 1921 excavations yielded several complete vessels associated with burials. However, these were not analyzed or assigned to a formal typology. During the 1967 excavations, no whole or reconstructable vessels were recovered from the site, so the analysis was based upon examination of rim and body sherds. Due to the large number of very small sherds, an effort was made to convert a raw sherd count into an estimated minimum number of vessels present. This provided a more accurate estimate of the relative proportions of pottery types represented. [1]
The 1967 pottery was assigned to formal types. Several pottery types from different time periods were present. Some of them are listed below: [1]
Type | No. of vessels | Tempering material | Description | Cultural affiliation |
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Carcajou curvilinear [9] | 1 | Shell | Consists of shell-tempered, globular jars with restricted orifice, well-defined shoulders, everted rim profile and notched lips. Surface finish is smooth and decoration is applied between the neck and shoulder in the form of interlocking scrolls sometimes with hatched areas, and meanders. Occasionally handles are present. Early examples have angular shoulders. Grand River trailed is similar except for the notched lips. | Upper Mississippian Oneota (Koshkonong and Grand River Foci) |
Carcajou plain [9] | 28 | Shell | Same as Carcajou curvilinear except decoration is limited to lip notching | Upper Mississippian Oneota (Koshkonong and Grand River Foci) |
Grand River trailed [9] | 3 | Shell | Consists of shell-tempered, globular jars with restricted orifice, well-defined shoulders and everted rim profile. Rims are not notched. Surface finish is smooth and decoration is applied between the neck and shoulder in the form of interlocking scrolls , meanders, linear and circular, crescent-shaped and similar elements arranged in patterns. Handles are rare. Carcajou Curvilinear is similar except for the notched lips | Upper Mississippian Oneota (Koshkonong and Grand River Foci) |
Grand River plain [9] | 59 | Shell | Same as Grand River trailed except no decoration | Upper Mississippian Oneota (Koshkonong and Grand River Foci) |
Busseyville grooved paddle [9] | 2 | Shell | Consists of shell-tempered, globular vessels with everted rim profile, squared lip and grooved-paddle impressed surface finish. Similar to Fort Ancient pottery from the Madisonville focus [10] and Danner Paddle-Impressed from the Danner Component of the Zimmerman site | Unknown |
Point Sauble collared [11] | 1 | Grit | Cord-impressed surface, collared rim, row of punctates beneath collar | Late Woodland |
Madison plain [12] | 7 | Grit | Plain surface; some vessels have cord impressions on lip | Late Woodland / Effigy Mound |
Madison cord-impressed [12] | 2 | Grit | Cord-impressed decoration; globular vessel form with restricted orifice and slightly everted rim profile | Late Woodland / Effigy Mound |
The non-pottery artifacts found at an archaeological site can provide useful cultural context as well as a glimpse into the domestic tasks performed at a site; ceremonial or religious activities; recreational activities; and clothing or personal adornment.
Some of the most prominent and diagnostic non-pottery artifacts are presented here in more detail:
Material | Description | Image | Qty | Function / use | Comments / associations |
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Chipped stone | Small triangular points (aka Madison points) | ![]() | 24 | Hunting/fishing/warfare | Also known as “arrowheads”; are thought to be arrow-tips for bows-and-arrows. The usage of the bow-and-arrow seems to have greatly increased after A.D. 1000, probably as a result of increased conflict. [13] [14] |
Bone | Deer jaw sickles | ![]() | 6 | Domestic function / used for scraping maize kernels off the cobs | The presence of these sickles is an indicator of the practice of maize agriculture at the site [15] |
Shell | Fish lures | ![]() | 4 | Fishing function | Fish remains were common among the animal bone recovered from the site |
Shell | Spoons | ![]() | 4 | Domestic function / food preparation-serving | Shell spoons were found as grave goods at the Gentleman Farm site [16] and Fisher Mound Group; [17] they were also present in the Upper Mississippian Heally Complex at the Zimmerman site [18] [19] |
Wood | Wooden vessel | ![]() | 1 | Domestic function / food preparation-serving | Found with a burial; wooden implements are extremely rare in Prehistoric sites because of preservation. This vessel was partially carbonized which prevented it from decaying naturally |
Bone | Grooved bone | ![]() | 1 | Unknown | Very rare artifact with unknown function; a similar specimen was recovered from the Moccasin Bluff site in southwest Michigan [15] |
Bone | Harpoon | ![]() | 1 | Fishing function | Similar harpoons have been recovered from the Fisher Mound Group in Illinois [17] and Fifield Site in Indiana [20] |
Bone | Bear tusk pendant | ![]() | 1 | Personal adornment and/or ceremonial function | Bear ceremonialism was noted among the early Native American tribes [6] |
Bone | Fish hooks | ![]() | 2 | Fishing function | Fish remains were common among the animal bone recovered from the site |
Copper | Bracelet | ![]() | 1 | Personal adornment and/or ceremonial function | Bracelet made from copper beads found in a child burial; the photo shows the bracelet in place as it was found on the skeleton |
Copper | Serpent-shaped Pendant | ![]() | 1 | Personal adornment and/or ceremonial function | Probably worn as a pendant |
The Walker-Hooper site is the type site of the Grand River focus of the Oneota Aspect, based primarily on details of the pottery. In particular, the Grand River focus pottery tends to have more plain undecorated vessels (other than lip decoration) and handles are very rare. Punctate decoration is also particularly rare. Besides the pottery, Grand River sites are also more often associated with burial mounds. [1] [13]
Along with the Koshkonong and Green Bay Foci, the Grand River focus is considered part of the Developmental Horizon of the Oneota Aspect, dating to approximately A.D. 1000-1300. The radiocarbon dates obtained from the Walker-Hooper site accordingly range from A.D. 1200-1240. The site is thought to have been occupied during a relatively short interval. Based upon the animal and plant remains, it is thought to have been a summer seasonal agricultural village. [1]
The Grand Village of the Illinois, also called Old Kaskaskia Village, is a site significant for being the best documented historic Native American village in the Illinois River valley. It was a large agricultural and trading village of Native Americans of the Illinois confederacy, located on the north bank of the Illinois River near the present town of Utica, Illinois. French explorers Louis Joliet and Father Jacques Marquette came across it in 1673. The Kaskaskia, a tribe of the Illiniwek people lived in the village. It grew rapidly after a French mission and fur trading post were established there in 1675, to a population of about 6,000 people in about 460 houses. Around 1691 the Kaskaskia and other Illiniwek moved further south, abandoning the site due to pressure from an Iroquois invasion from the northeast.
