High-speed rail in Australia

Last updated

High-speed rail in Australia
City of Maryborough Platform 10 Roma Street Station Brisbane P1280919 (cropped).jpg
The Electric Tilt Train holds the Australian rail speed record
Overview
StatusProposals in various forms
Service
Type High-speed rail
ServicesProposals linking Sydney, Melbourne, Canberra, Newcastle, Brisbane and elsewhere

High-speed rail in Australia has been under investigation since the early 1980s. [1] [2] Every federal government since this time has investigated the feasibility of constructing high-speed rail with speeds above 200 km/h, but to date nothing has ever gone beyond the detailed planning stage. Various corridors have been proposed for a potential high-speed line. The most commonly suggested route is between Australia's two largest cities, Sydney and Melbourne, which, as of 2023, is the world's sixth busiest air corridor. [3]

Contents

Since the introduction of the New South Wales XPT, some Australian trains have been capable of high-speed operation; the Australian rail speed record of 210 km/h was set by Queensland Rail's Electric Tilt Train during a trial run in 1998. [4] This speed is above the internationally accepted definition of high-speed rail of 200 km/h (124 mph). [5] Trains in New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and Western Australia operate at a maximum service speed of 160 km/h (99.4 mph).

The High Speed Rail Authority, a federal government agency established in 2023, has been tasked with "advising on, planning, developing and overseeing the construction and operation of a transformational network along Australia’s eastern seaboard". The authority's first priority is planning and corridor works for the Sydney to Newcastle section of a high-speed rail network, backed by a $500 million commitment from the Australian Government. [6]

Overview

The construction of a high-speed rail link along the east coast has been the target of several investigations since the early 1980s. Air travel dominates the inter-capital travel market, and intra-rural travel is almost exclusively car-based. Rail has a significant presence in the rural / city fringe commuter market, but inter-capital rail currently has very low market share due to low speeds and infrequent service. [7] However, travel times between the capitals by high-speed rail could be as fast as or faster than air travel, [8] as the 2013 High Speed Rail Study Phase 2 Report estimated that conventional high-speed rail express journeys from Sydney to Melbourne would take 2 hours and 44 minutes, while those from Sydney to Brisbane would take 2 hours and 37 minutes. [9]

Various studies and recommendations have asserted that a high-speed rail service between the major eastern capital cities could be viable as an alternative to air. [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] Although such studies have generated much interest from the private sector and captured the imagination of the general public upon their release, to date no private-sector proposal has been able to demonstrate financial viability without the need for significant government assistance. [19]

A mature high-speed rail system would be more economically competitive, provide mass transit, have a duration of travel that would compare with or be quicker than air travel, and would reduce national carbon dioxide emissions. [18] [20] [21]

In 2012, over 12 million people lived along the Sydney–Melbourne rail corridor. [22]

Present status

The maximum service speed on Australian railways is 160 km/h (99 mph). Some trains in Australia are capable of high-speed operation, but are limited by track conditions. Regional and inter-city rail is extensive on the Australian mainland, with networks serving New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and Western Australia.

New South Wales

The NSW TrainLink XPT fleet runs from Sydney to regional and interstate destinations NSW Country Link 'XPT' High Speed Train (5 trailers + 2 power cars) with power car No.2015 - 30726451507.jpg
The NSW TrainLink XPT fleet runs from Sydney to regional and interstate destinations
The XPT design is based on that of the InterCity 125 British Rail Class 43 at Chesterfield.jpg
The XPT design is based on that of the InterCity 125

The XPT (Express Passenger Train) entered service in New South Wales in 1982. It set an Australian speed record for the time of 193 km/h (120 mph) on a test run in 1992, beating its own previous record. [23] The train is not often used to its full potential, operating along winding steam-era alignments, [24] and at times has had its top speed limited due to track condition and level crossing incidents. [25] Nonetheless, it significantly reduced travel times, cutting up to two hours off the trip from Sydney to Melbourne. [26] The XPT operates at a top speed of 160 km/h (100 mph). However, it can theoretically reach speeds of 200 km/h. [27] Safety-related issues, signal deficiencies & the retrofitting of train-stop mechanisms to power cars in 2006 resulted in XPT speeds being limited to 115km/h on Sydney's electrified network. [28]

In January 1978, the Public Transport Commission invited tenders for a fleet of high-speed railcars similar to the Prospector railcars delivered by Comeng to the Western Australian Government Railways in 1971. Comeng submitted a tender for a train based on the British Rail designed InterCity 125 which had entered service with British Rail in October 1976. In August 1979, Comeng was announced as the successful bidder. [29] [30] [31] [32] [33]

The design was significantly modified for Australian conditions. The passenger trailer cars were based on a Budd design, with the British Rail Mark 3 trailers considered unsuitable. [31]

NSW TrainLink currently operates XPT trains from Sydney to Melbourne, Brisbane, Dubbo, Grafton and Casino. [34] NSW TrainLink also operates services to various intercity and regional destinations, including Canberra.

The NSW TrainLink D set is the second rolling stock design produced for NSWTrainlink to operate at 160 km/h (100 mph) service speed, specified to be equivalent to the XPT. Subsequently though, the service speeds have been restricted to 130 km/h (80 mph) by the operator due to technical issues with the units during testing conducted on the network. [35] Subject to effective project management, the future New South Wales R set (XPT replacement) may also suffer the same restrictions if the operator does not resolve the current outstanding issues.

Queensland

Diesel Tilt Train Spirit Of Queensland - Diesel Tilt Train.jpg
Diesel Tilt Train

The Electric Tilt Train entered service in Queensland on 6 November 1998 on the Spirit of Capricorn between Brisbane and Rockhampton. With a journey time of seven hours, they shaved over two hours from the schedule operated by InterCity Express sets. [36] [37] [38]

Using traction equipment based on the JR Shikoku 8000 series trains, the Tilt Train set an Australian train speed record of 210 km/h (130 mph) north of Bundaberg in May 1999, a record that still stands. [39] [40] This makes it Australia's only train to exceed the common definition of high-speed rail, and also makes it the fastest narrow-gauge train in the world. [41]

In August 1999 a contract was awarded to Walkers for two diesel tilting trains to operate services from Brisbane to Cairns. [42] In contrast to the Electric Tilt Train, the diesel Tilt Train is a push-pull locomotive based train.

In October 2010 Downer Rail was awarded a contract to build a further diesel tilt train with two power cars and 12 carriages to replace locomotive hauled stock on The Sunlander . [43] [44] [45] The third and brand new set was delivered and entered service in 2014.

The maximum speed of the Tilt Train in service is 160 km/h (99 mph). [46]

Victoria

V/Line operates regional services in Victoria. In the late 2010s and early 2020s, the Victorian regional network underwent one of the largest periods of expansion and upgrade in its history, resulting in widespread improvements. [47] V/Line's VLocity trains run at speeds of 160 km/h (99 mph). [48]

Western Australia

A Transwa WDA/WDB/WDC class railcar Prospector Merredin 2012 (cropped).JPG
A Transwa WDA/WDB/WDC class railcar

In December 2000 Westrail awarded a contract to United Goninan, Broadmeadow for nine railcars to replace the 1971 built WAGR WCA/WCE class railcars. Seven were for The Prospector and two for the AvonLink service. [49] [50] [51]

The first entered service on 28 June 2004. [50] [52] Power is provided by Cummins engines. The new railcars are capable of 200 km/h (120 mph), but track conditions restrict their top speed to 160 km/h (99 mph). [53]

Proposals

Various proposals have sought to introduce high-speed service in Australia through varyingly ambitious projects ranging from improving existing lines to constructing entirely new ones.

