GPT-2

Last updated
Generative Pre-trained Transformer 2 (GPT-2)
Original author(s) OpenAI
Initial release14 February 2019;5 years ago (14 February 2019)
Repository https://github.com/openai/gpt-2
Predecessor GPT-1
Successor GPT-3
Type
License MIT [1]
Website openai.com/blog/gpt-2-1-5b-release/

Generative Pre-trained Transformer 2 (GPT-2) is a large language model by OpenAI and the second in their foundational series of GPT models. GPT-2 was pre-trained on a dataset of 8 million web pages. [2] It was partially released in February 2019, followed by full release of the 1.5-billion-parameter model on November 5, 2019. [3] [4] [5]

Contents

GPT-2 was created as a "direct scale-up" of GPT-1 [6] with a ten-fold increase in both its parameter count and the size of its training dataset. [5] It is a general-purpose learner and its ability to perform the various tasks was a consequence of its general ability to accurately predict the next item in a sequence, [2] [7] which enabled it to translate texts, answer questions about a topic from a text, summarize passages from a larger text, [7] and generate text output on a level sometimes indistinguishable from that of humans, however it could become repetitive or nonsensical when generating long passages. [8] It was superseded by the GPT-3 and GPT-4 models, which are no longer open source.

GPT-2 has, like its predecessor GPT-1 and its successors GPT-3 and GPT-4, a generative pre-trained transformer architecture, implementing a deep neural network, specifically a transformer model, [6] which uses attention instead of older recurrence- and convolution-based architectures. [9] [10] Attention mechanisms allow the model to selectively focus on segments of input text it predicts to be the most relevant. [11] [12] This model allows for greatly increased parallelization, and outperforms previous benchmarks for RNN/CNN/LSTM-based models. [6]

Training

Since the transformer architecture enabled massive parallelization, GPT models could be trained on larger corpora than previous NLP (natural language processing) models. While the GPT-1 model demonstrated that the approach was viable, GPT-2 would further explore the emergent properties of networks trained on extremely large corpora. CommonCrawl , a large corpus produced by web crawling and previously used in training NLP systems, [13] was considered due to its large size, but was rejected after further review revealed large amounts of unintelligible content. [2] [13] Instead, OpenAI developed a new corpus, known as WebText ; rather than scraping content indiscriminately from the World Wide Web, WebText was generated by scraping only pages linked to by Reddit posts that had received at least three upvotes prior to December 2017. The corpus was subsequently cleaned; HTML documents were parsed into plain text, duplicate pages were eliminated, and Wikipedia pages were removed (since their presence in many other datasets could have induced overfitting). [2]

While the cost of training GPT-2 is known to have been $256 per hour, [14] [15] the amount of hours it took to complete training is unknown; therefore, the overall training cost cannot be estimated accurately. [16] However, comparable large language models using transformer architectures have had their costs documented in more detail; the training processes for BERT and XLNet consumed, respectively, $6,912 and $245,000 of resources. [15]

Release

GPT-2 was first announced on 14 February 2019. A February 2019 article in The Verge by James Vincent said that, while "[the] writing it produces is usually easily identifiable as non-human", it remained "one of the most exciting examples yet" of language generation programs: [17]

Give it a fake headline, and it’ll write the rest of the article, complete with fake quotations and statistics. Feed it the first line of a short story, and it’ll tell you what happens to your character next. It can even write fan fiction, given the right prompt. [17]

The Guardian described this output as "plausible newspaper prose"; [8] Kelsey Piper of Vox said "one of the coolest AI systems I’ve ever seen may also be the one that will kick me out of my job". [18] GPT-2's flexibility was described as "impressive" by The Verge ; specifically, its ability to translate text between languages, summarize long articles, and answer trivia questions were noted. [17]

A study by the University of Amsterdam employing a modified Turing test found that at least in some scenarios, participants were unable to distinguish poems generated by GPT-2 from those written by humans. [19]

Restrictions and partial release

While "Skub" is not a real product, even the reduced-size model used in DistilGPT2 is capable of creating plausible arguments both for and against it. GPT-2-ProSkub-AntiSkub.png
While "Skub" is not a real product, even the reduced-size model used in DistilGPT2 is capable of creating plausible arguments both for and against it.

