Nuclear threats during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine

Last updated

During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the possibility of Russia using tactical nuclear weapons, and the risk of broader nuclear escalation, has been widely discussed by commentators and in the media. Several senior Russian politicians, including president Vladimir Putin, former president and party leader Dmitry Medvedev, and foreign minister Sergey Lavrov, have made a number of statements widely seen as threatening the use of nuclear weapons. [1]

Contents

Additionally, the Russian occupation of the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant has led to a crisis over the safety of the plant and the risk of a nuclear disaster.

Russian statements

Russian president Vladimir Putin announcing the invasion on 24 February 2022 Vladimir Putin (2022-02-24).jpg
Russian president Vladimir Putin announcing the invasion on 24 February 2022

Four days after the launch of the Russian invasion, on 28 February, President Putin ordered Russia's nuclear forces to go into a "special mode of combat duty", a state of high alert. [2] [3]

On 20 April 2022, Russia carried out its first test launch of the RS-28 Sarmat, a new long-range intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM). Putin said the new missile could defeat any missile defences, and that it should cause countries threatening Russia to "think twice". [4] The United States Department of Defense confirmed that Russia had properly notified the U.S. about the launch in advance, pursuant to New START, and that the U.S. considered the launch to be a test routine and not a threat. [5]

On 24 April, in apparent response to US secretary of state Antony Blinken's meeting with Zelenskyy in Kyiv on 23 April, Russian foreign minister Sergey Lavrov stated that further support of Ukraine could cause tensions which could potentially lead to a World War III scenario involving Russia's full arsenal of weapons. [6] The day after Lavrov's comments, CNBC reported that US secretary Lloyd Austin referred to Russia's nuclear war rhetoric as being "dangerous and unhelpful". [7]

In apparent response to Germany deploying armed tanks to Ukraine, Putin announced in Russia's main legislative assembly that Russia would respond to any combative military provocation from outside of Ukraine with prompt peremptory action possible only with Russia's unique arsenal of nuclear weapons. [8] Pentagon Press secretary John Kirby called Putin's assertion of nuclear potency contrary to the process of the peaceful resolution of the current conflict in Ukraine. [9]

On 29 May, after repudiating accusations made against Russia regarding atrocities in Bucha, the Russian ambassador to the UK, Andrei Kelin, said in an interview with the BBC that he did not believe Russia would use tactical nuclear weapons in Ukraine until Russian sovereignty was found to be in peril. [3]

On 21 September, while announcing a partial mobilization of conscripts, Putin said that Russia "will use all the means at our disposal" – widely interpreted as a threat to use nuclear weapons – in order to defend the country’s territory. [10] He warned that his threat was "not a bluff", baselessly accused NATO of "nuclear blackmail" and of threatening to use nuclear weapons against Russia, and said Russia's nuclear weapons were more advanced than NATO's. [11] [12] Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov did not rule out the use of nuclear weapons to defend annexed Ukrainian territories. [13] Several days later, former Russian president and Putin ally Dmitry Medvedev made a more explicit threat of a nuclear strike against Ukraine. [14]

On 1 October, Ramzan Kadyrov, head of the Chechen Republic, called on Russia to use low-yield nuclear weapons in Ukraine in response to Russia losing the strategically important Ukrainian town of Lyman, [15] the first prominent Russian official to directly call for using nuclear weapons. [16] In response to Kadyrov's comments, Kremlin press secretary Dmitry Peskov said that the use of nuclear weapons would be determined by Russian military doctrine and not by emotions. [17]

Later in October, Russian officials, including Russian defense minister Sergei Shoigu, [18] began accusing Ukraine of preparing to use a radioactive dirty bomb on Ukrainian territory, prompting concerns in the West that Russia itself might be planning to use a dirty bomb and blame it on Ukraine. The allegations were additionally communicated in phone calls to Western officials by two top Russian officials. [19] On 24 October, John Kirby stated that there was no evidence Russia was preparing a dirty bomb strike. [20] A tweet by the Russian Ministry of Defence, purportedly showing evidence of a Ukrainian dirty bomb in production, was debunked as a collection of old and unrelated photos. [21] At Ukraine's request, the United Nations sent an IAEA investigation to Ukraine, which found no evidence of a dirty bomb being developed or any other undeclared nuclear activity. [22] [23] [24]

