Mammoth Mountain

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Mammoth Mountain
Ritter Range and Mammoth Mountain.jpg
Mammoth Mountain from the south, with Ritter Range behind
Highest point
Elevation 11,059 ft (3,371 m)  NAVD 88 [1]
Prominence 1,647 ft (502 m) [2]
Listing Mountains of California
Coordinates 37°37′50″N119°01′57″W / 37.630626492°N 119.032625631°W / 37.630626492; -119.032625631 [1]
Geography
Relief map of California.png
Red triangle with thick white border.svg
Mammoth Mountain
Usa edcp relief location map.png
Red triangle with thick white border.svg
Mammoth Mountain
CountryUnited States
StateCalifornia
Counties Madera and Mono
Protected area Inyo National Forest
Parent range Sierra Nevada
Topo map USGS Mammoth Mountain
Geology
Age of rock About 50,000 to 200,000 years
Mountain type Lava dome complex [3]
Volcanic arc Long Valley Caldera
Last eruption 1260 ± 40 years [3]
Climbing
Easiest route Gondola [4]

Mammoth Mountain is a lava dome complex partially located within the town of Mammoth Lakes, California, in the Inyo National Forest of Madera and Mono Counties. [3] It is home to a large ski area primarily on the Mono County side.

Contents

Mammoth Mountain was formed in a series of eruptions that ended 57,000 years ago. Mammoth still produces hazardous volcanic gases that kill trees. [5]

Geology

Mammoth Mountain is a lava dome complex in Mono County, California. It lies in the southwestern corner of the Long Valley Caldera [6] and consists of about 12 rhyodacite and dacite overlapping domes. [7] These domes formed in a long series of eruptions from 110,000 to 57,000 years ago, building a volcano that reaches 11,059 feet (3,371 m) in elevation. [8] During this time, massive dacite eruptions occurred roughly every 5000 years. [9] The volcano is still active with minor eruptions, the largest of which was a minor phreatic (steam) eruption 700 years ago. [3]

Mammoth Mountain also lies on the south end of the Mono-Inyo chain of volcanic craters. [10] The magma source for Mammoth Mountain is distinct from those of both the Long Valley Caldera and the Inyo Craters. [3] [11] [12] Mammoth Mountain is composed primarily of dacite and rhyolite, [13] part of which has been altered by hydrothermal activity from fumaroles (steam vents). [14]

Volcanic gas discharge

Mammoth is outgassing large amounts of carbon dioxide out of its south flank, near Horseshoe Lake, causing mazuku in that area. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the ground ranges from 20 to 90 percent CO2. Measurements of the total discharge of carbon dioxide gas at the Horseshoe Lake tree-kill area range from 50 to 150 short tons (45 to 140  t ) per day. This high concentration causes trees to die in six regions that total about 170 acres (0.69 km2) in size (see photo). [15]

The tree-kills originally were attributed to a severe drought that affected California in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Another idea was that the kills were the result of a pathogen or other biological infestation. However, neither idea explained why all trees in the affected areas were killed regardless of age or health. Then, in March 1990, a U.S. Forest Service Ranger became ill with suffocation symptoms after being in a snow-covered cabin near Horseshoe Lake. [16]

Overabundance of carbon dioxide in the soil from a natural underground volcanic source has killed a large area of trees Death by Carbon Dioxide, Horseshoe Lake, Mammoth, CA 2016 (32011250720).jpg
Overabundance of carbon dioxide in the soil from a natural underground volcanic source has killed a large area of trees

Measurements around the lake found that restrooms and tents had a greater than 1% CO2 concentration (toxic) and a deadly 25% concentration of CO2 in a small cabin. CO2 concentrations of less than 1% are typical and healthy in most soils; however, soil concentrations of CO2 in the tree-kill areas ranged from 20% to 90%. This overabundance of CO2 was found to be the cause of the tree-kills because tree roots need to absorb O2 directly and the high CO2 level reduced available O2. Researchers also determined that Mammoth releases about 1,300 short tons (1,200 t) of CO2 every day. As of 2003, the concentration of carbon dioxide in soil gas at Mammoth Mountain is being monitored on a continuous, year-round basis at four sites—three at Horseshoe Lake and one near the base of Chair 19 at the ski area. [15]