While previous OpenAI models had been made immediately available to the public, OpenAI initially refused to make a public release of GPT-2's source code when announcing it in February, citing the risk of malicious use; [8] limited access to the model (i.e. an interface that allowed input and provided output, not the source code itself) was allowed for selected press outlets on announcement. [8] One commonly-cited justification was that, since generated text was usually completely novel, it could be used by spammers to evade automated filters; OpenAI demonstrated a version of GPT-2 fine-tuned to "generate infinite positive – or negative – reviews of products". [8]

Another justification was that GPT-2 could be used to generate text that was obscene or racist. Researchers such as Jeremy Howard warned of "the technology to totally fill Twitter, email, and the web up with reasonable-sounding, context-appropriate prose, which would drown out all other speech and be impossible to filter". [17] The Allen Institute for Artificial Intelligence, in response to GPT-2, announced a tool to detect "neural fake news". [20]

However, opinion was divided. A February 2019 article in The Verge argued that the threat posed by GPT-2 had been exaggerated; [21] Anima Anandkumar, a professor at Caltech and director of machine learning research at Nvidia, said that there was no evidence that GPT-2 had the capabilities to pose the threats described by OpenAI, and that what they did was the "opposite of open", characterizing their refusal to release the full model as "malicious BS". [21] The Gradient published an open letter to OpenAI requesting that they release the model publicly, comparing the threat posed by text-generation AI to the threat posed by the printing press, and giving Photoshop as an example of "a technology that has (thankfully) not destroyed modern society despite its potential for chaos": [22]

Thirty years later, society has emerged relatively unscathed despite Photoshop being simple enough for high school students to use and ubiquitous enough to commandeer its own verb. Why? Precisely because everyone knows about Photoshop. [22]

774M release

While OpenAI did not release the fully-trained model or the corpora it was trained on, description of their methods in prior publications (and the free availability of underlying technology) made it possible for GPT-2 to be replicated by others as free software; one such replication, OpenGPT-2, was released in August 2019, in conjunction with a freely licensed version of WebText called OpenWebText. The cloud compute costs for OpenGPT-2 were given as approximately $50,000. [23]

On August 20, 2019, OpenAI released a partial version of GPT-2, with 774 million parameters (roughly half the size of the full 1.5 billion parameter model). [24]

Full 1.5B release

Initial concerns that GPT-2 would lend itself to widespread misuse did not come to pass; The Verge said that "there are reasons to be skeptical about claims that AI technology will usher in some sort of ‘infopocalypse.’ For a start, we already have programs that can generate plausible text at high volume for little cost: humans." [25] By November 2019, OpenAI said that they had "seen no strong evidence of misuse so far", and the full version, with 1.5 billion parameters trained with forty gigabytes of data, "about eight thousand times larger than the collected works of Shakespeare", [26] was released on November 5, 2019. [3] [4]

Small and Medium Releases

Two other smaller releases of GPT-2 are available, including the small version of 117M parameters and the medium size of 355M parameters. Both are available to download from Huggingface. [27] [28]

Limitations

GPT-2 can generate thematically-appropriate text for a range of scenarios, even surreal ones like a CNN article about Donald Trump giving a speech praising the anime character Asuka Langley Soryu. Here, the tendency to generate nonsensical and repetitive text with increasing output length (even in the full 1.5B model) can be seen; in the second paragraph, grammar begins to deteriorate, and the output eventually becomes one incoherent sentence repeated over and over. GPT-2-Trump Asuka.png
GPT-2 can generate thematically-appropriate text for a range of scenarios, even surreal ones like a CNN article about Donald Trump giving a speech praising the anime character Asuka Langley Soryu. Here, the tendency to generate nonsensical and repetitive text with increasing output length (even in the full 1.5B model) can be seen; in the second paragraph, grammar begins to deteriorate, and the output eventually becomes one incoherent sentence repeated over and over.