1970s–1980s

The rail network has long been a target of proposals for improvement. The 1979 Premiers' Meeting proposed the electrification of the Sydney–Melbourne line to improve transit time from over 12 hours to under 10, but a senate committee found this was not justified on economic grounds. In 1981, the Institution of Engineers proposed the Bicentennial High-Speed Railway Project, which proposed to link the five capitals of south-eastern Australia (Adelaide, Melbourne, Canberra, Sydney and Brisbane) in time for the Australian Bicentenary. However, it proposed only the strengthening and partial electrification of the existing tracks, new deviations to bypass the worst sections, additional passing loops, and the purchase of new diesel-electric trains. It would offer only mild improvements on the existing travel times: Sydney to Canberra in three hours, and Sydney to Melbourne in nine; it cannot therefore be considered a true high-speed rail proposal. [1]

1980s

1984 CSIRO proposal

Paul Wild on track in front of a TGV, France, 1989 Paul Wild on track in front of TGV, France, 1989.jpg
Paul Wild on track in front of a TGV, France, 1989

The first true high-speed rail proposal was presented to the Hawke government in June 1984 by the CSIRO, spearheaded by its chairman, Dr Paul Wild. [54] The proposal was to link Melbourne, Canberra and Sydney via a coastal corridor, based on French TGV technology. The proposal estimated construction costs at A$2.5 billion ($9.15 billion in 2023), with initial revenue of A$150 million per annum exceeding operating costs of A$50 million per annum. The proposal attracted much public and media attention, as well as some private sector capital for feasibility studies. [1] [55]

In September 1984, the Bureau of Transport Economics found that the probable construction costs had been underestimated by A$1.5 billion, and the proposal would therefore be uneconomic. The Minister for Transport, Peter Morris, rejected the proposal. [1]

Very Fast Train (VFT) joint venture

Later in 1984 Peter Abeles, chairman of TNT, expressed interest in Dr Wild's proposal.

Two years later in September 1986, the Very Fast Train Joint Venture was established, comprising Elders IXL, Kumagai Gumi, TNT and later BHP, with Dr Wild as chairman. They proposed a 350 km/h rail link from Sydney to Canberra via Goulburn, and then on to Melbourne via the coastal route (or alternatively the inland route). A feasibility study estimated to cost A$19 million ($51.3 million in 2023) was initiated by the group in 1988. In 1989, after talks with the Queensland Government, the joint venture group also performed a preliminary analysis of a coastal link to Brisbane. In 1990 the joint venture released the results of the major feasibility study, simply titled VFT – Project Evaluation. It proposed an inland route between Melbourne, Sydney and Canberra, with intermediate stations at Campbelltown, Bowral, Goulburn, Yass, Wagga Wagga, Albury-Wodonga, Benalla, Seymour and Melbourne Airport. It was estimated to cost $6.6 billion ($16.6 billion in 2023) and take five years to construct, beginning in 1992.

The VFT was opposed by numerous groups, notably the Australian Conservation Foundation and the Australian Democrats. [1] Concerns centred around the environmental impact a coastal corridor would have on fragile ecosystems, noise pollution and the amount of public money that might be required.

After the release of the project evaluation, negotiations continued between the joint venture and state and federal governments. A favourable tax regime was sought, without which it was claimed that the project would not be economically viable. Premier of South Australia John Bannon was among the vocal proponents of tax breaks for major infrastructure projects such as the VFT. [1] In August 1991, the Hawke Cabinet rejected the proposed tax breaks after it was claimed they would have cost A$1.4 billion (A$3.2 billion in 2023). Subsequently the VFT Joint Venture folded. [1] [56] [57]

1990s

Tilting trains

A Swedish X 2000 tilting train X2000, Lund C.JPG
A Swedish X 2000 tilting train

During the 1990s there were several investigations into the use of tilting trains on existing tracks. In January 1990 it was reported that the NSW government was considering upgrading the existing state railway lines to utilise tilting train technology under development by Swedish-Swiss engineering giant ASEA Brown Boveri. This was at the same time as the VFT was under investigation, and there was concern that two fast railways could end up being built, which would then both be financially unviable. The tilt train concept could potentially reach speeds of up to 200 kilometres per hour (120 mph) while using the existing tracks. [58]

From February to June 1995, CountryLink leased three X 2000 tilting carriages from Swedish Railways. The X 2000 carriages were driven by two XPT power cars in a push-pull configuration, and modified to provide hotel power. [59] The train visited 39 cities and covered some 95,000 km during its tour of the state. 18,525 passengers were carried during an eight-week trial service between Sydney and Canberra. This service had a scheduled timetable of 3hrs 25min (compared to the 4hrs 07min of the existing XPLORER service), and recorded curve speeds up to 44% higher than XPT speed boards during regular service. Maximum speed was limited to 160 km/h, due to safety regulations at level crossings, as well as the physical demands on drivers in the non-tilting power cars. [60]

The greatest challenge was the carriages' relatively wide clearance profile, which necessitated a targeted program of platform cutbacks and track slews on the Sydney-Canberra route. However, the trial was otherwise a great success. The track's transition curves were found to be well suited to the X2000's capability of 4° tilt angle per second. Furthermore, track studies indicated that the X2000 exerted lower track forces than the XPT, due to its self-steering bogies. The service was popular with passengers, who were impressed with the faster service and the features of the carriages. [60]

While the speed improvement over the existing timetable was modest, it was estimated that the Sydney-Canberra timetable could be reduced to as low as 2hrs, with investment in track improvements and deviations in the order of $500 million. [60] Media coverage of the trial focused on technical issues (particularly clearance and transitions), dubbing it a case of a "fast train on slow track." [61] No major track work was undertaken, as the Federal government was awaiting the outcome of the alternative "Speedrail" proposal. [60]

Speedrail proposal

An Xplorer on the current, non-HSR Sydney-Canberra service CountryLink Xplorer crossing the Queanbeyan River Railway Bridge.jpg
An Xplorer on the current, non-HSR Sydney-Canberra service

In 1993, the Speedrail Consortium (a joint venture between Alstom and Leighton Contractors) made a proposal for a high-speed rail link between Sydney and Canberra. It was initially going to cost A$2.4 billion ($4.1 billion in 2013). After years of delays and more claims that massive government subsidies would be required, [1] in March 1997 the Commonwealth, New South Wales and ACT governments formally invited expressions of interest; by July, six proponents had been shortlisted. In December 1997, the government received four proposals, all accompanied by the required A$100,000 deposit. [55] The proponents were:

On 4 August 1998, Prime Minister John Howard announced that Speedrail was the preferred party, [62] [63] and gave the go ahead for the project to move into the 'proving up' stage, on the understanding that if the project proceeded, it would be at "no net cost to the taxpayer". It was predicted that construction would cost A$3.5 billion ($5.4 billion in 2013), with 15,000 new jobs created during the construction period. It was planned that the line would use the East Hills line to depart Sydney, and then follow the Hume and Federal highways into Canberra. There would be stations at Central, Campbelltown, Southern Highlands, Goulburn and Canberra Airport. Nine eight-car trainsets would be used, departing from each city at 45-minute intervals, and running at a maximum speed of 320 km/h (199 mph) to complete the journey in 81 minutes. [62] The line was to operate under a build–own–operate model, that would allow a private company to manage the network, but would then be transferred to government after 30 years.