The most likely sources of the CO2 are degassing of intruded magma and gas release from limestone-rich metasedimentary rocks that are heated by magmatic intrusions. The remarkable uniformity in chemical and isotopic composition of the CO2 and accompanying gases at different locations around Mammoth Mountain indicates that there may actually be a large reservoir of gas deep below the mountain from which gas escapes along faults to the surface. [15] Measurements of helium emissions support the theory that the gases emitted in the tree kill area have the same source as those discharged from Mammoth Mountain Fumarole. [12] [17] There is evidence that the rate of CO2 discharge has been declining, [18] with emissions peaking in 1991. [19]

Ski patrol fatalities incident

In April 2006, three members of the Mammoth Mountain Ski Area ski patrol died while on duty when a fumarole caused a snow bridge to collapse under the patrollers. [20] The 2005/2006 winter season delivered significant snow depth of 52 feet (16 m). [21] As the ski patrollers assessed the fumarole for skier safety, the perimeter snow collapsed, dropping the patrollers 21 feet (6.4 m) into the bottom of the fumarole, exposing them to extremely high levels of carbon dioxide. [22] It is unclear if they died as a result of the fall or as a result of the gas. [22]

Climate

Climate data for Mammoth Mountain 37.6279 N, 119.0338 W, Elevation: 10,541 ft (3,213 m) (1991–2020 normals)
MonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYear
Mean daily maximum °F (°C)34.7
(1.5)		34.2
(1.2)		37.5
(3.1)		44.1
(6.7)		51.7
(10.9)		60.4
(15.8)		68.2
(20.1)		67.7
(19.8)		60.8
(16.0)		51.5
(10.8)		41.1
(5.1)		34.9
(1.6)		48.9
(9.4)
Daily mean °F (°C)23.2
(−4.9)		22.2
(−5.4)		24.9
(−3.9)		31.5
(−0.3)		38.0
(3.3)		48.0
(8.9)		54.9
(12.7)		54.4
(12.4)		47.5
(8.6)		38.5
(3.6)		28.1
(−2.2)		23.4
(−4.8)		36.2
(2.3)
Mean daily minimum °F (°C)11.7
(−11.3)		10.2
(−12.1)		14.3
(−9.8)		19.3
(−7.1)		25.4
(−3.7)		35.5
(1.9)		41.6
(5.3)		40.2
(4.6)		35.2
(1.8)		25.6
(−3.6)		15.0
(−9.4)		11.8
(−11.2)		23.8
(−4.6)
Average precipitation inches (mm)11.46
(291)		9.41
(239)		8.46
(215)		4.96
(126)		3.11
(79)		0.72
(18)		0.50
(13)		0.39
(9.9)		0.46
(12)		2.62
(67)		3.99
(101)		9.68
(246)		55.76
(1,416.9)
Average snowfall inches (cm)74.5
(189)		73.2
(186)		66.1
(168)		34.4
(87)		9.1
(23)		0.8
(2.0)		0.0
(0.0)		0.2
(0.51)		3.0
(7.6)		10.1
(26)		33.4
(85)		71.7
(182)		376.5
(956.11)
Source: PRISM Climate Group [23]

Recreational use

Ski runs Mammoth Mtn ski area (16126219736).jpg
Ski runs

Mammoth Mountain is home to the Mammoth Mountain Ski Area, founded by Dave McCoy in 1953. Mammoth is a ski, snowboard, and snowmobile mountain during the winter months. Mammoth is the highest ski resort in California and is notable for the unusually large amount of snowfall it receives compared to other Eastern Sierra peaks—about 400 in (1,000 cm) annually and about 300 out of 365 days of sunshine—due to its location in a low gap in the Sierra crest. [24] The ski area has more than 3,500 acres (1,420 ha) of skiable terrain, with 3,100 ft (940 m) of vertical serviced by 25 lifts. [25] In the summer months the ski gondolas are used by mountain bikers and tourists who wish to get a summit view of Long Valley Caldera directly to the east and Sierra peaks to the west, south and north. [4] To the south of the mountain, there are a number of lakes that serve as tourist attractions in the summer.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Long Valley Caldera</span> Geologic depression near Mammoth Mountain, California, United States

