Passenger trains in Queensland. The small loading gauge of Queensland's narrow-gauge railways prevents the running of rolling stock from interstate on unmodified lines.
Passenger train services in Australia (2015). Perth, Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane have suburban services.
Rail transport in Australia is a component of the Australian transport system. It is to a large extent state-based, as each state largely has its own operations, with the interstate network being developed ever since Australia's federation in 1901. The Australian heavy rail system was built to three track gauges: 1600mm (5ft3in) broad gauge, 1435mm (4ft8+1⁄2in) standard gauge, and 1067mm (3ft6in) narrow gauge. As delineated in the infobox, total route-kilometres of these gauges as of December2024[update] were respectively about 8%, 56% and 35% of the grand total of 31,212 kilometres (19,394mi). Less than 1% was dual gauge and about 11% was electrified. About 87% of the network is single-tracked.
Very little thought was given in the early years of the development of the colony-based rail networks of Australia-wide interests. The most obvious issue to arise was determining a track gauge. Despite advice from London to adopt a uniform gauge, should the lines of the various colonies ever meet, gauges were adopted in different colonies, and indeed within colonies, without reference to those of other colonies. This has caused problems ever since.[2]
Attempts to fix the gauge problem are by no means complete.
With the electrification of suburban networks, which began in 1919, a consistent electric rail traction standard was not adopted. Electrification began in Melbourne in 1919 using 1500V DC. Sydney's lines were electrified from 1926 using 1500V DC, Brisbane's from 1979 using 25 kV AC, and Perth's from 1992 using 25kV AC. There has also been extensive non-urban electrification in Queensland using 25kV AC, mainly during the 1980s for the coal routes. From 2014 Adelaide's lines are being gradually electrified at 25kV AC. 25kV AC voltage has now become the international standard.[3]
In these early years there was very little thought of Australia-wide interests in developing the colony-based networks. The most obvious issue to arise was determining a uniform gauge for the continent. Despite advice from London to adopt a uniform gauge, should the lines of the various colonies ever meet, gauges were adopted in different colonies, and indeed within colonies, without reference to those of other colonies. This example has caused problems ever since at the national level.
In the 1890s, the establishment of an Australian Federation from the six colonies was debated. One of the points of discussion was the extent that railways would be a federal responsibility. A vote to make it so was lost narrowly; instead the new constitution allowed "the acquisition, with the consent of a State, of any railways of the State on terms arranged between the Commonwealth and the State" (Section 51 xxxiii) and "railway construction and extension in any State with the consent of that State" (Section 51 xxxiv). However, the Australian Government is free to provide funding to the states for rail upgrading projects under Section 96 ("the Parliament may grant financial assistance to any State on such terms and conditions as the Parliament thinks fit").
Suburban electrification began in Melbourne in 1919 (1500 V DC). Sydney's lines were electrified from 1926 (1500V DC), Brisbane's from 1979 (25 kV AC), and Perth's from 1992 (25kV AC). Mainline electrification was first carried out in Victoria in 1954, closely followed by New South Wales which continued to expand their network. These networks have fallen into decline, in contrast to Queensland where 25kV AC equipment was introduced from the 1980s for coal traffic.
1831 – Newcastle, New South Wales – Australia's first "railed way"[note 1] opened. Coal skips descended by gravity down a funicular with a 17° slope for 160m (170yd), then were moved for another 220m (240yd) along a near-horizontal bridge[6] to an Australian Agricultural Companystaithe by horses and, for some time, by convicts. Short cast-iron fishbelly rails were used.[5]
1836 – Tasmania, Port Arthur penal settlement to Taranna, about 10km (6.2mi) long – Australia's first "railed way" to haul passengers and general freight[note 2] (not timetabled), pushed by convicts, opened. Rails were timber.[7]
1853 – South Australia, Goolwa to Port Elliot railway, 10.9km (6.8mi) long – first full-scale railway[note 3] in Australia for public conveyance of passengers (timetabled) and general freight opened. Infrastructure was that of a main-line railway but instead of using mechanical traction, trains were horse-drawn as an economy measure.[8]:9 It was the first government-owned railway in the British Empire.[8]:10
1854 – Victoria, Melbourne to Sandridge (now Port Melbourne) railway, 4.2km (2.6mi) long – first full-scale public railway (in the modern sense, using steam locomotion) opened.[9]:41–44
1855 – New South Wales – standard gauge steam powered railway from Sydney to Parramatta21km (13mi) opened.
1856 – South Australia, Adelaide to Port Adelaide broad-gauge railway 12km (7.5mi) opened.
1865 – Queensland – narrow gauge Ipswich to Bigges Camp (renamed Grandchester in honour of occasion) on the way to Toowoomba railway opened, first narrow gauge main line in the world.[10][full citation needed]
Total private and public sector railway engineering construction value (thousands of Australian dollars, monthly).