In November 1999, Speedrail submitted a feasibility study to the government, claiming that the project satisfied all the government's requirements. [64] However, the media still speculated that A$1 billion in government assistance or tax concessions would be required. [55] In December 2000, the federal government terminated the proposal due to fears it would require excessive subsidies.

2000s

Howard government (2000)

In December 2000 in the wake of the termination of the Speedrail proposal, the Howard government commissioned TMG International Pty Ltd, leading a team of specialist subconsultants, including Arup, to investigate all aspects of the design and implementation of a high-speed rail system linking Melbourne, Canberra, Sydney and Brisbane. The East Coast Very High Speed Train Scoping Study – Phase 1 was released in November 2001 and cost A$2.3 million to prepare. [65] It dealt with high-speed rail technologies, corridor selection, operating performance and transit times, project costs, projected demand, financing, and national development impacts. Although the preliminary study did not undertake a detailed corridor analysis, it recommended the selection of an inland route between Melbourne and Sydney, and a coastal route between Sydney and Brisbane.

The report concluded that although a high-speed rail system could have a place in Australia's transport future, it would require years of bipartisan political vision to realise (construction time was estimated at 10–20 years), and would most likely require significant financial investment from the government – up to 80% of construction costs. [66] [65] Construction cost estimates indicated a strong dependence on the chosen design speed; the construction costs for a double-track east coast high-speed railway would be (2001 A$):

  • 250 km/h: $33 – $41 billion
  • 350 km/h: $38 – $47 billion
  • 500 km/h (maglev): $56 – $59 billion

These numbers do not include rollingstock or the cost of setting up the operating company. The report noted that these costs could be reduced somewhat upon detailed corridor analysis (especially the lower speed options) if sections of existing rail or highway corridor could be utilised.

In March 2002, the Government decided not to go ahead with phase 2 of the scoping study due to the finding that an enormous amount of public funding would be required for the massive infrastructure project. [65]

Canberra Business Council study

In April 2008 the Canberra Business Council made a submission to Infrastructure Australia, High Speed Rail for Australia: An opportunity for the 21st century. [18] The submission detailed:

  • Improvements in technology, competitiveness and supply over the previous decade.
  • Travel demand on the East Coast. The Melbourne–Sydney air route is the fourth-busiest in the world, and the Sydney–Brisbane route ranks seventh in the Asia-Pacific region.
  • Increased standard of living.
  • Use for freight. High-speed freight trains are in use in France and soon to expand across Europe.
  • Environmental sustainability and reduced greenhouse gas emissions.
  • Energy efficiency.
  • Better social outcomes, quality of life, and reduced social disadvantage for regional centres on the rail line.

Canberra Airport plan

In 2009, Canberra Airport proposed that it would be the most appropriate location for a Second Sydney Airport, providing a high-speed rail link was built that could reduce travel times between the cities to 50 minutes. Given the existing development within the Sydney basin, a HSR link will probably be required whatever site is chosen, yet the Canberra option save up to A$22 billion which would be needed to develop a greenfields airport site at Badgerys Creek or Wilton. [67] [68] In June 2012, Canberra Airport unveiled plans to build a A$140 million rail terminal at the airport if the high-speed link goes ahead. [68]

High-Speed Rail Study (2008–2013)

The preferred route in the 2013 report to the Australian Government for a high-speed rail line from Brisbane to Melbourne Preferred alignment (2013) of Australian east coast high speed rail system.jpg
The preferred route in the 2013 report to the Australian Government for a high-speed rail line from Brisbane to Melbourne
Announcement of the study

In December 2008, the Rudd government announced that a Very Fast Train along the Sydney–Melbourne corridor, estimated to cost A$25 billion, was the government's highest infrastructure priority. [69] [70] On 31 October 2010, the Government issued the terms of reference for a strategic study to inform it and the New South Wales, Victorian, Queensland and Australian Capital Territory governments about implementation of HSR on the east coast of Australia between Melbourne and Brisbane—it cost $20 million and was undertaken in two phases.

The initiative was supported by both the Liberal opposition and the Australian Greens, the latter of which called for the study's scope to be extended to encompass Adelaide and Perth, [71] [72] a sentiment that was echoed by some. [73] [74] [75] [71]

In 2013 the Australian government released the finished study, with the proposed route linking Melbourne, Canberra, Sydney, and Brisbane. [76]

Phase 1

The report of phase 1, [77] released on 4 August 2011, identified corridors and station locations and potential patronage, and gave indicative estimates of the cost. [78] The first phase of the study was completed in 2011, projecting a financial cost for high-speed rail of between $61 and A$108 billion, depending on the route and station combination that was selected. [77] [79] [80]

The phase 1 report found that an HSR corridor between Brisbane and Melbourne could:

  • cost between A$61 billion and A$108 billion (2011 dollars)
  • involve more than 1,600 kilometres of new standard-gauge, double-track
  • achieve speeds of up to 350 kilometres per hour and offer journey times as low as 3 hours between both Brisbane and Sydney and Sydney and Melbourne, 40 minutes from Sydney to Newcastle, and 1 hour between Sydney and Canberra
  • carry about 54 million passengers a year by 2036
  • offer competitive ticket prices. [77]

The report noted that acquiring, or otherwise preserving the corridor in the short term could reduce future costs by reducing the likelihood of additional tunnels as urban areas grow and preferred corridors become unavailable. [77]

Phase 2

Work on phase 2 of the study started in late 2011 and culminated in the release of the High speed rail study phase 2 report [9] on 11 April 2013. [76] Building on the work of phase 1, it was more comprehensive in objectives and scope, and refined many of the phase 1 estimates, particularly demand and cost estimates. [76]

The phase 2 report found that: [9]

  • the corridor would comprise about 1,750 kilometres of dedicated route linking Brisbane, Sydney, Canberra and Melbourne
  • the preferred alignment included four capital city stations, four city-peripheral stations, and stations at the Gold Coast, Casino, Grafton, Coffs Harbour, Port Macquarie, Taree, Newcastle, Southern Highlands, Wagga Wagga, Albury-Wodonga and Shepparton
  • once fully operational (from 2065) [sic], the corridor could carry about 84 million passengers a year
  • express journey times would be less than three hours between Melbourne and Sydney and between Sydney and Brisbane
  • optimal staging for the HSR program would involve building the Sydney–Melbourne line first, starting with Sydney–Canberra, followed by Canberra–Melbourne, Newcastle–Sydney, Brisbane–Gold Coast and Gold Coast–Newcastle
  • the estimated cost of constructing the corridor in its entirety would be about A$114 billion (2012 dollars)
  • the HSR program and the majority of its individual stages would be expected to produce only a small positive financial return on investment. so governments would need to fund the majority of the upfront capital costs
  • if passenger projections were met at the fare levels proposed, the HSR system could generate sufficient revenue from fares and other activities to meet operating costs without ongoing public subsidy
  • HSR would substantially improve accessibility for the regional centres it served and provide opportunity for – although not the automatic realisation of – regional development.
Favoured alignment

Also released alongside the phase 2 report were 280 detailed maps showing the preferred alignment identified in the study. They resolve the various earlier alternative routes outlined in the Wikipedia article Corridor selection history for Australian High-Speed Rail.