On 22 January 2023, Vyacheslav Volodin, the speaker of the Duma, wrote on Telegram that "If Washington and NATO countries supply weapons that will be used to strike civilian cities and attempt to seize our territories, as they threaten, this will lead to retaliatory measures using more powerful weapons," and "Arguments that the nuclear powers have not previously used weapons of mass destruction in local conflicts are untenable. Because these states did not face a situation where there was a threat to the security of their citizens and the territorial integrity of the country." [25] In the same month, Russia repeatedly accused Ukraine of storing its military equipment in the nuclear power plants under its control. The IAEA has permanent observers in all Ukrainian plants since 2022, and on 24 January 2023, the agency issued a statement that it had found no military equipment in the plants. [26]

International reactions

On 14 April, The New York Times reported comments by CIA director William Burns, who said "potential desperation" could lead President Putin to order the use of tactical nuclear weapons. [27]

On 4 May, the US Senate held the "Hearing on Nuclear Readiness Amid Russia-Ukraine War" where Admiral Charles A. Richard stated that current nuclear triad defence capabilities in the US were operating at a minimal acceptable level of operational capacity, with Russian stockpiles and Chinese stockpiles currently larger than those of the US. [28] [ time needed ] On 6 May, Russian foreign ministry spokesman Alexei Zaitsev stated that Russia would not use nuclear weapons in Ukraine, describing their use as "not applicable to the Russian 'special military operation'". [29]

On 23 May, Russian diplomat Boris Bondarev resigned from his position and issued a critique of the invasion, singling out Lavrov's position on the potential use of Russian nuclear arms: "In 18 years, he (Lavrov) went from a professional and educated intellectual ... to a person who constantly broadcasts conflicting statements and threatens the world with nuclear weapons!" [30] Japan's Prime Minister Fumio Kishida stated that Japan would support further international discussion about Russia and its nuclear arms threats during the invasion of Ukraine at the upcoming nuclear non-proliferation meeting taking place next August. [31] [32] On 20 June, the "Conference on the Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons" opened in Vienna to discuss potential catastrophic effects of nuclear arms, amid rising fears over Russia's possible use of nuclear weapons during the 2022 invasion of Ukraine. [33]

On 1 July, during a visit by Lavrov to Belarus, Belarusian president Alexander Lukashenko indicated support for Moscow to use nuclear weapons against the broad threats of Western hegemony over Russia and its allies demonstrated during the conflict in Ukraine. [34]

On 13 August, in an interview with the BBC, Jim Hockenhull, the outgoing head of UK Military Intelligence, said he considered the possibility of Russia imminently using nuclear weapons to be "unlikely". [35]

In a September 2022 interview, U.S. President Joe Biden was asked what consequences would ensue for Russian use of nuclear weapons. Biden responded: "You think I would tell you if I knew exactly what it would be? Of course, I'm not gonna tell you. It'll be consequential... They'll become more of a pariah in the world than they ever have been. And depending on the extent of what they do will determine what response would occur." [36] On 26 September, national security advisor Jake Sullivan spoke of "catastrophic consequences" if Russia used nuclear weapons, adding that "in private channels we have spelled out in greater detail (to Russia) exactly what that would mean". Secretary of State Antony Blinken similarly referred to a "catastrophic" U.S. response. [37]

NATO Secretary-General Jens Stoltenberg stated on 21 September that NATO would "not engage in that same kind of reckless and dangerous nuclear rhetoric as President Putin". [38] On 4 October, British foreign minister James Cleverly said any Russian use of nuclear weapons would lead to consequences. [39] Minister of Foreign Affairs of Poland Zbigniew Rau has stated a NATO response should be "devastating", but non-nuclear. Rau also stated on 5 October that he has asked for the U.S. to base nuclear weapons on Polish territory; this may have been partly in response to Russia's recent nuclear threat, and partly in response to the prospect of Russia basing nuclear weapons in Belarus. [40]

On 6 October 2022, during a speech at a private fundraiser in New York City, Biden said that for the "[f]irst time since the Cuban Missile Crisis, we have a direct threat of the use of the nuclear weapon if, in fact, things continue down the path they've been going... Think about it: We have not faced the prospect of Armageddon since Kennedy and the Cuban Missile Crisis. We've got a guy I know fairly well; his name is Vladimir Putin. I spent a fair amount of time with him. He is not joking when he talks about the potential use of tactical and nuclear weapons, or biological or chemical weapons, because his military is, you might say, significantly underperforming... I don't think there’s any such thing as an ability to easily [use] a tactical nuclear weapon and not end up with Armageddon." [41] [42] [43] According to the Associated Press, Biden sometimes speaks in an unguarded way, off of only rough notes, at such private fundraisers; [44] White House Press Secretary Karine Jean-Pierre later said that Biden's comments were not based on new intelligence or information. [45] In an interview with CNN's Jake Tapper that aired on 11 October 2022, Biden said that he did not believe Putin would ultimately resort to deploying nuclear weapons in Ukraine, but criticized Putin's statements on the topic as "irresponsible". [46]