While Australian federal governments have provided substantial funding for the upgrading of roads, since the 1920s they have not regularly funded investment in railways except for their own railway, the Commonwealth Railways, later Australian National Railways, which was privatised in 1997. They have considered the funding of railways owned by State Governments to be a State responsibility.
Nevertheless, Australian governments have made loans to the states for gauge standardisation projects from the 1920s to the 1970s. From the 1970s to 1996, the Australian Government has provided some grant funding to the States for rail projects, particularly the Keating Government'sOne Nation program, announced in 1992, which was notable for standardising the Adelaide to Melbourne line in 1995. Significant government funding was also made available for the Alice Springs to Darwin line, opened in 2004. Substantial funding is now being made available for freight railways through the Australian Rail Track Corporation and the AusLink land transport funding program.
The Australian Rail Track Corporation (ARTC) is a federal government owned corporation established in 1997 that owns, leases, maintains and controls the majority of main line standard gauge railway lines on the mainland of Australia, known as the Designated Interstate Rail Network (DIRN).
In 2003 the Australian and New South Wales Governments agreed that ARTC would lease the NSW interstate and Hunter Valley networks for 60 years. As part of this agreement, ARTC agreed to a $872 million investment programme on the interstate rail network.[12] The funding sources for the investment included an Australian Government equity injection into ARTC of $143 million and a funding contribution of almost $62 million by the New South Wales Government.
AusLink
Under the AusLink program introduced in July 2004, the Australian Government has introduced the opportunity for rail to gain access to funds on a similar basis to that of roads. AusLink established a defined national network (superseding the former National Highway system) of important road and rail infrastructure links and their intermodal connections.
Rail funding has been announced for signalling upgrades to numerous railway lines, gauge conversion of existing broad gauge lines in Victoria to standard gauge, new rail links to intermodal freight precincts, and extensions to existing crossing loops to permit longer trains to operate.
Funding is focused on the National Network, including the following rail corridors, connecting at one or both ends to State Capital Cities:
Construction and maintenance of network infrastructure is consolidated into non-profit government bodies and contracted private companies: in the case of the interstate network and various non-urban railways of New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia, the Australian Government-owned Australian Rail Track Corporation (ARTC); the New South Wales Regional Network, John Holland Rail; and rail infrastructure throughout the southern half of Western Australia, Arc Infrastructure. As of 2024[update], there were an estimated 18 mainline heavy rail infrastructure managers. [1]:iv
ARTC "has a working relationship with Queensland Rail about the use of the 127 kilometres (79mi) of standard gauge line between the Queensland border and Fisherman Island. ARTC intends to start discussions with Queensland about leasing this track once the NSW arrangements are bedded down".[12] ARTC also maintains the NSW Hunter Valley network under contract. [needs update]
On 1 January 2012, John Holland commenced the operation and maintenance of the New South Wales Regional Network under contract from Transport for NSW, comprising 2,700 kilometres (1,700mi) of operational freight and passenger rail lines.[13]
Arc Infrastructure has a lease until 2049 on 5,100 kilometres (3,200mi) of Western Australian rail infrastructure, from Geraldton in the north, to Leonora and Kalgoorlie in the east, and south to Esperance, Albany and Bunbury.[14][15] It is responsible for maintaining the network and granting access to operators.
Other railways continue to be integrated, although access to their infrastructure is generally required under National Competition Policy principles agreed by the Federal, State and Territory governments:
Inland Rail is a railway construction project extending from Melbourne to Brisbane along a route west of the Great Dividing Range. Construction in stages commenced in 2018 and is scheduled to be completed in 2025, using existing routes where appropriate.
National rail freight movement
Estimated freight transport volumes by mode (billion tonne-kilometres)
The percentage of freight carried by rail has increased sharply this century. Rail accounts for more than a half of Australian freight transport activity (about 57% in 2023–24, up from approximately 38% in 2003–04).[note 4] The dominance of rail freight transport mainly derives from transportation, primarily to ports for export, of iron ore, coal and other bulk products such as grain.[1]:3
Since 2015, the Bureau of Infrastructure and Transport Research Economics (BITRE), a subsidiary of the Australian Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications, Sport and the Arts, has been unable to report aggregated national tonnages because freight train ("above-rail") operators have not released data, although the bureau has obtained some information from sources such as the Australian Securities Exchange and port authorities.[1]:5,8 In 2023, the Australasian Railway Association and the Freight on Rail Group stated that railways had 68% market share of bulk freight transport in Australia but only 17% market share of non-bulk freight, and that policy changes were necessary to make it easier for rail freight operators to move across networks and jurisdictions and play a greater role in meeting future demand, since road alone could not fulfil it.[16]:6
Licensing of personnel with nationally recognised credentials facilitates the transfer of those employees from one state or operator to another, as traffic demands.