Sydney–MelbourneSydney–BrisbaneSydney–Canberra
Great circle distance713 km (443 mi)732 km (455 mi)247 km (153 mi)
Existing rail distance [81] 963 km (598 mi) (32% greater)988 km (614 mi) (28% greater)329 km (204 mi) (25% greater)
Existing rail average speed [81] 92 km/h (57 mph)73 km/h (45 mph)76 km/h (47mph)
Existing rail travel time (h:min) [81] 10:3013:354:19 [82]
Existing rail services (daily, each way) [81] 213 [83]
Air travel time (CBD to CBD*) (h:min) [81] 3:003:051:35
Air services (daily, each way) [84] 1188429
High-speed rail travel time (max. 350 km/h) [85] 2:454:241:04 [86]

NOTE: Air travel time includes travel from CBD to airport, waiting at terminal, gate-to-gate transit, and travel to destination CBD.

Issues

The major issues preventing the adoption of high-speed rail include, according to Philip Laird: [55]

  • a high level of competition in domestic air travel, resulting in highly affordable fares.
  • excessive domestic air transport subsidies.
  • that the great inter-city distances exceed those for which high-speed rail can compete effectively against aircraft.
  • a perception of cheap car travel.
  • a lack of tolls on the majority of inter-capital roads.

2010s

Abbott government (2013–2015)

On 8 November 2013 the High Speed Rail Advisory Group, charged with part of the planning for a very fast train between Brisbane and Melbourne, was one of 20 government committees and councils identified to be wound up as part of the newly elected Abbott government's initial efforts to cut costs and "ensure that the machinery of government is as efficient and as small as possible". [87] [88]

However, the following month, former Deputy Prime Minister Warren Truss [89] [90] [91] announced that the Coalition was committed to acquiring the land corridor identified by the previous government's study, and that he was personally seeking the co-operation of the premiers of Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland, and the Chief Minister of the ACT.

The Labor Party indicated it would support the move. [92]

Beyond Zero Emissions Study (2014)

In 2014, the low-carbon advocacy group Beyond Zero Emissions released a detailed study in response to the Rudd government's Phase 2 report. Prepared in collaboration with the German Aerospace Centre, the study used many of the same cost assumptions but proposed a modified route to minimise construction expense. Although slightly longer (1799 km compared to 1748 km), the length in tunnel was reduced by 44%, and the length on bridges by 25%. Much of the reduction came through making greater use of existing transport corridors for metropolitan access; the government study took the politically uncomplicated but extremely expensive option of simply tunnelling to the terminal stations. Project author Gerard Drew also criticised the Phase 2 Report's 45-year construction timeline, calling it "laughable". Drew also suggested that there was significant "gold plating" evident in the government report's cost estimates. BZE forecast that the high-speed railway would cost $84.3 billion and take 10 years to construct. [93] [94]

Turnbull government (2015–2018)

When leadership of the Liberal Party changed to Malcolm Turnbull, a noted rail enthusiast, the Federal Government revived talk of high-speed rail proposals for Australia, with a focus on private-sector proposals and value-capture funding models.

In March 2016 the government received an unsolicited proposal from a group called Consolidated Land and Rail Australia (CLARA), proposing a very fast railway (500 km/h class) between Sydney and Melbourne. [95] Rather than serving existing population centres, the proposal centred on creating 8 new inland cities as commuter towns for Sydney and Melbourne, with construction of both the cities and the railway to be funded by land sales. Clara claimed to have already secured purchase options for 40% of the land required for the cities. [96]

In April 2017, Spanish rollingstock manufacturer Talgo presented an unsolicited proposal to the NSW government, in which it was proposed to utilize passively tilting diesel rollingstock, capable of speeds up to 200 km/h, to increase speeds on the Sydney-Canberra line. With minimal modifications to the existing track, Talgo claimed a travel time as low as 2-2.5hrs could be achieved. The manufacturer offered to bring a Talgo trainset to New South Wales for testing at no cost. [97]

In the May 2017 Federal Budget, the federal government announced $20 million in funding, matching that provided by state/territory or private proponents, for the development of up to three business cases focusing on delivering high-speed rail links between capital cities and regional Australia. Submissions will be appraised by Infrastructure Australia, with the funds to be allocated to the successful proponents. Further funding would be considered following completion of the business case(s). [98]

New South Wales (late 2018)

Canberra railway station, the terminus of the Southern Xplorer service from Sydney, which currently takes approximately four hours. CanberraRailwayStation1.JPG
Canberra railway station, the terminus of the Southern Xplorer service from Sydney, which currently takes approximately four hours.

In late 2018, the New South Wales State Government announced a new high-speed rail network connecting Sydney and regional NSW. [99] The government is spending $4.6 million on investigating four identified potential routes. [100] These are Sydney to Port Macquarie, Orange/Parkes, Nowra and Canberra. [101] The proposal offers the following travel times (in hours): [101] [102]

JourneyCurrent journey time< 200 km/h> 250 km/h
Sydney-Canberra4:073:001:00
Sydney-Goulburn2:311:450:30
Sydney-Newcastle2:352:000:45
Sydney-Gosford1:191:000:30
Sydney-Wollongong1:251:000:30

On 24 December 2022, the head of the study, Professor Andrew McNaughton, remarked that in his opinion that fixing "the corridor between Sydney and the Hunter [Sydney-Newcastle]" would make "the biggest difference to the biggest number of people". He also regarded the Sydney-Goulburn and Sydney-Canberra corridors as lower priority, while remarking that those on the Sydney-Orange/Parkes corridor "just need a decent train service". [103] [104]

As of 24 December 2022, the study report has not yet been released, but NSW Cities Minister Rob Stokes commented that McNaughton's work had been "invaluable", and that his recommendations were "demonstrated in our six cities plan to better connect the cities of metropolitan NSW"; Stokes had also written to the federal infrastructure minister Catherine King, asking the newly created High Speed Rail Authority to work with the NSW Greater Cities Commission in regards to planning around the proposed new and upgraded corridors. [103] [104]

On 3 March 2023, it was reported by The Guardian that the New South Wales State Government had, per confidential documents, halted work on the final business case for the Sydney-Newcastle corridor in December 2022 due to it being considered a responsibility for the federal government's High Speed Rail Authority. [105]

Victoria (2018–2023)