Long Valley Caldera is a depression in eastern California that is adjacent to Mammoth Mountain. The valley is one of the Earth's largest calderas, measuring about 20 mi (32 km) long (east-west), 11 mi (18 km) wide (north-south), and up to 3,000 ft (910 m) deep.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fumarole</span> Volcanic opening that emits hot gases

A fumarole is a vent in the surface of the Earth or another rocky planet from which hot volcanic gases and vapors are emitted, without any accompanying liquids or solids. Fumaroles are characteristic of the late stages of volcanic activity, but fumarole activity can also precede a volcanic eruption and has been used for eruption prediction. Most fumaroles die down within a few days or weeks of the end of an eruption, but a few are persistent, lasting for decades or longer. An area containing fumaroles is known as a fumarole field.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geothermal areas of Yellowstone</span> Geyser basins and other geothermal features in Yellowstone National Park

The geothermal areas of Yellowstone include several geyser basins in Yellowstone National Park as well as other geothermal features such as hot springs, mud pots, and fumaroles. The number of thermal features in Yellowstone is estimated at 10,000. A study that was completed in 2011 found that a total of 1,283 geysers have erupted in Yellowstone, 465 of which are active during an average year. These are distributed among nine geyser basins, with a few geysers found in smaller thermal areas throughout the Park. The number of geysers in each geyser basin are as follows: Upper Geyser Basin (410), Midway Geyser Basin (59), Lower Geyser Basin (283), Norris Geyser Basin (193), West Thumb Geyser Basin (84), Gibbon Geyser Basin (24), Lone Star Geyser Basin (21), Shoshone Geyser Basin (107), Heart Lake Geyser Basin (69), other areas (33). Although famous large geysers like Old Faithful are part of the total, most of Yellowstone's geysers are small, erupting to only a foot or two. The hydrothermal system that supplies the geysers with hot water sits within an ancient active caldera. Many of the thermal features in Yellowstone build up sinter, geyserite, or travertine deposits around and within them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nevado del Ruiz</span> Volcanic mountain in Colombia

Nevado del Ruiz, also known as La Mesa de Herveo is a volcano on the border of the departments of Caldas and Tolima in Colombia, being the highest point of both. It is located about 130 km (81 mi) west of the capital city Bogotá. It is a stratovolcano composed of many layers of lava alternating with hardened volcanic ash and other pyroclastic rocks. Volcanic activity at Nevado del Ruiz began about two million years ago, during the Early Pleistocene or Late Pliocene, with three major eruptive periods. The current volcanic cone formed during the present eruptive period, which began 150,000 years ago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mono–Inyo Craters</span> Volcanic chain in eastern California, United States

The Mono–Inyo Craters are a volcanic chain of craters, domes and lava flows in Mono County, Eastern California. The chain stretches 25 miles (40 km) from the northwest shore of Mono Lake to the south of Mammoth Mountain. The Mono Lake Volcanic Field forms the northernmost part of the chain and consists of two volcanic islands in the lake and one cinder cone volcano on its northwest shore. Most of the Mono Craters, which make up the bulk of the northern part of the Mono–Inyo chain, are phreatic volcanoes that have since been either plugged or over-topped by rhyolite domes and lava flows. The Inyo volcanic chain form much of the southern part of the chain and consist of phreatic explosion pits, and rhyolitic lava flows and domes. The southernmost part of the chain consists of fumaroles and explosion pits on Mammoth Mountain and a set of cinder cones south of the mountain; the latter are called the Red Cones.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mammoth Mountain Ski Area</span> Ski resort in California, United States

Mammoth Mountain Ski Area is a large ski resort in the western United States, located in eastern California along the east side of the Sierra Nevada mountain range in the Inyo National Forest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lassen Peak</span> Active volcano in California, United States