Long-distance passenger
Map of passenger railway services in Australia State Government owned rail services:
V/Line, a Victorian government-owned not-for-profit statutory corporation,[17] operates both regional and long-distance services along the Victorian regional network. V/Line operates eight long-distance services from Melbourne:
The Public Transport Authority, a government agency of Western Australia, operates various buses and four long-distance rail routes through its Transwa subsidiary. All routes originate from Perth:
The Prospector: (Perth-Kalgoorlie) 9 round trips per week
AvonLink: (Perth (Midland)–Northam) 1 round trip per day
MerredinLink: (Perth–Merredin) 3 round trips per week
NSW TrainLink, the intercity counterpart of Sydney Trains, provides local suburban services in Newcastle and Wollongong on behalf of Transport for NSW. It also provides services between regional centres and Sydney. These services largely run using double-decker electric trains, with some of the rolling stock used on intercity services shared with Sydney Trains.
V/Line, a state government organisation, operates the Victorian regional rail network, including some services within metropolitan Melbourne, and between Melbourne and regional centres on behalf of Public Transport Victoria.
There are many heritage railways and heritage tramways in Australia, often run by community organisations and preservation societies. There are also some privately operated passenger services, such as:
Skitube is a private railway in the New South Wales snowfields. Owned by the Perisher Ski Resort, it connects the main entrance of this tourist destination with ski areas that are inaccessible via road. The line mainly operates underground.
The Byron Bay Train service operates as a shuttle between Byron Bay station in the Byron Bay township and North Beach station. The privately run service operates on a 3km section of the disused Murwillimbah line.
Tramways with 610mm (2ft) gauge for the transport of sugarcane have always been operated as private concerns associated with the relevant sugar cane mill. These tramways are quite advanced technically, with hand-me-down rails cascaded from the normal rails, remote-controlled brake vans, concrete sleepers in places, and tamping machines in miniature. The twenty or so separate tramways cooperate in research and development.
Timber
Tramways were often associated with the transport of timber to sawmills. Various gauges were used, including the 610mm (2ft) gauge, which was also commonly used for cane haulage.[citation needed]
Wider gauges were sometimes used as well; Queensland had a number of 991mm (3ft 3in) systems, some on wooden rails. In some areas 1,067mm (3ft6in) was used, a considerable investment of resources. In the early 21st century, the disused Queensland Rail line to Esk 1,067mm (3ft6in) in the Brisbane Valley was used for timber haulage.[citation needed]
Iron ore
Five isolated heavy duty railways for the cartage of iron ore in the Pilbara region of Western Australia have always been private concerns operated as part of the production line between mine and port, initially commencing in 1966 with Goldsworthy Mining Associates' Goldsworthy railway line, and recently in 2008 with Fortescue'sFortescue railway line and in 2015 with Roy Hill Holdings' Roy Hill railway line. These lines are continually optimising axle loads (currently the heaviest in the world) and train lengths, that have pushed the limit of the wheel to rail interface and led to much useful research of value to railways worldwide.[18] An open access sixth standard gauge iron ore network was proposed to the Oakajee Port in the Mid-West region to the south of the Pilbara but the project is currently on hold pending a viable business case.[19]
Several medium-speed rail services operate on existing track that has been upgraded to accommodate faster services and/or tilting technology. Some of these services use high-speed capable rolling stock.
In Western Australia, Westrail began using high-speed diesel railcars in 1971 on The Prospector service from Perth to Kalgoorlie, and set a new Australian speed record.[citation needed] Now operated by Transwa, the railcars were replaced in 2004 with new units capable of 200km/h (124mph), although track condition currently limits this to 160km/h (100mph).[20] The same type of cars are used on the AvonLink service.[21]
New South Wales commenced operations with the XPT in 1982. Based on the British InterCity 125 train, it has a maximum service speed of 160km/h (100mph) and set an Australian speed record for the time of 193km/h (120mph) on a test run in 1992.[22] The train is not often used to its full potential, operating along winding steam-era alignments;[23] for example, the average speed on the Sydney–Melbourne route in 2002 was 75 kilometres per hour (47 miles per hour).[24] New South Wales trialled the Swedish X 2000 tilt train in 1995. Propelled by two specially modified XPT power cars, the train carried passengers between Sydney and Canberra in an eight-week trial.[25]
Queensland Rail's Electric Tilt Train service operates from Brisbane to Rockhampton, while the Diesel Tilt Train service runs from Brisbane to Cairns. These routes were partially upgraded in the 1990s at a cost of $590 million, with the construction of 160km/h (99mph) of deviations to straighten curves.[23]:191 Both with a service speed of 160km/h (100mph),[26] the electric train set an Australian rail speed record of 210km/h (130mph) in 1999.[27]
In Victoria, the state government upgraded railway lines as part of the Regional Fast Rail project, with V/Line operating VLocity diesel railcars at a maximum speed of 160km/h (100mph) over the lines.[28] In the early stages of the project, the Victorian Government incorrectly referred to it as the 'Fast Train' or 'Very Fast Train', and this practice continues among some politicians and members of the public.[29][30][31]
High speed rail has been repeatedly raised as an option since the 1980s, and has had bipartisan support for research and land purchase.