Leary Site, also known as 25-RH-1 or Leary-Kelly Site is an archaeological site near Rulo, Nebraska and the Big Nemaha River. The site now lies entirely on the reservation of the Iowa Tribe of Kansas and Nebraska. The area was once a village and burial site.
The Upper Mississippian cultures were located in the Upper Mississippi basin and Great Lakes region of the American Midwest. They were in existence from approximately A.D. 1000 until the Protohistoric and early Historic periods.
The Plum Island Eagle Sanctuary is a 52-acre island in the Illinois River owned by the Illinois Audubon Society. It was purchased March 24, 2004, to act as a wildlife sanctuary and to protect foraging habitat for wintering bald eagles. It is close to Matthiessen State Park and adjacent to Starved Rock State Park.
The Moccasin Bluff site is an archaeological site located along the Red Bud Trail and the St. Joseph River north of Buchanan, Michigan. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1977, and has been classified as a multi-component prehistoric site with the major component dating to the Late Woodland/Upper Mississippian period.
The Griesmer site (La-3) is located on the Kankakee River in Lake County, Indiana, about a mile southeast of Schneider, in Northwestern Indiana. It is classified as a Prehistoric, multi-component site with Middle Woodland, Late Woodland and Upper Mississippian occupations. The deposits were not stratified, but observation of the types of artifacts present, together with radiocarbon dates, helped to define the sequence of occupations at the site.
The Fifield Site (Pr-55) is located on Damon Run Creek in Porter County, north-western Indiana. It is classified as a late prehistoric, single-component Upper Mississippian Fisher village.
The Huber Site (11Ck-1) is located on Tinley Creek 2 miles west of Blue Island in Cook County, Illinois, near the city of Chicago. It is classified as a late prehistoric site with Upper Mississippian affiliation.
The Hoxie Farm site (11Ck-4) is located on Thorn Creek in Thornton, Illinois Cook County Forest Preserve in Cook County, Illinois, near the city of Chicago. It is classified as a late prehistoric to Protohistoric/Early Historic site with Upper Mississippian Huber affiliation.
The Palos site (Ck-26) is located on the Cal-Sag Canal in Cook County, Illinois, United States, near the city of Chicago. It is classified as a Protohistoric to early Historic site with Upper Mississippian affiliation.
The Knoll Spring site (11Ck-19), aka Au Sagaunashke village, is located in the Sag Valley, Palos Hills, in Cook County, Illinois, near the city of Chicago. It is classified as a late prehistoric site with Upper Mississippian Huber affiliation.
The Oak Forest Site (11Ck-53) is located in Oak Forest, Cook County, Illinois, near the city of Chicago. It is classified as a late prehistoric to Protohistoric/Early Historic site with Upper Mississippian Huber affiliation.
The Anker Site (11Ck-21) is located on the Little Calumet River near Chicago, Illinois. It is classified as a late prehistoric site with Upper Mississippian Huber affiliation.
The Hotel Plaza site (Ls-36) is located near Starved Rock, on the Illinois River across from the Zimmerman site (aka Grand Village of the Illinois. It is a multi-component site representing prehistoric, protohistoric and early historic periods, with the main occupation being an early Historic component associated with the French Fort St. Louis.
The Gentleman Farm site is an archaeological site located in LaSalle County, Illinois, on the Illinois River. It is a multi-component site with the main occupation being a Langford tradition component of Upper Mississippian affiliation.
The Fisher Mound Group is a group of burial mounds with an associated village site located on the DesPlaines River near its convergence with the Kankakee River where they combine to form the Illinois River, in Will County, Illinois, about 60 miles southwest of Chicago. It is a multi-component stratified site representing several Prehistoric Upper Mississippian occupations as well as minor Late Woodland and Early Historic components.
The Carcajou Point site is located in Jefferson County, Wisconsin, on Lake Koshkonong. It is a multi-component site with prehistoric Upper Mississippian Oneota and Historic components.
The Upper Iowa River Oneota site complex is a series of 7 Iowa archaeological sites located within a few miles of each other in Allamakee County, Iowa, on or near the Upper Iowa River. They are all affiliated with the Late Prehistoric Upper Mississippian Oneota Orr focus. In some cases there are early European trade goods present, indicating occupation continued into the Protohistoric or early Historic period.
The Mero site is a stratified, multicomponent prehistoric site located on the south side of Marshall's Point on the Door Peninsula in Door County, Wisconsin. It was excavated in 1960 by Ronald and Carol Mason under the auspices of the Neville Public Museum in Green Bay, Wisconsin, with financial backing from the landowner, Peter Mero.
The Midway Site (47LC19) is a prehistoric Upper Mississippian Oneota site in La Crosse County, Wisconsin. It is located about 10 miles north of LaCrosse near the juncture of the Black and Mississippi Rivers.