In the 2018 Victorian Budget in April, planning for a fast rail link between Melbourne and Geelong was announced. Later in September 2018, the Victorian State Government announced a Fast Rail Reference Group of technical advisors for a high-speed rail line to Geelong. [106] This followed an allocation of $50 million for planning for the line in the 2018 state budget. [106] The fast rail link formed part of the Labor government's Western Rail Plan announced before the 2018 Victorian state election. [107] [108] The plan would see regional trains run to Geelong and Ballarat at speeds up to 250 km/h, an increase on the current 160 km/h limit of V/Line VLocity trains. [107] This would lead to a travel time between Geelong and Melbourne of 45 minutes and less than an hour to Ballarat. [107] To achieve this, rail lines would be electrified and quadrupled to Wyndham Vale and Melton to separate regional and metropolitan services. [107] [109] The new fast lines would likely utilise a new Sunshine-CBD rail tunnel to be built as part of the Melbourne Airport rail link, and could use new electrified rolling stock. [110] [109] Under the plan, Sunshine railway station would become a key interchange for high-speed rail and metropolitan services in Melbourne's west. [108] Planning for the high-speed rail will occur alongside the business case for the Airport Rail link, and all projects will likely take a decade to complete, with construction set to begin by 2022. [111]

The plan expands upon current duplication and improvement works to regional passenger rail lines by the State Government's $1.75 billion Regional Rail Revival project. [112]

In March 2019, the Federal Coalition government pledged $2 billion for a fast rail line to Geelong, promising a maximum speed of 200 km/h, an average travel speed of 160 km/h and a travel time of 32 minutes. [113] The Federal Government claimed this project would have a total cost of $4 billion. [113] The Victorian Transport Minister Jacinta Allan welcomed extra federal funding but dismissed some of the claims about the project, arguing it would cost between $10 and $15 billion, would require the removal of 14 level crossings, and that the federal pledge did not include the cost of new rolling stock. [114]

In November 2023, following a review of the national infrastructure pipeline, it was recommended that funding be removed from the project. [115]

National Faster Rail Agency (2019-2023)

National Faster Rail Agency
Agency overview
Formed1 July 2019
Dissolved13 June 2023
Superseding agency
Parent department Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Communications

In the 2019–20 Budget, the Australian Government established a National Faster Rail Agency to produce a number of business cases for higher-speed rail between capital cities and regional centres. [116] The Government allocated $40 million to assess five fast rail corridors: [116] [117]

These assessments were in addition to the three business cases already underway, started under the Turnbull government, examining the following corridors: [117]

The National Faster Rail Agency was established on 1 July 2019 as an Executive Agency within the Infrastructure, Transport, Cities and Regional Development portfolio. [118]

Issues and cost estimate

In April 2022, the National Faster Rail Agency published the National Faster Rail Investment Program document, part of which was dedicated to high-speed rail. The document explained that as of 2022, their cost estimate for the Melbourne-Sydney-Brisbane HSR corridor was between $200 and $300 billion - significantly higher than the $114 billion cost outlined in Phase 2 of the High-Speed Rail Study - due to reasons including that: [119]

  • Recent costings show substantially higher cost per kilometre,
  • Concerns were raised over terrain, community acceptance, environmental degradation and industry capacity,
  • Previous costings were high level, based on broad plans, had insufficient contingency and were not detailed, and
  • Higher costings were incurred across the infrastructure program.

2020s

High Speed Rail Authority (2023-present)

In September 2022, the then-recently elected Albanese government introduced legislation to establish a new national High Speed Rail Authority (HSRA), fulfilling a promise made during the 2022 election. [120] [121] The Infrastructure Minister Catherine King said the Authority would have an expert board and be tasked with overseeing "the construction and operation of a high-speed rail network along Australia's eastern seaboard" between Melbourne, Canberra, Sydney and Brisbane. [122] The Authority would consult with state governments, give advice to the federal government, and develop standards to ensure an interoperable high-speed rail network across jurisdictions. [121] King announced the Authority would advance the government's first priority of providing higher-speed rail between Newcastle and Sydney, to which the government committed $500 million to commence early works and secure corridors. [120] The Bill would abolish the National Faster Rail Agency and absorb its functions into the new authority. [122] The Bill was passed by both houses on 24 November 2022, and gained assent on 12 December 2022. [121]

The authority commenced operations on 13 June 2023, and the CEO Tim Parker was appointed on 11 January 2024. [123]

On 26 August 2024 the Minister for Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Local Government Catherine King announced that work was being conducted by the High Speed Rail Authority on determining the locations for this project, utilising thirty boreholes for this purpose. [124]

Sydney to Newcastle section
Business case

On 30 January 2024, it was announced that $78.8 million of funding would be released for the development of a business case for the Sydney to Newcastle section of the high-speed rail network. [125] [126] The tenders for the business case were released in March 2024 and were split into eight packages. [127] The eight successful tenderers were announced on 13 June 2024. [128] [129]

Fastrack Australia proposal (2023)

In January 2023, advocacy group Fastrack Australia published a plan that proposed gradually upgrading the Sydney-Melbourne corridor, instead of building a completely new line from scratch. The proposed upgrades were split into five stages, with the following estimated travel times: [130] [131]

Travel time (hours)
StageSydney-

Melbourne

Melbourne-

Canberra

Sydney-

Canberra

Current11:0010:304:12
Stage 19:008:303:00
Stage 28:007:002:12
Stage 36:005:002:00
Stage 45:004:001:42
Stage 54:003:001:30

The first two stages would consist of the following upgrades: [130]

  • Stage 1: straightening out track on the Wentworth Deviation between Glenfield and Mittagong, and
  • Stage 2: track between Goulburn and Yass, and a new track branching from Gunning down to a new station near Canberra airport.

The leader of Fastrack Australia, Garry Glazebrook, stated that he estimated the first two stages would cost $5bn and $6–7bn respectively. As of 24 February 2023, Fastrack Australia had sent their proposal to Prime Minister Anthony Albanese and the federal infrastructure minister Catherine King, but were yet to receive a response. [130]

Intrastate proposals

At various times, state political parties and others have proposed schemes involving fast trains in other localities that included the potential to achieve speeds above the 200 km/h threshold.

In 2004, the Government of New South Wales proposed a A$2 billion privately funded underground and above-ground train line Western FastRail that would link the Sydney CBD with Western Sydney. The concept was re-proposed in December 2006 by then federal Opposition Leader Kevin Rudd during a visit to Penrith, as part of the Australian Labor Party's election platform. The plan received approving comments by the NSW State Government. [132] The line was also backed by a consortium led by union leader Michael Easson, which includes Dutch bank ABN AMRO and Australian construction company Leighton Contractors. [133] Elements of the proposal were incorporated into the Government's West Metro and CBD Relief Line projects. However, these plans were abandoned following the election of the O'Farrell government in 2011.

In 2008, Transrapid made a proposal to the Government of Victoria to build a privately funded and operated magnetic levitation (maglev) line to serve the Greater Melbourne metropolitan area. [134] [135] It was presented as an alternative to the Cross-City Tunnel proposed in the Eddington Transport Report, which neglected to investigate above-ground transport options. The maglev route would connect Geelong to metropolitan Melbourne's outer suburban growth corridors, Tullamarine and Avalon domestic and international terminals in under 20 minutes, continuing to Frankston, Victoria, in under 30 minutes. It would serve a population of over 4 million people, and Transrapid claimed a price of A$4 billion. However, the Victorian government dismissed the proposal in favour of the underground metropolitan network suggested by the Eddington Report.