The focus usually falls on Sydney to Melbourne, where it is seen as a competitor to the busy Sydney–Melbourne air corridor, with Sydney to Brisbane and (less often) Melbourne to Adelaide also proposed. The benefits of regional city development are frequently raised.
The most recent major study into interstate high-speed rail was undertaken from 2011 to 2013, after which the federal government indicated it would start purchasing land for a rail corridor, however this did not eventuate. In 2016 the prime minister indicated a high-speed rail link might be funded privately and by value capture.
The Queensland Rail Electric Tilt Train's record speed of 210km/h (130mph) is just above the internationally accepted definition of high-speed rail of 200km/h (120mph).[32] The maximum test speed of 193km/h (120mph) set by NSW TrainLink's XPT is approximately that. The Transwa WDA/WDB/WDC class railcars used on the medium-speed Transwa Prospector service are high-speed capable, but are limited to 160km/h (99mph) in service.[33] The XPT is also theoretically capable of reaching speeds of 200km/h (120mph).[34]
Regulation
Prior to 1993, the regulation of Australian Railways was under the control of the state-owned operators. The first move away from this arrangement was in New South Wales with the passing of the Rail Safety Act 1993. This Act moved the regulation away from the NSW State Rail Authority into the independent hands of the Transport Safety Bureau within the NSW Department of Transport. Each rail operator and rail infrastructure owner was accredited by the Regulator under the Rail Safety Act. This was the first such legislation in Australia and gradually, the different states passed similar forms of legislation. [35]
With the opening up of the national rail network to private operators, the different pieces of state-based legislation provided the growing group of interstate operators with a complicated set of varying requirements for their operations. In December 2009 the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) agreed to establish a national rail safety regulator and develop a rail safety national law that the rail safety regulator would administer. Following an extensive consultation period with industry, governments and unions, a final version of the national legislation was approved by transport ministers in November 2011. [36]
The Rail Safety National Law was first enacted in South Australia in 2012 and all other states and territories have either adopted it or passed legislation that models it. This legislation created the Office of The National Rail Safety Regulator (ONRSR), based in Adelaide. New South Wales, South Australia and Tasmania were the first states to come under ONRSR control, from 2013. [37]
Notes
↑The term "railed way" refers to a configuration that preceded those of full-scale railways. For example, the AA Co funicular had short, brittle, cast-iron fishbelly rails that would have been inadequate for the higher speeds and weights of trains on the railways being developed at the time.[5]
↑The term "railed way" refers to a configuration that preceded those of full-scale railways.[5] Timber rails were totally inadequate for speeds higher than those of running men or weights of more than half a ton.
↑A 1991 Institution of Engineers Australia paper on the engineering heritage significance of the Goolwa–Port Elliot railway postulated that [full-scale] railways might be defined as having six characteristics:
specialised track
acceptance of public traffic
carriage of passengers
a measure of public control
mechanical traction
scope for development and expansion of the system.[8]:9
By this definition, the lack of mechanical traction disqualifies the Goolwa–Port Elliot railway from a claim to be Australia's first full-scale railway ahead of the steam-powered Melbourne to Sandridge railway.
↑Note in BITRE Trainline 12 (2025): No current combined data source covers freight transport in the entire Australian network. Individual data sources report part or aspects of the freight task only, such as by commodity or location. These sources include train operator and track/infrastructure manager data and some of this is not otherwise public information.[1]:3
↑Harrigan, L.J. (October 1942). "The early suburban railways of Melbourne 1854 to 1879". Australian Railway Historical Society Bulletin. Vol.X, no.60. Redfern, NSW: Australian Railway Historical Society, New South Wales Division. ISSN1449-6291.
↑Kerr, J. 'Triumph of Narrow Gauge' Boolarong Publications 1990
↑"Prospector". Archived from the original on 22 June 2012. Retrieved 24 August 2013. Transwa website: Prospector – Perth to Kalgoorlie train service
↑"Australia's fastest trains enter service". International Railway Journal. Simmons-Boardman Publishing Corporation. September 2003. Archived from the original on 9 January 2016. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
↑Kenneth Davidson (22 September 2003). "Fast train is a big waste of money". The Age. Melbourne: theage.com.au. Archived from the original on 26 October 2012. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
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