In an interview with the BBC on 11 October 2022, GCHQ Director Jeremy Fleming said the agency had seen no indications that Russia was preparing for the use of a tactical nuclear weapon. [47] Later, in a statement released on 18 October, Major General Kyrylo Budanov, Chief of the Main Directorate of Intelligence of Ukraine’s Ministry of Defense, said he did not believe Russia would use nuclear weapons in Ukraine. [48]

On 24 January 2023, the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists adjusted its Doomsday Clock to 90 seconds to midnight, a 10-second advancement from the Clock's previous time setting in 2020. The organization cited increasing risk of nuclear escalation stemming from Russia's invasion of Ukraine as a major factor in the adjustment. [49]

During a press briefing at the White House on 25 January 2023, John Kirby, Coordinator for Strategic Communications for the United States National Security Council, said that the United States does not "have any indication that Mr. Putin has any intention to use weapons of mass destruction - let alone nuclear weapons, tactical or otherwise." Kirby also said the United States has seen "absolutely no indications that Mr. Putin has designs on striking NATO territory." [50]

Analysis

Large nuclear weapons stockpile with global range (dark blue) World nuclear weapons.png
Large nuclear weapons stockpile with global range (dark blue)

Eric Schlosser, writing for The Atlantic magazine on 22 June 2022, stated that the nuclear saber-rattling by Russia during the invasion appeared to suggest the most probable targets of a nuclear attack to be: "(1) a detonation over the Black Sea, causing no casualties but demonstrating a resolve to cross the nuclear threshold and signaling that worse may come, (2) a decapitation strike against the Ukrainian leadership, attempting to kill President Volodymyr Zelensky and his advisers in their underground bunkers, (3) a nuclear assault on a Ukrainian military target, perhaps an air base or a supply depot, that is not intended to harm civilians, and (4) the destruction of a Ukrainian city, causing mass civilian casualties and creating terror to precipitate a swift surrender — the same aims that motivated the nuclear attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki." [51] CSIS military expert Mark Cancian suggested the possibility of detonating high in the atmosphere to produce an electromagnetic pulse and knock out electronic equipment. [52]

On 7 September, The Washington Post reported that the Russian high military command had published an analysis saying that tactical nuclear arms remained a viable option for use against Ukraine, quoting Ukrainian commander in chief Valeriy Zaluzhnyi as stating: "There is a direct threat of the use, under certain circumstances, of tactical nuclear weapons by the Russian Armed Forces... It is also impossible to completely rule out the possibility of the direct involvement of the world’s leading countries in a ‘limited’ nuclear conflict, in which the prospect of World War III is already directly visible." [53]

Hans M. Kristensen, director of the Nuclear Information Project at the Federation of American Scientists, said that "if you start detonating nuclear weapons in the area you potentially get radioactive fallout that you can't control — it could rain over your own troops as well, so it might not be an advantage to do that in the field." He also said that "the big problem is with people both inside the Russian system, but also in the public in general, if they think about tactical nuclear weapons as something small; something less severe or something almost okay." [54] On 1 October 2022, the Institute for the Study of War argued that Russian soldiers are "almost certainly incapable of operating on a nuclear battlefield", owing to their disorganization, and that this inability to advance through a nuclear environment reduces the likelihood of Russian tactical nuclear weapons use in the first place. [55] [56]

In a 2 October 2022 analysis, The Jerusalem Post stated "Most experts do not think that Russian President Vladimir Putin will actually use nuclear weapons in Ukraine at the end of the day, but the number of those who think he will or might is growing." Different analysts hypothesized different initial Western responses, depending in part on the nature of the initial Russian nuclear attack on Ukraine. Hypothetical initial responses included: increased sanctions, a conventional assault on Russian forces in Ukraine, a nuclear attack on Russian forces in Ukraine, or a nuclear attack on Belarus. Their analysis added that, even if Russia used a nuclear weapon, "the likelihood is still no" that it would lead to a full nuclear war. [57] Mark Cancian has suggested increased weapons shipments, including previously-restricted weapons like NATO aircraft, advanced anti-missile batteries, and ATACMS long-range missiles. [52]