In 2010, Western Australia's Public Transport Authority completed a feasibility study into a high-speed rail link between Perth and Bunbury. The route would follow the existing narrow gauge Mandurah line to Anketell, then the Kwinana Freeway and Forrest Highway to Lake Clifton, including 140 km (87 mi) of new track. [136] It would replace the existing Transwa Australind passenger service, the route of which is under increasing use for freight traffic. The proposed service would have a maximum speed of 160 km/h (99 mph), at which the travel time from Perth Underground to a new station in central Bunbury would be 91 minutes. The corridor would allow for future upgrade to 200 km/h (120 mph).

In the lead-up to the 2010 Victorian state election, Liberal leader Ted Baillieu promised to spend A$4 million to set up a high-speed rail advocacy unit, with the goal of ensuring Melbourne hosted Australia's first high-speed trains. He expressed support for an east coast link, and extensions west of Melbourne to Geelong and Adelaide. [74] [137]

The 2010 Infrastructure Partnerships Australia report identified Noosa-Brisbane-Gold Coast as a potentially viable high-speed rail link, and a possible precursor to a full east-coast system. [138] The report predicted that a 350 km/h (220 mph) system would reduce travel times between Cooroy (22 km west of Noosa) and Brisbane to 31 minutes (currently 2:08 hours), capturing as much as 84% of the total commuter market. Travel time between Brisbane and the Gold Coast would be reduced to 21 minutes, capturing up to 27% of commuters.

Soon after winning the 2011 New South Wales state election, the incoming Liberal premier Barry O'Farrell advocated high-speed rail lines to Melbourne and Brisbane instead of a second Sydney airport, saying of a new airport site in NSW: "Whether the central coast, the south-west or the western suburbs [of Sydney], find me an area that is not going to end up causing enormous grief to people who currently live around it". [139]

Speed records

The Australian rail speed record is presently held by Queensland Rail's Electric Tilt Train, which achieved 210 km/h during a test run on 23 May 1999. It remains the only time a train in Australia has exceeded 200 km/h. Modifications to the tracks were required to achieve the record speed.

The earliest known reference to Australia's "fastest train" dates from 1916, when the Melbourne Express (later known as The Overland) introduced a faster timetable between Murray Bridge and Wolseley, achieving an average speed of 35 mph (56.3 km/h), and a maximum of 58 mph (93.3 km/h).

The Kalgoorlie Prospector was often referred to "Australia's fastest train" upon its introduction in 1971, however this claim was based on its end-to-end average speed of 85 km/h, rather than maximum speed; the Prospector has never held the maximum speed record. The WAGR WCA class railcars had a design speed of 145 km/h, but seldom exceeded 130 km/h in service. [140] A trial run on 30 and 31 March 1987 cut two hours from the previous schedule, and reached speeds as high as 150 km/h (93.21 mph). [50]

The News South Wales XPT broke the record during a test run on 9 September 1981, where it reached 183 km/h. It broke its own record 11 years later, on 18 September 1992, reaching 193 km/h. On both occasions the maximum speed achieved fell short of the target speed of 200 km/h. [59]

DateTrainLocationSpeedNotes
1916 Melbourne Express Ninety Mile Desert, South Australia
From Murray Bridge to Wolseley 		35 mph (56.33 km/h) (average)
58 mph (93.34 km/h) (maximum)		 [141] [142]
1927 Geelong Flyer From Flinders Street to Geelong, Victoria45 mph (72.42 km/h) (average)
70 mph (112.7 km/h) (maximum)		 [143]
11 November 1929 Caves Express From Parramatta to Penrith, New South Wales54 mph (86.90 km/h) (average) [144]
30 April 1934 Creamy Kate Between Douglas Park and Menangle, south of Sydney75 mph (120.7 km/h) [145]
17 November 1937 Spirit of Progress Between Werribee and Laverton, near Geelong, Victoria79.5 mph (127.9 km/h) [146]
1947 Spirit of Progress North East railway line, Victoria84 mph (135.2 km/h) [147]
28 April 1951 Budd Rail Diesel Car Between Cook (SA) and Rawlinna (WA) on the Nullarbor Plain90 mph (144.8 km/h) [148]
1 December 1951The Trans-Australian Between Cook (SA) and Rawlinna (WA) on the Nullarbor Plain92 mph (148.1 km/h) [149]
6 September 1981 XPT Between Table Top and Gerogery, southern NSW183 km/h (113.7 mph) [150]
18 September 1992 XPT Between Table Top and Yerong Creek, southern NSW193 km/h (119.9 mph) [151]
23 May 1999 QR Electric Tilt Train Between Meadowvale and Avondale, near Bundaberg, Queensland.210 km/h (130.5 mph) [152] [40] [153]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inter-city rail</span> Inter-city passenger rail transport

Inter-city rail services are express trains that run services that connect cities over longer distances than commuter or regional trains. They include rail services that are neither short-distance commuter rail trains within one city area nor slow regional rail trains stopping at all stations and covering local journeys only. An inter-city train is typically an express train with limited stops and comfortable carriages to serve long-distance travel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">CountryLink</span> New South Wales government rail and road passenger operator

CountryLink was a passenger rail and road service brand that operated in regional areas of New South Wales, and to and from Canberra, Brisbane and Melbourne. Originally created as a business unit of the State Rail Authority of New South Wales, it later became a subsidiary of RailCorp. CountryLink operated rail services using XPT and Xplorer rolling stock, with connecting coach services operated under contract by private operators.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rail transport in Australia</span>

Rail transport in Australia is a component of the Australian transport system. It is to a large extent state-based, as each state largely has its own operations, with the interstate network being developed ever since Australia's federation in 1901. As of 2022, the Australian rail network consists of a total of 32,929 kilometres (20,461 mi) of track built to three major track gauges: 18,007 kilometres (11,189 mi) of standard gauge, 2,685 kilometres (1,668 mi) of broad gauge, and 11,914 kilometres (7,403 mi) of narrow gauge lines. Additionally, about 1,400 kilometres (870 mi) of 610 mm / 2 ft gauge lines support the sugar-cane industry. 3,488 kilometres (2,167 mi), around 11 percent of the Australian heavy railways network route-kilometres are electrified.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tilt Train</span>

Tilt Train is the name for two similar high-speed tilting train services, one electric and the other diesel, operated by Queensland Rail. They run on the North Coast line from Brisbane to Rockhampton (electric) and Cairns (diesel). Services commenced in 1998.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">North Coast railway line, New South Wales</span> Railway line in New South Wales, Australia

The North Coast railway line is the primary rail route in the Mid North Coast and Northern Rivers regions of New South Wales, Australia, and forms a major part of the Sydney–Brisbane rail corridor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Canberra railway station</span> Railway station in Canberra, Australia

Canberra railway station is located on the NSW TrainLink Regional Southern Line in the Australian Capital Territory, Australia. It is located in the Canberra suburb of Kingston.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maroochydore railway line</span> Proposed railway line on the Sunshine Coast, Queensland, Australia

The Maroochydore railway line, also known as the Direct Sunshine Coast Rail Line or CAMCOS, is a proposed railway line on the Sunshine Coast, Queensland, Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inland Rail</span> Railway line under construction in Australia

Inland Rail is a 1600-kilometre (990 mi) railway line under construction in Australia. Once complete, it will connect Melbourne and Brisbane along a new route inland through Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland that allows for the use of double-stacked freight trains.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">High-speed rail in Canada</span>

Several plans have been proposed for high-speed rail in Canada, the only G7 country that does not have any high-speed rail. In the press and popular discussion, there have been two routes frequently proposed as suitable for a high-speed rail corridor: Edmonton to Calgary via Red Deer and Windsor to Quebec City via London, Kitchener-Waterloo, Toronto, Ottawa and Montreal.

