Arctic policy of Canada

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The Arctic policy of Canada includes both the foreign policy of Canada in regard to the Arctic region and Canada's domestic policy towards its Arctic territories. This includes the devolution of powers to the territories. Canada's Arctic policy includes the plans and provisions of these regional governments. It encompasses the exercise of sovereignty, social and economic development, the protection of the environment, and the improving and devolving of governance.

Contents

Canada, along with the 7 other Arctic nations, is a member of the Arctic Council. On August 23, 2012, Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced that Nunavut MP Leona Aglukkaq would serve as chair of the Arctic Council when Canada assumed the Chairmanship from Sweden in May 2013. [1]

Along with its mainland in the upper regions of North America, Canada claims sovereignty over the related continental shelf and the Arctic Archipelago. It considers the waters between the islands of the Archipelago to be Canadian Internal Waters. The United States among others considers those to be international waters.

Canada has more Arctic land mass than any other country but one of the smallest Arctic populations. Canada's Arctic land is included within the administrative regions of the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Yukon, although geographically and in some cases legally, parts of Newfoundland and Labrador and Northern Quebec are included as well. As of 2011, approximately 107,265 Canadians live in the Arctic. [2]

History

Stephen Leacock's 1914 map of Arctic explorers Explorers Map, 1914, Stephen Leacock.jpg
Stephen Leacock's 1914 map of Arctic explorers

Government interest in the North began with the English explorations of Frobisher and Davis in the 1500s and the 1670 Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) charter. [3] The HBC charter gave the company title to Rupert's Land, the watershed of Hudson Bay. In 1821, the rest of the present-day Northwest Territories and Nunavut south of the Arctic coast was added to the charter. Then, in 1870, the Hudson's Bay Company transferred title to its lands to Canada with its purchase of Rupert's Land. Thus, the new dominion acquired legal sovereignty over all of what is now northern Canada except for the Arctic islands. This northern mainland sovereignty has never been questioned although there have been challenges to Canada's Arctic sovereignty in the past. [3]

In 1880 the government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland transferred to Canada the rest of its possessions in the Arctic, including "all Islands adjacent to any such Territories" whether discovered by British or foreigners, or not yet discovered. [3]

Further historical information related to Canadian Arctic policy can be found in the sections which follow.

Geography

The Arctic region Arctic (orthographic projection).svg
The Arctic region

Definition of Arctic

The term "Arctic" varies in its usage. It can be defined as north of the Arctic Circle (66° 33'N). Alternatively, it can be defined as the region where the average temperature for the warmest month (July) is below 10 °C (50 °F); the northernmost tree line roughly follows the isotherm at the boundary of this region. [4] [5] Socially and politically, the Arctic region includes the northern territories of the eight Arctic states, although by natural science definitions much of this territory is considered subarctic.

Canadian geographer Louis-Edmond Hamelin developed the nordicity index, having ten natural and human components: [6]

  1. latitude
  2. summer heat
  3. annual cold
  4. types of ice
  5. total precipitation
  6. natural vegetation cover
  7. accessibility by means other than air
  8. air service
  9. population
  10. degree of economic activity

Using these components, he calculated regional values whereby he subdivided Canada into Near North, Middle North, Far North and Extreme North.

Population

A large part of Canada is in the Arctic region. Administratively this is split between the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Yukon. About 107,000 Canadians live in the Arctic. [2] This compares with the other countries' Arctic regions as follows: [7]

  1. Russia – 2,000,000 [7]
  2. USA – 731,449 (includes entire population of Alaska, most which is below the Arctic Circle) [8]
  3. Arctic Norway – 470,757 [9]
  4. Iceland – 321,857 [10]
  5. Sweden – 250,000 [7]
  6. Finland – 184,000 [7]
  7. Canada – 107,265 (includes entire population of Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut, much of which is below the Arctic Circle) [2]
  8. Denmark – 106,079 (Greenland and Faroe Islands) [11] [12]

Note: The statistic given for Iceland refers to its entire population. However, Iceland is almost entirely sub-Arctic, as are the Faroe Islands.