In January 2023, Graham Allison, writing for Time , presented a seven-point summary of Putin's hypothetical intention to deploy tactical nuclear weapons in Ukraine. Allison stated that: (1) There is a "rational" basis for Putin to apply limited nuclear weapons based on the older historical precedent set by Truman in WWII against Japan; (2) Putin has evaluated the risks of American retaliation for the use of tactical nuclear weapons and America's response that it would cause "catastrophic consequences" for Russia, the same as it would have during the height of the Cold War; (3) The potential loss of face for Putin before the Russian people in the case that Zelenskyy is successful in repelling further Russian occupational gains might provide an incentive for Putin to expand his theater of warfare to include tactical nuclear weapons against Ukraine; (4) Putin does consider it politically justified to apply first-use of tactical nuclear weapons based on the standing Russian military doctrine called "escalate to de-escalate", in order to make adversarial forces stand-down; (5) Putin is aware of Biden's assertion that U.S. forces "will not fight World War III for Ukraine", even though Biden is aware of America's previous commitments to the military strategy of mutually assured destruction; (6) Reagan's doctrine that a "nuclear war cannot be won and must never be fought" is part of America's political legacy as well, which appears relevant to Biden's perspective of which Putin is aware; and (7) Putin is also aware of the Cold War doctrine developed in previous generations that Soviet adversaries would be met with "determined effort" by U.S. military forces in case of Soviet military belligerence while conducting military operations. [58]

Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Plant crisis

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant crisis.[ edit ]

During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant  has become the center of an ongoing nuclear safety crisis, described by Ukraine as an act of nuclear terrorism by Russia. [59]

The plant, which is the largest of its kind in Europe, has seen destruction of its infrastructure via shelling, damage to its power lines, amounting to what Ukrainian authorities call the largest situation of its kind in history. A potential disaster may exceed the scale of previous disasters at nuclear power plants. [60] [61]

According to a report by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), "The situation in Ukraine is unprecedented. It is the first time a military conflict has occurred amid the facilities of a large, established nuclear power" program. [62] Nuclear safety expert Attila Aszódi said that an event similar in type and scale to the Chernobyl disaster is technically and physically not possible in the Zaporizhzhia plant, while calling for urgent steps to ensure the safety of the plant. [63]

On 11 September, the last operating reactor at the plant was placed in cold shutdown, a state requiring less energy for cooling, consequently reducing the danger posed by damage to the plant's connection to the wider energy grid. However, spent fuel at the site could still represent a significant risk if storage or cooling systems are damaged by fighting. [64]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear warfare</span> Military conflict that deploys nuclear weaponry

Nuclear warfare, also known as atomic warfare, is a theoretical military conflict or prepared political strategy that deploys nuclear weaponry. Nuclear weapons are weapons of mass destruction; in contrast to conventional warfare, nuclear warfare can produce destruction in a much shorter time and can have a long-lasting radiological result. A major nuclear exchange would likely have long-term effects, primarily from the fallout released, and could also lead to secondary effects, such as "nuclear winter", nuclear famine and societal collapse. A global thermonuclear war with Cold War-era stockpiles, or even with the current smaller stockpiles, may lead to various scenarios including the extinction of the human race.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">World War III</span> Hypothetical future global conflict

World War III or the Third World War, often abbreviated as WWIII or WW3, are names given to a hypothetical worldwide large-scale military conflict subsequent to World War I and World War II. The term has been in use since at least as early as 1941. Some apply it loosely to limited or more minor conflicts such as the Cold War or the war on terror. In contrast, others assume that such a conflict would surpass prior world wars in both scope and destructive impact.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sergey Lavrov</span> Russian diplomat and politician (born 1950)

Sergey Viktorovich Lavrov is a Russian diplomat and politician who has served as the Foreign Minister of Russia since 2004.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Russia and weapons of mass destruction</span>

The Russian Federation is known to possess or have possessed three types of weapons of mass destruction: nuclear weapons, biological weapons, and chemical weapons. It is one of the five nuclear-weapon states recognized under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sergei Shoigu</span> Russian politician (born 1955)