This is a list of planned, or proposed, high-speed rail projects by country. Although a number of countries have conducted preliminary feasibility studies, many lines are eventually shelved or postponed due to high costs; only a few nations are building high-speed rail lines. Planned lines are separated here from lines under construction, and some countries have both. High-speed rail is public transport by rail at speeds over 200 km/h (125 mph).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">New South Wales XPT</span> Australian regional passenger train

The New South Wales XPT is a class of diesel-powered passenger trains built by Comeng and ABB. Based on the British Rail-designed High Speed Train, each XPT set comprises two XP power cars in a push-pull configuration and, between them, between four and seven passenger carriages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sydney–Melbourne rail corridor</span> Sydney–Melbourne railway and associated lines

The Sydney–Melbourne rail corridor consists of the 953-kilometre (592-mile) long 1435 mm standard-gauge main line between the Australian state capitals of Sydney and Melbourne (Victoria) and the lines immediately connected to it. Freight and passenger services operate along the route, including the NSW TrainLink XPT passenger service.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">ViaFast</span>

ViaFast was an abandoned passenger rail plan that would have cut Via Rail's trip times throughout the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor. ViaFast did not propose true high-speed service throughout the service area, but a series of smaller upgrades to avoid known bottlenecks and provide improved performance at a fraction of the price of entirely new lines. It aimed to reduce the Toronto–Montreal time by about one hour, to 3.5 hours; halving the Montreal–Quebec City time to 2 hours; and reducing Toronto–Windsor time by an hour, to 3.5 hours.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Corridor selection history for Australian high-speed rail</span>

A variety of routes for high-speed rail in Australia have been discussed since 1984, when CSIRO initiated the VFT project, but none has come to fruition. Australian passenger trains do not exceed a service speed of 160 km/h (99.4 mph), and then only sporadically. Much of the consideration of improved rail corridors has been directed at freight traffic, which is hampered in the eastern states by sharp curvature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Higher-speed rail</span> Type of railway with speeds approaching but less than that of true high speed rail

Higher-speed rail (HrSR), also known as high-performance rail, higher-performance rail, semi-high-speed rail or almost-high-speed rail, is the jargon used to describe inter-city passenger rail services that have top speeds of more than conventional rail but are not high enough to be called high-speed rail services. The term is also used by planners to identify the incremental rail improvements to increase train speeds and reduce travel time as alternatives to larger efforts to create or expand the high-speed rail networks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transport in Canberra</span>

Transport in Canberra is provided by private cars, buses, taxis and light rail for travel within the city, while regional rail, air, and long-distance coach services operate for travel beyond Canberra. A vast road network also plays a major role in transport within and beyond the city.

The Very Fast Train (VFT) was a proposed high-speed railway between Sydney, Canberra and Melbourne in south-eastern Australia. Initially conceived by Dr Paul Wild of the CSIRO in 1984, the proposal was adopted by a private-sector joint venture in 1987, comprising Elders IXL, Kumagai Gumi, TNT and BHP. Several major studies were undertaken in the 1980s and early 1990s, which showed the proposal to be both technically and financially feasible.

Consolidated Land and Rail Australia is a property development consortium proposing a high speed rail network for the Australian east coast that would funded by the development of new smart cities along the route. The company began operations in 2015, and in 2018 was one of three proposals invited to develop a detailed business case with federal government funding. The proposal attracted significant media attention for what was perceived as a radically different approach from previous attempts at introducing high-speed rail in Australia.

The High Speed Rail Authority is an Australian Government authority tasked with advising on, planning, developing and overseeing the construction and operation of an eventual high-speed rail network along Australia’s eastern seaboard.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Railways in Canberra</span> Railways in the Australian Capital Territory in Australia

Canberra, the capital city of Australia, is served by a heavy rail line to New South Wales, and a light rail system, Canberra Metro. NSW TrainLink regional trains run from Canberra to Sydney.