Lassen Peak, commonly referred to as Mount Lassen, is a 10,457 ft (3,187 m) lava dome volcano in Lassen Volcanic National Park in Northern California. Located in the Shasta Cascade region above the northern Sacramento Valley, it is the southernmost active volcano in the Cascade Range of the Western United States, and part of the Cascade Volcanic Arc stretching from southwestern British Columbia to northern California. It supports many flora and fauna among its diverse habitats, which reach high elevations and are subject to frequent snowfall.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Newberry Volcano</span> Shield volcano in Oregon, United States

Newberry Volcano is a large, active, shield-shaped stratovolcano located about 20 miles (32 km) south of Bend, Oregon, United States, 35 miles (56 km) east of the major crest of the Cascade Range, within the Newberry National Volcanic Monument. Its highest point is Paulina Peak. Newberry is the largest volcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc, with an area of 1,200 square miles (3,100 km2) when its lava flows are taken into account. From north to south, the volcano has a length of 75 miles (121 km), with a width of 27 miles (43 km) and a total volume of approximately 120 cubic miles (500 km3). It was named for the geologist and surgeon John Strong Newberry, who explored central Oregon for the Pacific Railroad Surveys in 1855.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mount Katmai</span> Stratovolcano in Katmai National Park, Alaska, USA

Mount Katmai is a large active stratovolcano on the Alaska Peninsula in southern Alaska, located within Katmai National Park and Preserve. It is about 6.3 miles (10 km) in diameter with a central lake-filled caldera about two by three miles in size, formed during the Novarupta eruption of 1912. The caldera rim reaches a maximum elevation of 6,716 feet (2,047 m). In 1975 the surface of the crater lake was at an elevation of about 4,220 feet (1,286 m), and the estimated elevation of the caldera floor is about 3,400 ft (1,040 m). The mountain is located in Kodiak Island Borough, very close to its border with Lake and Peninsula Borough. The volcano has caused ten known fatalities due to gas exposure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Owens River</span> River in eastern California

The Owens River is a river in eastern California in the United States, approximately 183 miles (295 km) long. It drains into and through the Owens Valley, an arid basin between the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada and the western faces of the Inyo and White Mountains. The river terminates at the endorheic Owens Lake south of Lone Pine, at the bottom of a 2,600 sq mi (6,700 km2) watershed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inyo National Forest</span> National forest in California and Nevada, United States

Inyo National Forest is a United States National Forest covering parts of the eastern Sierra Nevada of California and the White Mountains of California and Nevada. The forest hosts several superlatives, including Mount Whitney, the highest point in the contiguous United States; Boundary Peak, the highest point in Nevada; and the Ancient Bristlecone Pine Forest, which protects the oldest living trees in the world. The forest, encompassing much of the Owens Valley, was established by Theodore Roosevelt as a way of sectioning off land to accommodate the Los Angeles Aqueduct project in 1907, making the Inyo National Forest one of the least wooded forests in the U.S. National Forest system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Volcanic gas</span> Gases given off by active volcanoes

Volcanic gases are gases given off by active volcanoes. These include gases trapped in cavities (vesicles) in volcanic rocks, dissolved or dissociated gases in magma and lava, or gases emanating from lava, from volcanic craters or vents. Volcanic gases can also be emitted through groundwater heated by volcanic action.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mono Basin</span>

The Mono Basin is an endorheic drainage basin located east of Yosemite National Park in California and Nevada. It is bordered to the west by the Sierra Nevada, to the east by the Cowtrack Mountains, to the north by the Bodie Hills, and to the south by the north ridge of the Long Valley Caldera.