The Inuit

The Inuit are Aboriginal peoples originating in the Canadian Arctic and other polar nations. The word Inuit means "people" in Inuktitut, the language of the Inuit.

Although the 50,480 [13] Inuit listed in the 2006 Canada Census can be found throughout Canada the majority, 44,470 (88.1% [14] ), live in four regions lying north of the 54th parallel. [15] [16] [17] [18]

As of the 2006 Canada Census there were 4,715 (9.3% [14] ) Inuit living in Newfoundland and Labrador [15] and about 2,160 (4.3% [14] ) live in Nunatsiavut. [19] There are also about 6,000 NunatuKavut people (Labrador Metis or Inuit-metis) living in southern Labrador in what is called NunatuKavut. [20]

As of the 2006 Canada Census there were 4,165 (10.1% [14] ) Inuit living in the Northwest Territories. [16] The majority, about 3,115 (6.2% [14] ), live in the six communities of the Inuvialuit Settlement Region. [21]

As of the 2006 Canada Census there were 24,640 (84.0% [14] ) Inuit living in Nunavut. [17] In Nunavut the Inuit population forms a majority in all communities and is the only jurisdiction of Canada where Aboriginal peoples form a majority.

Canadian Arctic Archipelago Canadian Arctic Archipelago.svg
Canadian Arctic Archipelago

As of the 2006 Canada Census there were 10,950 (21.7% [14] ) Inuit living in Quebec. [18] The majority, about 9,565 (19.0% [14] ), live in Nunavik. [22]

The Arctic Archipelago

Canadian sovereignty over the lands of the Arctic Archipelago is no longer disputed.

From 1898 to 1902 Otto Sverdrup explored in the high Arctic. He discovered the islands of Axel Heiberg, Ellef Ringnes and Amund Ringnes, known as Sverdrup Islands, and claimed them for Norway. He was the first known European to have set foot on them. [3] Norway retained territorial interests in the islands until 1930 when it formally recognized the sovereignty of Britain (Canada) over them. [23]

Historically, occupation of the land has been considered important in establishing sovereignty. This led to a variety of initiatives of the Canadian government. From 1953 to 1955, eighty-seven Inuit were moved by the Government of Canada to the High Arctic. In the 1990s this relocation became a point of controversial scrutiny. The government's motives seem to have included this need to occupy the land. [24] [25]

The waterways, including the Northwest Passage, within the Archipelago remain in dispute. Canada considers them internal waters while the United States considers them international waters.

Arctic Circle

Map of the Arctic with the Arctic Circle in blue. Arctic circle.svg
Map of the Arctic with the Arctic Circle in blue.

The eight northern countries listed above all have territory within the Arctic Circle. Several of these make conflicting claims of sovereignty. The United States and Canada do not agree on their boundaries in the Beaufort Sea. Canada and Denmark both claim the small Hans Island off of Greenland. Russia, Denmark and Canada all claim common sections of the Lomonosov Ridge.

Policy statements

In 2007, the three Canadian territorial governments released "A Northern Vision: A Stronger North and a Better Canada". The vision's main themes are sovereignty, circumpolar relations and climate change. [26]

In 2009, the Government of Canada presented Canada's Northern Strategy: Our North, Our Heritage, Our Future. It focused on four objectives: [27]

The Government of Canada has a clear vision for the North, in which:

  1. self-reliant individuals live in healthy, vital communities, manage their own affairs and shape their own destinies;
  2. the Northern tradition of respect for the land and the environment is paramount and the principles of responsible and sustainable development anchor all decision-making and action;
  3. strong, responsible, accountable governments work together for a vibrant, prosperous future for all – a place whose people and governments are significant contributing partners to a dynamic, secure Canadian federation; and
  4. we patrol and protect our territory through enhanced presence on the land, in the sea and over the skies of the Arctic. [27]

On August 23, 2010, the Prime Minister of Canada, Stephen Harper said that protection of Canada's sovereignty over its northern regions was its number one and "non-negotiable priority" in Arctic policy. [28] Canada has slated $109 million, to be spent before 2014, for research to substantiate extended continental shelf claims in the Arctic region. [29]

Canada's Arctic policy priorities are: [30]

  1. Exercise Canadian sovereignty,
  2. Promote economic and social development,
  3. Protect the arctic environment, and
  4. Improve and devolve governance.