Sergei Kuzhugetovich Shoigu is a Russian politician who has served as the minister of defence of Russia since 2012. Shoigu has served as the chairman of the Council of Ministers of Defense of the Commonwealth of Independent States since 2012.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Iran and weapons of mass destruction</span> WMD programs in Iran

Iran is not known to currently possess weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and has signed treaties repudiating the possession of WMDs including the Biological Weapons Convention, the Chemical Weapons Convention, and the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). Iran has first-hand knowledge of WMD effects—over 100,000 Iranian troops and civilians were victims of chemical weapons during the 1980s Iran–Iraq War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tactical nuclear weapon</span> Nuclear weapon designed for use on a battlefield

A tactical nuclear weapon (TNW) or non-strategic nuclear weapon (NSNW) is a nuclear weapon that is designed to be used on a battlefield in military situations, mostly with friendly forces in proximity and perhaps even on contested friendly territory. Generally smaller in explosive power, they are defined in contrast to strategic nuclear weapons, which are designed mostly to be targeted at the enemy interior far away from the war front against military bases, cities, towns, arms industries, and other hardened or larger-area targets to damage the enemy's ability to wage war. As of 2023, no tactical nuclear weapon has ever been used in a combat situation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Russia–United States relations</span> Bilateral relations

Russia and the United States maintain one of the most important, critical and strategic foreign relations in the world. Both nations have shared interests in nuclear safety and security, nonproliferation, counterterrorism, and space exploration.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dmitry Peskov</span> Russian politician and diplomat (born 1967)

Dmitry Sergeyevich Peskov is a Russian diplomat and the press secretary for Russian President Vladimir Putin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NATO–Russia relations</span> Bilateral relations

Relations between the NATO military alliance and the Russian Federation were established in 1991 within the framework of the North Atlantic Cooperation Council. In 1994, Russia joined the Partnership for Peace program, and on 27 May 1997, the NATO–Russia Founding Act (NRFA) creating the NATO–Russia Permanent Joint Council (NRPJC) was signed at a NATO Summit in Paris, France. Through the early part of 2010s NATO and Russia signed several additional agreements on cooperation. The NRPJC was replaced in 2002 by the NATO–Russia Council (NRC) established for handling security issues and joint projects.

Many states, international organizations, and civil society actors worldwide had expressed their reactions to the then-escalating crisis between Russia and Ukraine that started in March 2021. The crisis eventually culminated in a Russian invasion of Ukraine, beginning on 24 February 2022.

Events in the year 2022 in Ukraine.

Disinformation has been distributed by governmental agencies and web brigades of the Russian Federation, the Donetsk People's Republic (DPR), and the Luhansk People's Republic (LPR) separatist areas of Ukraine in relation to the 2021–2022 Russo-Ukrainian crisis and the subsequent Russian invasion. Russian disinformation and fake news stories have focused on themes such as false flags claims of Ukrainian and NATO aggression, claims of human rights violations and even genocide carried out by Ukrainians on Russian speakers, claims that NATO and Ukraine develop biological weapons targeted at Russia, and claims of widespread local populace support for the Russian "liberation". Some of the disinformation has been aimed at promoting anti-refugee sentiment, intending to weaken international support for Ukraine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine</span> Ongoing military conflict in Eastern Europe

On 24 February 2022, Russia invaded Ukraine in a major escalation of the Russo-Ukrainian War, which began in 2014. The invasion has caused tens of thousands of deaths on both sides and Europe's largest refugee crisis since World War II. About 8 million Ukrainians were displaced within their country by late May, and more than 7.9 million fled the country by 3 January 2023.

There have been several rounds of peace talks to halt Russia's 2022 invasion in Ukraine and end the Russo-Ukrainian War in an armistice. The first meeting was held four days after the start of the invasion, on 28 February, in Belarus. It concluded without result, with delegations from both sides returning to their capitals for consultations. A second and third round of talks took place on 3 and 7 March 2022, on the Belarus–Ukraine border, in an undisclosed location in the Gomel region of Belarus. A fourth and fifth round of talks were respectively held on 10 and 14 March in Istanbul, Turkey.

Ukraine is home to four nuclear power plants, as well as the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone, site of the 1986 Chernobyl disaster. As of 11 March, both Chernobyl and the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant had seen battles during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. The invasion has prompted significant discussion about the status of the power plants, including fears of potential disasters, and has also prompted debates about nuclear energy programmes in other European countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant crisis</span> Nuclear safety concerns at the Zaporizhzhia NPP during the Russian Invasion of Ukraine

During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant has become the center of an ongoing nuclear safety crisis, described by Ukraine as an act of nuclear terrorism by Russia.