In geology, a mazuku (Swahili for "evil wind") is a pocket of carbon dioxide-rich air that can be lethal to any human or animal life inside. Mazuku is created when carbon dioxide accumulates in pockets low to the ground. CO2 is denser than air, which causes it to flow downhill, hugging the ground like a low fog, and is also undetectable by human olfactory or visual senses in most conditions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Panum Crater</span> Volcanic cone of the Mono–Inyo Craters chain in California, United States

Panum Crater is a volcanic cone that is part of the Mono–Inyo Craters, a chain of recent volcanic cones south of Mono Lake and east of the Sierra Nevada, in California, United States. Panum Crater is between 600 and 700 years old, and it exhibits all of the characteristics of the textbook rhyolitic lava dome.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hot Creek (Mono County)</span> River in California, United States

Hot Creek, starting as Mammoth Creek, is a stream in Mono County of eastern California, in the Western United States. It is within the Inyo National Forest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Silverthrone Caldera</span> Caldera in British Columbia, Canada

The Silverthrone Caldera is a potentially active caldera complex in southwestern British Columbia, Canada, located over 350 kilometres (220 mi) northwest of the city of Vancouver and about 50 kilometres (31 mi) west of Mount Waddington in the Pacific Ranges of the Coast Mountains. The caldera is one of the largest of the few calderas in western Canada, measuring about 30 kilometres (19 mi) long (north-south) and 20 kilometres (12 mi) wide (east-west). Mount Silverthrone, an eroded lava dome on the caldera's northern flank that is 2,864 metres (9,396 ft) high, may be the highest volcano in Canada.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red Cones</span> Pair of cinder cones near Devils Postpile National Monument, California, United States

The Red Cones are a pair of cinder cones near Devils Postpile National Monument, in eastern Madera County of central California. They are within the eastern Sierra Nevada and Inyo National Forest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">California Volcano Observatory</span> Research center in California, United States

The California Volcano Observatory (CalVO) is the volcano observatory that monitors the volcanic and geologic activity of California and Nevada. It is a part of the Volcano Hazards Program of the United States Geological Survey, a scientific agency of the United States government.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Horseshoe Lake (Mono County, California)</span> Lake in Mono County, California

Horseshoe Lake is a lake in Mono County, California, near the Mammoth Mountain ski resort. The soil near the lake contains a high concentration of carbon dioxide which, when it seeps from the soil, kills trees and poses a threat to humans.