The exercise of sovereignty

Bathymetric features of the Arctic Ocean Arctic Ocean bathymetric features.png
Bathymetric features of the Arctic Ocean

Canada has had historic difficulty supporting its Arctic claims of sovereignty due to the sparsity of population, remoteness, and difficulty in effectively demonstrating administrative capacity. Most challenges to Canada's arctic sovereignty have historically come from the United States. [31] As claims of sovereignty in the Arctic solidified with the end of territorial disputes around the Alaska panhandles, Canada's efforts at demonstrating sovereignty have shifted from the mainland of the north, to the Arctic Archipelago. Most recently, Canada's claims that the marine passageways within the Archipelago are Canadian internal waters have been actively challenged by the United States, who claims instead that these are international waters.

In 1969, the SS Manhattan and, in 1985, the Polar Sea, both United States ships, sparked controversy in Canada by traveling through the waters of the Arctic Archipelago without the permission of Canada. Due to the remoteness of the area and a lack of capacity, Canada did not learn of the voyages until after they had occurred, a clear challenge to Canada's arctic claims. In the aftermath of both incidents, Canada strengthened its legislation covering such voyages and devoted additional attention to developing its capacity (both military and otherwise) for operating in the Arctic in support of its sovereignty claims.

Economic and social development

The Inuit have been hunters for millennia. As they interacted with Europeans they became trappers and dependent on foreign economic forces.

Education

ArcticNet's Schools on Board program is based out of The Clayton H. Riddell Faculty of Environment, Earth and Resources at the University of Manitoba in Winnipeg. It helps connect high schools across Canada with those conducting climate change research in the Arctic. They educate young Canadians concerning the challenges and career opportunities in Arctic research. Participating schools send students and teachers to the Arctic, on board CCGS Amundsen, to do field research with the ArcticNet science team. [32]

Health Care

Policy concerns include adequate nutrition, suicide rates, toxic pollution, tuberculosis, and adequate housing.

Protection of the environment

Environmental concerns include global warming, preservation of flora and fauna, shipping traffic, and oil exploration. As a consequence of the SS Manhattan's venture through the Northwest Passage, the Canadian government enacted the Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act. [33]

Improving and devolving governance

Canada has had a paternalistic relationship with its Aboriginal peoples in the past. The creation of Nunavut has helped promote self-government.

Scientific Research

Many Canadian institutions conduct research in the Arctic. As part of its Arctic policy, in the summer of 2010, the Canadian Government announced plans to build a High Arctic Research Station. This station will be built as an integral part of Canada's Northern Strategy and serves political purposes, such as asserting Canada's sovereignty in the high north, as much as concrete research objectives. Cambridge Bay was chosen after a feasibility study that also included Pond Inlet and Resolute as potential locations. It will be a year-round, multidisciplinary facility exploring the cutting-edge of Arctic science and technology issues; opening is foreseen in 2017. Total costs are as yet unknown, but pre-construction design alone is budgeted at C$18 million. [34]

Legislation governing Arctic policy is expanding due to the opportunities opened up by the melting of Arctic summer ice such as natural resource extraction and expedited shipping routes. [35]

See also

International initiatives
Nation states policies
Foreign relations of Canada
Canadian institutions
Canadian history
Canadian individuals of influence
Arctic concepts and terms

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inuit languages</span> Language family of North America

The Inuit languages are a closely related group of indigenous American languages traditionally spoken across the North American Arctic and the adjacent subarctic regions as far south as Labrador. The Inuit languages are one of the two branches of the Eskimoan language family, the other being the Yupik languages, which are spoken in Alaska and the Russian Far East. Most Inuit people live in one of three countries: Greenland, a self-governing territory within the Kingdom of Denmark; Canada, specifically in Nunavut, the Inuvialuit Settlement Region of the Northwest Territories, the Nunavik region of Quebec, and the Nunatsiavut and NunatuKavut regions of Labrador; and the United States, specifically in northern and western Alaska.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Northwest Territories</span> Territory of Canada