This timeline of the second phase of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine covers the period from 8 April 2022, when the area of heavy fighting shifted to the south and east of Ukraine, to 28 August 2022, just before Ukrainian counteroffensives made ground in the south and the east.

This timeline of the third phase of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine covers the period from 29 August 2022, when Ukrainian forces retook substantial ground during counteroffensives in the south and east, to the present day. Starting in October, Russia began a campaign of massive strikes against Ukrainian infrastructure.

In the NATO alliance Steadfast Noon is an annual two week training exercise for member countries in handling nuclear weapons. In 2022 this exercise commenced 17 October and culminated 30 October. The NATO exercise involved 14 nations. In 2022 the Steadfast Noon exercise was hosted by Belgium at Kleine Brogel Air Base; the training flights took place over Belgium, the UK, and the North Sea. The training aircraft were up to 60 in number and largely consisted of F-16s, Panavia Tornadoes, and B-52s. Surveillance and tanker aircraft also flew in support. No nuclear weapons were involved, but the crews were trained using mock devices.

References

  1. ↑ Gressel, Gustav (7 July 2022). "Shadow of the bomb: Russia's nuclear threats – European Council on Foreign Relations". ECFR . Archived from the original on 10 September 2022. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
  2. ↑ Roth, Andrews; Walker, Shaun; Rankin, Jennifer; Borger, Julian (28 February 2022). "Putin signals escalation as he puts Russia's nuclear force on high alert". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 27 February 2022. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
  3. 1 2 "Russia won't use tactical nuclear weapons in Ukraine, says ambassador to UK". BBC News. 29 May 2022. Archived from the original on 29 May 2022. Retrieved 2 June 2022.
  4. ↑ "Russia to deploy new intercontinental nuclear missiles by autumn". Al Jazeera. 23 April 2022. Archived from the original on 25 April 2022. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
  5. ↑ "Pentagon says Russia notified U.S. ahead of 'routine' ICBM test-launch". Reuters. 20 April 2022. Archived from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 12 October 2022.
  6. ↑ "Russia's Lavrov Warns of 'Real' Danger of World War III". Moscow Times . 25 April 2022. Archived from the original on 26 April 2022. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
  7. ↑ Ellyatt, Holly; Turak, Natasha; Macias, Amanda (26 April 2022). "Pentagon chief calls Russia nuclear rhetoric 'dangerous'; U.S. to send diplomats back to Ukraine". CNBC. Archived from the original on 27 April 2022. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
  8. ↑ Wolfgang, Ben (27 April 2022). "Angry Putin wields energy, nuclear threats against West". The Washington Times. Archived from the original on 30 September 2022. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
  9. ↑ "Pentagon press secretary John Kirby holds a news briefing". PBS News Hour . 27 April 2022. Archived from the original on 3 May 2022. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
  10. ↑ Ishaan Tharoor (21 September 2022). "Russia pushes the panic button and raises risk of nuclear war". The Washington Post . Washington, D.C. ISSN   0190-8286. OCLC   1330888409. Archived from the original on 22 September 2022. Retrieved 21 September 2022.
  11. ↑ Schofield, Kevin (21 September 2022). "'I'm Not Bluffing': Vladimir Putin Warns The West He Is Willing To Use Nuclear Weapons". HuffPost UK. Archived from the original on 30 September 2022. Retrieved 30 September 2022.
  12. ↑ Faulconbridge, Guy; Osborn, Andrew (28 September 2022). "Analysis: Truth or bluff? Why Putin's nuclear warnings have the West worried". Reuters. Archived from the original on 29 September 2022. Retrieved 30 September 2022.
  13. ↑ "Lavrov, at the UN, pledges 'full protection' for any territory annexed by Russia". Reuters. 24 September 2022. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022.
  14. ↑ Faulconbridge, Guy; Davis, Caleb (27 September 2022). "Medvedev raises spectre of Russian nuclear strike on Ukraine". Reuters. Archived from the original on 29 September 2022. Retrieved 30 September 2022.