While GPT-2's ability to generate plausible passages of natural language text were generally remarked on positively, its shortcomings were noted as well, especially when generating texts longer than a couple paragraphs; Vox said "the prose is pretty rough, there’s the occasional non-sequitur, and the articles get less coherent the longer they get". [18] The Verge similarly noted that longer samples of GPT-2 writing tended to "stray off topic" and lack overall coherence; [17] The Register opined that "a human reading it should, after a short while, realize something's up", and noted that "GPT-2 doesn't answer questions as well as other systems that rely on algorithms to extract and retrieve information." [14]

GPT-2 deployment is resource-intensive; the full version of the model is larger than five gigabytes, making it difficult to embed locally into applications, and consumes large amounts of RAM. In addition, performing a single prediction "can occupy a CPU at 100% utilization for several minutes", and even with GPU processing, "a single prediction can take seconds". To alleviate these issues, the company Hugging Face created DistilGPT2, using knowledge distillation to produce a smaller model that "scores a few points lower on some quality benchmarks", but is "33% smaller and twice as fast".[ citation needed ]

Application and subsequent research

Even before the release of the full version, GPT-2 was used for a variety of applications and services, as well as for entertainment. In June 2019, a subreddit named r/SubSimulatorGPT2 was created in which a variety of GPT-2 instances trained on different subreddits made posts and replied to each other's comments, creating a situation where one could observe "an AI personification of r/Bitcoin argue with the machine learning-derived spirit of r/ShittyFoodPorn"; [25] by July of that year, a GPT-2-based software program released to autocomplete lines of code in a variety of programming languages was described by users as a "game-changer". [29]

In 2019, AI Dungeon was launched, which used GPT-2 to generate dynamic text adventures based on user input. [30] AI Dungeon now offers access to the largest release of GPT-3 API as an optional paid upgrade, the free version of the site uses the 2nd largest release of GPT-3. [31] Latitude, the company formed around AI Dungeon, raised $3.3 million in seed funding in 2021. [32] Several websites host interactive demonstrations of different instances of GPT-2 and other transformer models. [33] [34] [35]

In February 2021, a crisis center for troubled teens announced that they would begin using a GPT-2-derived chatbot to help train counselors by allowing them to have conversations with simulated teens (this use was purely for internal purposes, and did not involve having GPT-2 communicate with the teens themselves). [36]

On May 9, 2023, OpenAI released a mapped version of GPT-2. OpenAI used successor model, GPT-4, to map each neuron of GPT-2 to determine their functions. [37]

Performance and evaluation

GPT-2 writing a fictional news article about Edward Snowden's actions after winning the 2020 United States presidential election (all highlighted text is machine-generated). While Snowden had (at the time of generation) never been elected to public office, the generated sample is grammatically and stylistically valid. GPT-2-PresidentSnowden.PNG
GPT-2 writing a fictional news article about Edward Snowden's actions after winning the 2020 United States presidential election (all highlighted text is machine-generated). While Snowden had (at the time of generation) never been elected to public office, the generated sample is grammatically and stylistically valid.

GPT-2 became capable of performing a variety of tasks beyond simple text production due to the breadth of its dataset and technique: answering questions, summarizing, and even translating between languages in a variety of specific domains, without being instructed in anything beyond how to predict the next word in a sequence. [17] [18]

One example of generalized learning is GPT-2's ability to perform machine translation between French and English, for which task GPT-2's performance was assessed using WMT-14 translation tasks. GPT-2's training corpus included virtually no French text; non-English text was deliberately removed while cleaning the dataset prior to training, and as a consequence, only 10MB of French of the remaining 40,000MB was available for the model to learn from (mostly from foreign-language quotations in English posts and articles). [2]

Despite this, GPT-2 achieved 5 BLEU on the WMT-14 English-to-French test set (slightly below the score of a translation via word-for-word substitution). It was also able to outperform several contemporary (2017) unsupervised machine translation baselines on the French-to-English test set, where GPT-2 achieved 11.5 BLEU. This remained below the highest-performing contemporary unsupervised approach (2019), which had achieved 33.5 BLEU. [2] However, other models used large amounts of French text to achieve these results; GPT-2 was estimated to have used a monolingual French corpus approximately 1/500 the size of comparable approaches. [2]

architectureparameter counttraining data
GPT-1 12-level, 12-headed Transformer decoder (no encoder), followed by linear-softmax.0.12 billion BookCorpus: [38] 4.5 GB of text, from 7000 unpublished books of various genres.
GPT-2GPT-1, but with modified normalization1.5 billionWebText: 40 GB [39] of text, 8 million documents, from 45 million webpages upvoted on Reddit.
GPT-3 GPT-2, but with modification to allow larger scaling.175 billion570 GB plaintext, 300 billion tokens of CommonCrawl, WebText, English Wikipedia, and two books corpora (Books1 and Books2).