The Northwest Territories is a federal territory of Canada. At a land area of approximately 1,144,000 km2 (442,000 sq mi) and a 2016 census population of 41,790, it is the second-largest and the most populous of the three territories in Northern Canada. Its estimated population as of 2022 is 45,605. Yellowknife is the capital, most populous community, and only city in the territory; its population was 19,569 as of the 2016 census. It became the territorial capital in 1967, following recommendations by the Carrothers Commission.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Labrador</span> Mainland portion of Newfoundland and Labrador

Labrador is a geographic and cultural region within the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It is the primarily continental portion of the province and constitutes 71% of the province's area but is home to only 6% of its population. It is separated from the island of Newfoundland by the Strait of Belle Isle. It is the largest and northernmost geographical region in the four Atlantic provinces.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Provinces and territories of Canada</span> Top-level subdivisions of Canada

Canada has ten provinces and three territories that are sub-national administrative divisions under the jurisdiction of the Canadian Constitution. In the 1867 Canadian Confederation, three provinces of British North America—New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and the Province of Canada —united to form a federation, becoming a fully independent country over the next century. Over its history, Canada's international borders have changed several times as it has added territories and provinces, making it the world's second-largest country by area.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Northern Canada</span> Region of Canada

Northern Canada, colloquially the North or the Territories, is the vast northernmost region of Canada variously defined by geography and politics. Politically, the term refers to the three territories of Canada: Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut. This area covers about 48 per cent of Canada's total land area, but has less than 0.5 per cent of Canada's population.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Devolution</span> Granting of some competences of central government to local government

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inuktitut</span> Name of several Inuit languages spoken in Canada

Inuktitut, also known as Eastern Canadian Inuktitut, is one of the principal Inuit languages of Canada. It is spoken in all areas north of the tree line, including parts of the provinces of Newfoundland and Labrador, Quebec, to some extent in northeastern Manitoba as well as the Northwest Territories and Nunavut. It is one of the aboriginal languages written with Canadian Aboriginal syllabics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada</span> Department of the government of Canada

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami</span> Canadian Inuit political organization

Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, previously known as the Inuit Tapirisat of Canada, is a nonprofit organization in Canada that represents over 65,000 Inuit across Inuit Nunangat and the rest of Canada. Their mission is to "serve as a national voice protecting and advancing the rights and interests of Inuit in Canada."

Nunavut Tunngavik Incorporated is the legal representative of the Inuit of Nunavut for the purposes of native treaty rights and treaty negotiation. The presidents of NTI, Makivik Corporation, Nunatsiavut, and the Inuvialuit Regional Corporation, the four regional land claims organizations, govern the national body, the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami (ITK) as its board of directors. NTI continues to play a central role in Nunavut, even after the creation of the Government of Nunavut. As the successor of the Tunngavik Federation of Nunavut, which was a signatory of the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement on behalf of Inuit, NTI is responsible for ensuring that the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement is implemented fully by the Government of Canada and the Government of Nunavut and that all parties fulfill their obligations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Nunavut</span> Aspect of history

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nunavut</span> Territory of Canada

Nunavut is the largest and northernmost territory of Canada. It was separated officially from the Northwest Territories on April 1, 1999, via the Nunavut Act and the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Act, which provided this territory to the Inuit for independent government. The boundaries had been drawn in 1993. The creation of Nunavut resulted in the first major change to Canada's political map in half a century since the province of Newfoundland was admitted in 1949.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inuit</span> Group of peoples of Arctic North America

Inuit are a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic and subarctic regions of Greenland, Labrador, Quebec, Nunavut, the Northwest Territories, and Alaska. Inuit languages are part of the Eskimo–Aleut languages, also known as Inuit-Yupik-Unangan, and also as Eskaleut. Inuit Sign Language is a critically endangered language isolate used in Nunavut.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inuvialuit Settlement Region</span> Region in Canada

The Inuvialuit Settlement Region, abbreviated as ISR, located in Canada's western Arctic, was designated in 1984 in the Inuvialuit Final Agreement by the Government of Canada for the Inuvialuit people. It spans 90,650 km2 (35,000 sq mi) of land, mostly above the tree line, and includes several subregions: the Beaufort Sea, the Mackenzie River delta, the northern portion of Yukon, and the northwest portion of the Northwest Territories. The ISR includes both Crown Lands and Inuvialuit Private Lands.