  15. ↑ "Chechen's Kadyrov: Russia should use low-yield nuclear weapon in Ukraine". Al Arabiya English. Reuters. 1 October 2022. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
  16. ↑ Sanger, David E.; Troianovski, Anton; Barnes, Julian E. (1 October 2022). "In Washington, Putin's Nuclear Threats Stir Growing Alarm". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2 October 2022. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
  17. ↑ "Peskov, in response to Kadyrov's words about nuclear weapons, pointed out that emotions should not prevail". TASS. Archived from the original on 3 October 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2022.
  18. ↑ "Russia claims Ukraine 'dirty bomb' in final stages". France 24. 24 October 2022.
  19. ↑ Ioanes, Ellen (30 October 2022). "What to expect after Russia's latest escalatory nuclear rhetoric". Vox. Retrieved 2 November 2022.
  20. ↑ "US says Russia's 'dirty bomb' claims are pretext for escalation in Ukraine". ABC News. 24 October 2022. Retrieved 2 November 2022.
  21. ↑ Norton, Tom (27 October 2022). "Fact Check: Russia's claim that photo shows 'dirty bomb' in Ukraine". Newsweek. Retrieved 2 November 2022.
  22. ↑ "Inspectors To Look For Evidence Of Dirty Bomb Production In Ukraine This Week, IAEA Says". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. 27 October 2022. Retrieved 2 November 2022.
  23. ↑ "'No sign' of Ukrainian 'dirty bomb', says UN nuclear watchdog". euronews. 3 November 2022. Retrieved 3 November 2022.
  24. ↑ "IAEA Inspectors Complete In-Field Verification Activities at Three Ukraine locations, No Indications of Undeclared Nuclear Activities and Materials". www.iaea.org. 3 November 2022. Retrieved 3 November 2022.
  25. ↑ "Putin ally says West's deliveries of new weapons to Kyiv will lead to global catastrophe". Reuters. 22 January 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2023.
  26. ↑ "UPDATE 1-No military equipment found in Ukrainian nuclear plants - IAEA". Reuters. 24 January 2023. Retrieved 25 January 2023.
  27. ↑ Sanger, David E.; Barnes, Julian E. (14 April 2022). "C.I.A. Director Airs Concern That Putin Might Turn to Nuclear Weapons" . The New York Times . Washington, D.C. Archived from the original on 14 April 2022. Retrieved 28 May 2022.
  28. ↑ "Hearing on Nuclear Readiness Amid Russia-Ukraine War". C-SPAN. 4 May 2022. Archived from the original on 12 May 2022. Retrieved 2 June 2022.
  29. ↑ "Russian will not use nuclear weapons in Ukraine, foreign ministry says". Reuters . 6 May 2022. Archived from the original on 7 May 2022. Retrieved 2 June 2022.
  30. ↑ Keaten, Jamey (23 May 2022). "'Never have I been so ashamed': Russian envoy criticizes war". Associated Press. Davos. Archived from the original on 5 June 2022. Retrieved 11 June 2022.
  31. ↑ "Japan vows bigger security role in region to tackle threats". By MARI YAMAGUCHI and SYAWALLUDIN ZAIN – Associated Press. 10 January 2022. Archived 2022-06-11 at the Wayback Machine
  32. ↑ "Japan PM Kishida eyes attending NPT review conference in August". KYODO NEWS. 10 June 2022. Archived 2022-06-11 at the Wayback Machine
  33. ↑ "Conference on catastrophic effects of nuclear arms to open in Vienna". 19 June 2022. NHK World News. Archived 2022-06-20 at the Wayback Machine
  34. ↑ "Nuke tensions heighten amid Ukraine war as Belarus says Russia must ready Nuke weapons". WION. 2 July 2022. Archived 2022-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
  35. ↑ Beale, Jonathan (13 August 2022). "Ukraine war: Predicting Russia's next step in Ukraine". BBC . Archived from the original on 19 August 2022. Retrieved 13 August 2022.
  36. ↑ "Ukraine war: Biden warns Putin not to use tactical nuclear weapons". BBC News. 17 September 2022. Archived from the original on 30 September 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2022.
  37. ↑ "Russia faces 'catastrophic' consequences if it uses nuclear weapons, U.S. warns". NBC News. 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2022.
  38. ↑ Meredith, Sam (September 2022). "Putin's 'incredibly dangerous' nuclear threats raise the risk of an unprecedented disaster". CNBC. Archived from the original on 3 October 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2022.
  39. ↑ "UK warns Russia of consequences for any nuclear weapon use". Reuters. 4 October 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2022.