GPT-2 was to be followed by the 175-billion-parameter GPT-3, [40] revealed to the public in 2020 [41] (whose source code has never been made available). Access to GPT-3 is provided exclusively through APIs offered by OpenAI and Microsoft. [42] That was then later followed by GPT-4.

Related Research Articles

Multimodal learning, in the context of machine learning, is a type of deep learning using multiple modalities of data, such as text, audio, or images.

Neural machine translation (NMT) is an approach to machine translation that uses an artificial neural network to predict the likelihood of a sequence of words, typically modeling entire sentences in a single integrated model.

OpenAI is an American artificial intelligence (AI) research organization founded in December 2015 and headquartered in San Francisco, California. Its mission is to develop "safe and beneficial" artificial general intelligence (AGI), which it defines as "highly autonomous systems that outperform humans at most economically valuable work". As a leading organization in the ongoing AI boom, OpenAI is known for the GPT family of large language models, the DALL-E series of text-to-image models, and a text-to-video model named Sora. Its release of ChatGPT in November 2022 has been credited with catalyzing widespread interest in generative AI.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transformer (deep learning architecture)</span> Deep learning architecture for modelling sequential data

A transformer is a deep learning architecture developed by researchers at Google and based on the multi-head attention mechanism, proposed in the 2017 paper "Attention Is All You Need". Text is converted to numerical representations called tokens, and each token is converted into a vector via lookup from a word embedding table. At each layer, each token is then contextualized within the scope of the context window with other (unmasked) tokens via a parallel multi-head attention mechanism, allowing the signal for key tokens to be amplified and less important tokens to be diminished.

Synthetic media is a catch-all term for the artificial production, manipulation, and modification of data and media by automated means, especially through the use of artificial intelligence algorithms, such as for the purpose of misleading people or changing an original meaning. Synthetic media as a field has grown rapidly since the creation of generative adversarial networks, primarily through the rise of deepfakes as well as music synthesis, text generation, human image synthesis, speech synthesis, and more. Though experts use the term "synthetic media," individual methods such as deepfakes and text synthesis are sometimes not referred to as such by the media but instead by their respective terminology Significant attention arose towards the field of synthetic media starting in 2017 when Motherboard reported on the emergence of AI altered pornographic videos to insert the faces of famous actresses. Potential hazards of synthetic media include the spread of misinformation, further loss of trust in institutions such as media and government, the mass automation of creative and journalistic jobs and a retreat into AI-generated fantasy worlds. Synthetic media is an applied form of artificial imagination.

AI Dungeon is a single-player/multiplayer text adventure game which uses artificial intelligence (AI) to generate content and allows players to create and share adventures and custom prompts. The game's first version was made available in May 2019, and its second version was released on Google Colaboratory in December 2019. It was later ported that same month to its current cross-platform web application. The AI model was then reformed in July 2020.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seq2seq</span> Family of machine learning approaches

Seq2seq is a family of machine learning approaches used for natural language processing. Applications include language translation, image captioning, conversational models, and text summarization. Seq2seq uses sequence transformation: it turns one sequence into another sequence.

Generative Pre-trained Transformer 3 (GPT-3) is a large language model released by OpenAI in 2020.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">DALL-E</span> Image-generating deep-learning model

DALL·E, DALL·E 2, and DALL·E 3 are text-to-image models developed by OpenAI using deep learning methodologies to generate digital images from natural language descriptions known as "prompts".

Wu Dao is a multimodal artificial intelligence developed by the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence (BAAI). Wu Dao 1.0 was first announced on January 11, 2021; an improved version, Wu Dao 2.0, was announced on May 31. It has been compared to GPT-3, and is built on a similar architecture; in comparison, GPT-3 has 175 billion parameters — variables and inputs within the machine learning model — while Wu Dao has 1.75 trillion parameters. Wu Dao was trained on 4.9 terabytes of images and texts, while GPT-3 was trained on 45 terabytes of text data. Yet, a growing body of work highlights the importance of increasing both data and parameters. The chairman of BAAI said that Wu Dao was an attempt to "create the biggest, most powerful AI model possible". Wu Dao 2.0, was called "the biggest language A.I. system yet". It was interpreted by commenters as an attempt to "compete with the United States".. Notably, the type of architecture used for Wu Dao 2.0 is a mixture-of-experts (MoE) model, unlike GPT-3, which is a "dense" model: while MoE models require much less computational power to train than dense models with the same numbers of parameters, trillion-parameter MoE models have shown comparable performance to models that are hundreds of times smaller.