The Canadian Northern Economic Development Agency is a policy initiative announced by Prime Minister Stephen Harper of the Federal Conservative Party in August 2009. The purpose of the agency is to promote economic development and prosperity while protecting national sovereignty in Northern Canada. CanNor is situated in Iqaluit, Nunavut. By centralizing this economic program in the Northern region of Canada, the Federal Government believes that it will contribute to increased participation by local communities and government in federal policy. From this, CanNor is also responsible for the Northern Projects Management Office (NPMO), which serves as a review board for economic developments in Northern Canada. As of July 2, 2014, the current President of CanNor is Paula Isaak. The Government of Canada is responsible for CanNor, with Dan Vandal, Minister responsible for the Canadian Northern Economic Development Agency, overseeing the developments within the agency. In various programs, CanNor promotes the growth of the economy, education, infrastructure development, and culture in Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut. CanNor was created from the policy initiative "Northern Strategy," developed to exercise sovereignty, promote social and economic development, protecting the heritage surrounding Native peoples in the Arctic region, as well as asserting continual governance.

The NunatuKavummiut are a people formally recognized by the federal government as among the Indigenous peoples in Canada. They live in central to southern Labrador, and are of mixed Inuit and European heritage. According to recent censuses completed by Statistics Canada, the vast majority of individuals living in NunatuKavut communities identify as 'Métis' as opposed to 'Inuit' or 'Mixed Inuit'. However, they are unrelated to the Metis people of the Red River Colony of Western Canada.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inuit Nunangat</span> Inuit regions of Canada

Inuit Nunangat is the homeland of the Inuit in Canada. This Arctic homeland consists of four northern Canadian regions called the Inuvialuit Settlement Region, the territory Nunavut (ᓄᓇᕗᑦ), Nunavik (ᓄᓇᕕᒃ) in northern Québec, and Nunatsiavut of Newfoundland and Labrador.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NunatuKavut</span> Proposed Autonomous area in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada

NunatuKavut is an unrecognized Inuit territory in Labrador. The NunatuKavut people are the direct descendants of the Inuit that lived south of the Churchill or Grand River prior to European contact, with recent European admixture primarily from English settlers. According to recent censuses completed by Statistics Canada, the vast majority of individuals living in NunatuKavut communities identify as Métis as opposed to 'Inuit' or 'Mixed-Inuit'.