  40. ↑ "Poland suggests hosting US nuclear weapons amid growing fears of Putin's threats". the Guardian. 5 October 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2022.
  41. ↑ Collinson, Stephen (7 October 2022). "Biden's chilling 'Armageddon' warning sharpens the stakes with Putin". CNN. Retrieved 9 October 2022.
  42. ↑ "Pentagon spokesperson tamps down concerns over nuclear 'armageddon'". the Guardian. 9 October 2022. Retrieved 9 October 2022.
  43. ↑ "Remarks by President Biden at Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee Reception". whitehouse.gov. 6 October 2022. Retrieved 9 October 2022.
  44. ↑ "Biden: Russia's Ukraine invasion puts threat of nuclear 'Armageddon' at highest level since 1962". ABC7 Chicago. Associated Press. 7 October 2022. Retrieved 9 October 2022.
  45. ↑ Borger, Julian; Rankin, Jennifer (7 October 2022). "Biden's 'Armageddon' warning wasn't based on new intelligence, US says". The Guardian . Retrieved 12 October 2022.
  46. ↑ Liptak, Kevin (11 October 2022). "Biden says Putin 'totally miscalculated' by invading Ukraine but is a 'rational actor' | CNN Politics". CNN. Retrieved 12 October 2022.
  47. ↑ Sabbagh, Dan (11 October 2022). "No signs Russia is preparing to use nuclear weapon, says GCHQ boss". The Guardian . Retrieved 12 October 2022.
  48. ↑ "Ukrainian defense intel chief predicts victory by next summer: 'Russia's loss is inevitable'". CNN . 18 October 2022. Retrieved 18 October 2022.
  49. ↑ Marples, Megan; Rogers, Kristen; Ramirez, Rachel (24 January 2023). "The Doomsday Clock reveals how close we are to total annihilation". CNN. Retrieved 25 January 2023.
  50. ↑ "Press Briefing by Press Secretary Karine Jean-Pierre and National Security Council Coordinator for Strategic Communications John Kirby". White House . 25 January 2023. Retrieved 28 January 2023.
  51. ↑ Schlosser, Eric (22 June 2022). "What if Russia uses nuclear weapons in Ukraine?". The Atlantic . Archived from the original on 14 July 2022. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
  52. 1 2 "What could happen if Putin used nuclear weapons in Ukraine?". France 24. 24 September 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2022.
  53. ↑ Berger, Miriam (7 September 2022). "Ukraine military chief says 'limited' nuclear war cannot be ruled out". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 13 September 2022. Retrieved 20 September 2022.
  54. ↑ "Nuclear weapons expert says we should be 'extraordinarily concerned' about Putin nuking Ukraine". Business Insider. 30 September 2022. Archived from the original on 2 October 2022. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
  55. ↑ "Ukraine celebrates recapturing key town, Putin ally raises nuclear jitters". CNBC. 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2022.
  56. ↑ "Russian Offensive Campaign Assessment, October 1". Institute for the Study of War. 1 October 2022. Archived from the original on 2 October 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2022.
  57. ↑ "Russia Ukraine War: Will Putin spark nuclear war by using tactical nuke?". The Jerusalem Post. 2 October 2022. Archived from the original on 2 October 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2022.
  58. ↑ Allison, Graham (5 January 2023). "Will Russia Go Nuclear? 7 Key Questions to Consider". Time. Retrieved 23 January 2023.
  59. ↑ "'Russian nuclear terror': Ukraine atomic plant attacked again". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 7 September 2022.
  60. ↑ "Російські військові обстрілюють ЗАЕС, щоб знищити її інфраструктуру та відімкнути від енергосистеми України". Енергоатом. Retrieved 26 August 2022.
  61. ↑ "Місія МАГАТЕ на Запорізьку АЕС має вирушати з Києва, але має бути згода України та Росії ‒ Ґутерріш". Радіо Свобода. 18 August 2022. Retrieved 26 August 2022.
  62. ↑ "U.N. nuclear watchdog calls for a 'security protection zone' around the Russian-held Zaporizhzhia power plant". NBC News. Retrieved 7 September 2022.
  63. ↑ Diaz-Maurin, François (2 September 2022). "A nuclear safety expert's view on the crisis at the Zaporizhzhia nuclear power plant". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
  64. ↑ Meshkati, Najmedin (13 September 2022). "Cold shutdown reduces risk of disaster at Zaporizhzhia nuclear plant – but combat around spent fuel still poses a threat". The Conversation. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.