GitHub Copilot is a code completion and automatic programming tool developed by GitHub and OpenAI that assists users of Visual Studio Code, Visual Studio, Neovim, and JetBrains integrated development environments (IDEs) by autocompleting code. Currently available by subscription to individual developers and to businesses, the generative artificial intelligence software was first announced by GitHub on 29 June 2021, and works best for users coding in Python, JavaScript, TypeScript, Ruby, and Go. In March 2023 GitHub announced plans for "Copilot X", which will incorporate a chatbot based on GPT-4, as well as support for voice commands, into Copilot.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">GPT-1</span> 2018 text-generating language model

Generative Pre-trained Transformer 1 (GPT-1) was the first of OpenAI's large language models following Google's invention of the transformer architecture in 2017. In June 2018, OpenAI released a paper entitled "Improving Language Understanding by Generative Pre-Training", in which they introduced that initial model along with the general concept of a generative pre-trained transformer.

OpenAI Codex is an artificial intelligence model developed by OpenAI. It parses natural language and generates code in response. It powers GitHub Copilot, a programming autocompletion tool for select IDEs, like Visual Studio Code and Neovim. Codex is a descendant of OpenAI's GPT-3 model, fine-tuned for use in programming applications.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Generative pre-trained transformer</span> Type of large language model

A generative pre-trained transformer (GPT) is a type of large language model (LLM) and a prominent framework for generative artificial intelligence. It is an artificial neural network that is used in natural language processing by machines. It is based on the transformer deep learning architecture, pre-trained on large data sets of unlabeled text, and able to generate novel human-like content. As of 2023, most LLMs had these characteristics and are sometimes referred to broadly as GPTs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">GPT-J</span> Open source artificial intelligence text generating language model developed by EleutherAI

GPT-J or GPT-J-6B is an open-source large language model (LLM) developed by EleutherAI in 2021. As the name suggests, it is a generative pre-trained transformer model designed to produce human-like text that continues from a prompt. The optional "6B" in the name refers to the fact that it has 6 billion parameters.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">EleutherAI</span> Artificial intelligence research collective

EleutherAI is a grass-roots non-profit artificial intelligence (AI) research group. The group, considered an open-source version of OpenAI, was formed in a Discord server in July 2020 by Connor Leahy, Sid Black, and Leo Gao to organize a replication of GPT-3. In early 2023, it formally incorporated as the EleutherAI Institute, a non-profit research institute.

A large language model (LLM) is a type of computational model designed for natural language processing tasks such as language generation. As language models, LLMs acquire these abilities by learning statistical relationships from vast amounts of text during a self-supervised and semi-supervised training process.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Attention Is All You Need</span> 2017 research paper by Google

"Attention Is All You Need" is a 2017 landmark research paper in machine learning authored by eight scientists working at Google. The paper introduced a new deep learning architecture known as the transformer, based on the attention mechanism proposed in 2014 by Bahdanau et al. It is considered a foundational paper in modern artificial intelligence, as the transformer approach has become the main architecture of large language models like those based on GPT. At the time, the focus of the research was on improving Seq2seq techniques for machine translation, but the authors go further in the paper, foreseeing the technique's potential for other tasks like question answering and what is now known as multimodal Generative AI.

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  41. ↑ Arram (July 9, 2020). "GPT-3: An AI that's eerily good at writing almost anything". Arram Sabeti. Archived from the original on July 20, 2020. Retrieved July 31, 2020.
  42. ↑ Hao, Karen (September 23, 2020). "OpenAI is giving Microsoft exclusive access to its GPT-3 language model". MIT Technology Review . Archived from the original on 2021-02-05. Retrieved 2020-09-25. The companies say OpenAI will continue to offer its public-facing API, which allows chosen users to send text to GPT-3 or OpenAI's other models and receive its output. Only Microsoft, however, will have access to GPT-3's underlying code, allowing it to embed, repurpose, and modify the model as it pleases.
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