References

  1. ↑ PM Harper: Nunavut MP Leona Aglukkaq will chair the Arctic Council PM Harper: Nunavut MP Aglukkaq will chair the Arctic Council
  2. 1 2 3 Population and dwelling counts, for Canada, provinces and territories, 2011 and 2006 censuses
  3. 1 2 3 4 Morrison, W.R. "Arctic Sovereignty". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Foundation. Archived from the original on March 16, 2012. Retrieved 2012-07-09.
  4. ↑ "arctic." Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. Retrieved on May 2, 2009.
  5. ↑ Addison, Kenneth (2002). Fundamentals of the physical environment. Routledge. p. 482. ISBN   0-415-23293-7.
  6. ↑ Keskitalo, Eva C. H. (2004). Negotiating the Arctic: The Construction of an International Region (Google eBook). Studies in International Relations. Vol. 1. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 242. ISBN   0-415-94712-X.
  7. 1 2 3 4 "Socio-demographic situation in the Arctic" . Retrieved 2011-07-18.
  8. ↑ "Annual Estimates of the Population for the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2012". 2012 Population Estimates. United States Census Bureau, Population Division. December 2012. Archived from the original (CSV) on February 5, 2009. Retrieved December 24, 2012.
  9. ↑ Estimated population of Nordland, Troms, Finnmark, Svalbard and Jan Mayen from December 31, 2012. Estimated population at the term of the year Archived November 10, 2013, at the Wayback Machine from Statistics Norway]
  10. ↑ "Statistics Iceland:Key figures". Statistics Iceland. 1 October 2002. Retrieved 2 July 2011.
  11. ↑ Greenland in Figures 2013 (PDF). Statistics Greenland. ISBN   978-87-986787-7-9. ISSN   1602-5709 . Retrieved 2 September 2013.
  12. ↑ "CIA – The World Factbook". CIA . Retrieved 6 February 2018.
  13. ↑ "2006 Aboriginal Population Profile (Canada)". Statistics Canada . January 15, 2008. Retrieved October 20, 2013.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Figures refer to all Inuit in Canada.
  15. 1 2 "2006 Aboriginal Population Profile (Newfoundland and Labrador)". Statistics Canada . January 15, 2008. Retrieved October 20, 2013.
  16. 1 2 "2006 Aboriginal Population Profile (Northwest Territories)". Statistics Canada . January 15, 2008. Retrieved October 20, 2013.
  17. 1 2 "2006 Aboriginal Population Profile (Nunavut)". Statistics Canada . January 15, 2008. Retrieved October 20, 2013.
  18. 1 2 "2006 Aboriginal Population Profile (Quebec)". Statistics Canada . January 15, 2008. Retrieved October 20, 2013.
  19. ↑ "2006 Aboriginal Population Profile (Nunatsiavut)". Statistics Canada . January 15, 2008. Retrieved October 20, 2013.
  20. ↑ NunatuKavut About Us
  21. ↑ "2006 Aboriginal Population Profile (Inuvialuit)". Statistics Canada . January 15, 2008. Retrieved October 20, 2013.
  22. ↑ "2006 Aboriginal Population Profile (Nunavik)". Statistics Canada . January 15, 2008. Retrieved October 20, 2013.
  23. ↑ Kenney, Gerard (2005). Ships of Wood and Men of Iron: A Norwegian-Canadian Saga of Exploration in the High Arctic (Google eBook) (2nd ed.). Toronto, ON: Natural Heritage/Natural History Inc. p. 125. ISBN   1-897045-06-9.
  24. ↑ Dussault, René; Erasmus, Georges (1994). The High Arctic Relocation: A Report on the 1953–55 Relocation. Canadian Government Publishing. p. 190. Archived from the original on August 22, 2013., produced by the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.
  25. ↑ Porteous, John Douglas; Smith, Sandra Eileen (2001). Domicide: The Global Destruction of Home. McGill-Queen's Press. pp. 102–03. ISBN   978-0-7735-2258-9.
  26. ↑ Premier`s Office, Yukon; Premier`s Office, Northwest Territories; Premier`s Office, Nunavut (2007). A Northern Vision: a stronger north and a better Canada (PDF). ISBN   978-1-55362-329-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-30. Retrieved 2012-07-08.
  27. 1 2 Canada's Northern Strategy: Our North, Our Heritage, Our Future, Ottawa: The Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development and Federal Interlocutor for Métis and Non-Status Indians, 2009, ISBN   978-0-662-05765-9, archived from the original on 2015-03-20, retrieved 2012-07-11
  28. ↑ Arctic Sovereignty "Non-Negotiable" – Canada's PM Archived December 31, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
  29. ↑ U.S. Strategic Interests in the Arctic
  30. ↑ "STATEMENT ON CANADA'S ARCTIC FOREIGN POLICY" (PDF).
  31. ↑ Coates, Ken; Lackenbauer, P. Whitney; Morrion, William R.; Poelzer, Greg (2008). Arctic Front. Markham: Thomas Allen Publishers.
  32. ↑ "Schools on Board: An ArcticNet Outreach Program" . Retrieved 2012-07-12.
  33. ↑ Rothwell, Donald R. (1996). The Polar Regions and the Development of International Law. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 193. ISBN   0-521-56182-5.
  34. ↑ "CTV News – Cambridge Bay to host High Arctic Research Station". Ctv.ca. Archived from the original on August 28, 2010. Retrieved 20 November 2011.
  35. ↑ Pamel, Peter G; Borden Ladner Gervais LLP (21 March 2012). Arctic Shipping – Navigating the Legal Landscape for Marine Infrastructure and Off-Shore Development (PDF). Connecticut Maritime Association Shipping Conference 2012. Stamford, CT.
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