References

  1. 1 2 "706 702 2=Mammoth". NGS Data Sheet. National Geodetic Survey, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, United States Department of Commerce . Retrieved 2014-01-16.
  2. ↑ "Mammoth Mountain, California". Peakbagger.com. Retrieved 2009-08-03.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 "Mammoth Mountain". Global Volcanism Program . Smithsonian Institution . Retrieved 2008-12-18.
  4. 1 2 Jones, Finn-Olaf (2008-02-29). "Mammoth Mountain Ski Area". Ski Guide. The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-08-18.
  5. ↑ Hymon, Steve; Covarrubias, Amanda (2006-04-09). "How Routine Turned to Tragedy at Mammoth". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2011-05-09.
  6. ↑ Martini, B.A.; Silver, E.A.; Potts, D.C.; Pickles, W.L. (July 2000). Geological and geobotanical studies of Long Valley Caldera, CA, USA utilizing new 5m hyperspectral imagery (PDF). Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, 2000. Proceedings. IGARSS 2000. IEEE 2000 International. Vol. 4. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. pp. 1376–1378. doi:10.1109/IGARSS.2000.857212.
  7. ↑ "Long Valley Caldera and Mono-Inyo Craters Volcanic Field, California". Volcano World. Archived from the original on 2008-01-14.
  8. ↑ Lewicki, Jennifer L.; Birkholzer, Jens; Tsang, Chin-Fu (February 2006). "Natural and Industrial Analogues for Release of CO2 from Storage Reservoirs: Identification of Features, Events, and Processes and Lessons Learned" (PDF). United States Department of Energy/Office of Scientific and Technical Information. doi:10.2172/891824 . Retrieved 2008-08-18.
  9. ↑ Harris, Stephen L. (2005). Fire Mountains of the West (3rd ed.). Missoula, Montana: Mountain Press Publishing Company. ISBN   978-0-87842-511-2.
  10. ↑ Hill, David P.; Bailey, Roy A.; Sorey, Michael L.; Hendley II, James W.; Stauffer, Peter H. (May 2000). "Living With a Restless Caldera—Long Valley, California – U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 108-96". Online Version 2.1. United States Geological Survey . Retrieved 2008-08-18.
  11. ↑ Hildreth, Wes (2004-09-14). "Volcanological perspectives on Long Valley, Mammoth Mountain, and Mono Craters: several contiguous but discrete systems". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 136 (3–4). Elsevier B.V.: 169–198. Bibcode:2004JVGR..136..169H. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2004.05.019.
  12. 1 2 DePaolo, Don; Sorey, Mike; Evans, Bill; Farrar, Chris; Cook, Andrea; Hainsworth, Laura; Rogie, John. "Volcanic Hazards and CO2 Emissions: Mammoth Mountain Long Valley Caldera, California". Center for Isotope Geochemistry – Nobel Gas Isotope Geochemistry. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Archived from the original on September 21, 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
  13. ↑ "Geologic History of Long Valley Caldera and the Mono-Inyo Craters volcanic chain, California". United States Geological Survey . Retrieved 2008-08-18.
  14. ↑ Pease, Robert C. "Hydrothermal System of the Long Valley Caldera". Volcanoes of the Eastern Sierra Nevada: Geology and Natural Heritage of the Long Valley Caldera. Retrieved 2010-05-07.
  15. 1 2 3 "Carbon Dioxide and Helium Discharge from Mammoth Mountain". USGS Volcano Hazards Program Long Valley Observatory. USGS. 2001-12-27. Archived from the original on 2010-05-28. Retrieved 2008-08-18.
  16. ↑ Farrar, C.D.; Neil, J. M.; Howle, J. F. (1999). "Magmatic Carbon Dioxide Emissions at Mammoth Mountain, California". Water-Resources Investigations report 98-4217. USGS.
  17. ↑ "Helium Discharge at Mammoth Mountain Fumarole (MMF)". United States Geological Survey. 2003-07-30. Archived from the original on 2010-06-02. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
  18. ↑ Farrar, C.D.; Bergfeld, D. (December 2007). Magmatic Carbon Dioxide Emissions From Mammoth Mountain, California —- A Decreasing Trend From 1996 to 2007. American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2007. American Geophysical Union. Bibcode:2007AGUFM.V21C0722F.
  19. ↑ Sorey, Michael L.; Farrar, Christopher D.; Gerlach, Terrance M.; McGee, Kenneth A.; Evans, William C.; Colvard, Elizabeth M.; Hill, David P.; Bailey, Roy A.; Rogie, John D.; Hendley II, James W.; Stauffer, Peter H. (2007-07-09). "Invisible CO2 Gas Killing Trees at Mammoth Mountain, California – U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 172-96". Online Version 2.0. USGS . Retrieved 2008-08-19.
  20. ↑ Covarrubias, Amanda; Doug Smith (2006-06-07). "3 Die in Mammoth Ski Patrol Accident". Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 2013-01-08.
  21. ↑ "Mammoth Mountain Snowfall History @ MammothSnowman.com". Mammoth Mountain Ski Area Snow Report & Weather Forecast. Retrieved 22 December 2021.
  22. 1 2 Register, Orange County (7 April 2006). "3 ski patrollers killed at Mammoth". Orange County Register. Retrieved 22 December 2021.
  23. ↑ "PRISM Climate Group, Oregon State University". PRISM Climate Group, Oregon State University. Retrieved October 8, 2023. To find the table data on the PRISM website, start by clicking Coordinates (under Location); copy Latitude and Longitude figures from top of table; click Zoom to location; click Precipitation, Minimum temp, Mean temp, Maximum temp; click 30-year normals, 1991-2020; click 800m; click Retrieve Time Series button.
  24. ↑ Burak, S.A.; R.E. Davis (2001). Preliminary evaluation of snow accumulation patterns based on storm type, Mammoth Mountain, California, 1996–2001 (PDF). Proc. Western Snow Conference. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-30.
  25. ↑ "Mammoth Mountain Fact Sheet 22/23 Winter Season" (PDF). Mammoth Mountain Ski Area. Retrieved 2023-08-26.

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