References

Citations

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Williams 1998.
  2. ↑ Archived 24 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine Crikey – BZE: How we found high speed rail to be commercially viable
  3. ↑ "World's busiest flight routes: Sydney-Melbourne surges back into top five despite reduced capacity". 20 January 2023. Archived from the original on 20 January 2023. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
  4. ↑ "World's fastest on narrow tracks – National – www.smh.com.au". www.smh.com.au. 17 November 2004. Archived from the original on 19 August 2017. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
  5. ↑ General definitions of highspeed, International Union of Railways, archived from the original on 28 July 2011, retrieved 10 October 2012
  6. ↑ "High Speed Rail Authority". High Speed Rail Authority. 2024. Archived from the original on 15 March 2024. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
  7. ↑ "Australian transport statistics" (PDF). Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport and Regional Economics. June 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 April 2009. Retrieved 2 March 2009.
  8. ↑ "Peak Oil and Australia's National Infrastructure" (PDF). Australian Association for the Study of Peak Oil and Gas. October 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 May 2009. Retrieved 2 March 2009.
  9. 1 2 3 High Speed Rail Study Phase 2 Report 2013.
  10. ↑ Laird, P.; Michell, M.; Adorni-Braccesi, G (2002). Sydney–Canberra–Melbourne high-speed train options (PDF). 25th Australasian Transport Research Forum 2–4 October. Canberra. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 June 2019. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
  11. ↑ Brunello, Lara R; Bunker, Jonathan M.; Ferreira, Luis (2006). Investigation to Enhance Sustainable Improvements in High Speed Rail Transportation (PDF). CAITR, 6,7,8 December 2006. Sydney. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
  12. ↑ "A Fast Railway for the East Coast". Railway Digest. 44 (8). August 2007.
  13. ↑ "Fast Future or a Slow Death". Railway Digest. 44 (9). September 2007.
  14. ↑ "Mixing Fast Freight and Passenger Trains". Railway Digest. 44 (11). November 2007.
  15. ↑ "Fast Trains – Profit or Loss". Railway Digest. 45 (1). January 2008.
  16. ↑ "Fast Trains – Financially Viable". Railway Digest. 45 (2). February 2008.
  17. ↑ Colin Butcher. "(Submission)Towards a National Land Transport Plan : A Response to the Green Paper on AUSLINK" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 March 2012.
  18. 1 2 3 High Speed Rail for Australia: An opportunity for the 21st century 2008.
  19. ↑ East Coast Very High Speed Train Scoping Study: Phase 1 – Preliminary Study Final Report 2001, section 1, page 1.
  20. ↑ Steketee, Mike (26 July 2008). "Greenhouse plans went off the rails". The Australian . News Corp Australia. Archived from the original on 30 July 2008. Retrieved 2 March 2009.
  21. ↑ Thistleton, John (26 November 2008). "Very fast train tops develops' wish-list". The Canberra Times . Fairfax Media. Retrieved 1 March 2009.[ permanent dead link ]
  22. ↑ "Immigrants 'to fund fast rail'". The Border Mail. 17 April 2012. Archived from the original on 28 August 2013.
  23. ↑ "Australian rail speed records". railpage.org.au. Archived from the original on 25 April 2013. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
  24. ↑ Laird 2001, p. 31.
  25. ↑ WORRALL, BRAD (3 August 2011). "Slow the XPT, say drivers". The Border Mail. Archived from the original on 23 January 2018. Retrieved 23 January 2018.
  26. ↑ Kurmelovs, Royce (25 February 2020). "From showpiece to goat track: the long, dangerous decline of Sydney-to-Melbourne rail travel". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077. Archived from the original on 1 April 2024. Retrieved 1 April 2024.
  27. ↑ "To find out what the XPT can do". Canberra Times. 13 June 1981. Archived from the original on 25 March 2018. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
  28. ↑ Weekly Notice 3 - 2007. Rail Corporation of NSW. 15 January 2007.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  29. ↑ "NSW gives country passengers a break" Railway Gazette International March 1979 page 210
  30. ↑ "HST begets XPT" Railway Gazette International June 1980 pages 511/512
  31. 1 2 Cooke, David (1984). Railmotors and XPTs. Australian Railway Historical Society NSW Division. ISBN   0-909650-23-3.
  32. ↑ Marsden, Colin (2001). HST Silver Jubilee. Ian Allan Publishing. ISBN   0-711028-47-8.
  33. ↑ "XPT Australia's train of tomorrow" Rail Enthusiast September 1982 pages 40-42
  34. ↑ "XPT Regional Trains". Transport for NSW . Archived from the original on 23 January 2018. Retrieved 23 January 2018.
  35. ↑ TS TOC.2 : 2024 issue 1 - Train Operating Conditions (page 98)
  36. ↑ Beattie, Peter (1 November 1998). "All aboard Australia's first Tilt Train". Ministerial Media Statements. Queensland Government. Archived from the original on 29 February 2012. Retrieved 23 January 2018.
  37. ↑ "Australia enters the Tilt Train era" Railway Digest December 1998 pages 22–25, 40
  38. ↑ Bredhauer, Stephen (30 December 1998). "Australia's Biggest Rail Investment". Ministerial Media Statements. Queensland Government. Archived from the original on 29 February 2012. Retrieved 23 January 2018.
  39. ↑ QR Limited (1999). Annual Report June 1999 (PDF). Brisbane: QR Limited. p. 53. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 September 2009.
  40. 1 2 "QR Tilt Train Sets Australian Rail Speed Record" Railway Digest June 1999 page 15
  41. ↑ "World's fastest on narrow tracks – National – www.smh.com.au". www.smh.com.au. 17 November 2004. Archived from the original on 19 August 2017. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
  42. ↑ "Bundaberg Tilt Service Hits Airline as Cairns Tilt Contract Signed" Railway Digest September 1999 page 16
  43. ↑ World class trains for Queensland supporting 800 Maryborough jobs Archived 15 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine Minister for Transport 27 October 2010
  44. ↑ Spirit of Queensland Archived 18 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine Queensland
  45. ↑ Queensland's famed Sunlander gets makeover Archived 28 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine Rail Express 21 August 2013
  46. ↑ "travel up to 160 kilometres per hour". www.queenslandrail.com.au. Archived from the original on 5 March 2018. Retrieved 5 March 2018.
  47. ↑ "Assessing Benefits from the Regional Rail Link Project". Victorian Auditor-General's Office. Archived from the original on 22 July 2018. Retrieved 4 May 2023.
  48. ↑ Hui, Jin (13 June 2019). "'False hope' on fast time". Geelong Independent. Archived from the original on 1 April 2024. Retrieved 1 April 2024.
  49. ↑ New 'world-class' Goldfields and Avon trains move closer Government of Western Australia 7 December 2000
  50. 1 2 3 May, Andrew S; Gray, Bill (2006). A History of WAGR Passenger Carriages. Midland, WA: Bill Gray. pp. 338–341. ISBN   0646459023.
  51. ↑ "WA Short Lines" Railway Digest February 2001
  52. ↑ Prospector enters new era The Golden Mail 2 July 2004
  53. ↑ Prospector Product Sheet Archived 11 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine UGL Rail
  54. ↑ "WILD John Paul". Obituary. ATSE, reprinting article from Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 20 July 2008.
  55. 1 2 3 4 Laird 2001.
  56. ↑ East Coast Very High Speed Train Scoping Study: Phase 1 – Preliminary Study Final Report 2001.
  57. ↑ Boyd, Tony (5 February 2009). "On the wrong track". Business Spectator. Archived from the original on 6 September 2012.
  58. ↑ "New fast train proposal tilts at VFT". The Canberra Times . 19 January 1990. p. 5. Archived from the original on 30 January 2022. Retrieved 21 June 2015– via National Library of Australia.
  59. 1 2 "XP Class frame". www.railmotorsociety.org.au. Archived from the original on 2 May 2017. Retrieved 19 August 2017.
  60. 1 2 3 4 David Foldi (13 October 1995), Leaning towards the future: Countrylink's X2000 Tilt Train Trial, Permanent Way Institution (PWI) NSW 1995 Annual Convention: Tunnelling, Tracking, Tilting, Titillating, archived from the original on 13 June 2021, retrieved 13 June 2021
  61. ↑ Philip G. Laird; Peter Newman; Mark Bachels; Jeffry Kenworthy (2001). Back on Track : Rethinking Transport Policy in Australia and New Zealand. UNSW Press. ISBN   9780868404110. Archived from the original on 30 January 2022. Retrieved 14 September 2020.
  62. 1 2 Philip Laird (2001). "The Institutional Problem". Back on Track: Rethinking Transport Policy in Australia and New Zealand. UNSW Press. pp. 107–108. ISBN   0-86840-411-X.
  63. ↑ John Howard; Mark Vaile (4 August 1998). "News release: "It's Speedrail!"". Commonwealth of Australia. Archived from the original on 5 September 2007. Retrieved 9 July 2012.
  64. ↑ Mark, David (11 December 2000). "A history of the Very Fast Train". PM. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 18 November 2020. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
  65. 1 2 3 Anderson 2001.
  66. ↑ East Coast Very High Speed Train Scoping Study: Phase 1 – Preliminary Study Final Report 2001, preamble, page 5.
  67. ↑ Jano Gibson (10 February 2009). "Sydney to Canberra in 50 minutes: fast tracking second airport". The Sydney Morning Herald . Archived from the original on 3 June 2009. Retrieved 5 August 2010.
  68. 1 2 John Thistleton (18 June 2012). "$22b savings seen in high-speed rail link". Canberra Times. Archived from the original on 9 September 2017. Retrieved 9 July 2012.
  69. ↑ Peter Veness (20 December 2008). "Melbourne-Sydney very fast train tops wish list for Rudd Government". news.com.au. Archived from the original on 4 February 2009. Retrieved 26 February 2009.
  70. ↑ "Very fast train has merits: Albanese". ABC. 19 March 2008. Archived from the original on 16 March 2011. Retrieved 26 February 2009.
  71. 1 2 Needham, Kirsty (1 November 2010). "Study will examine cost of fast rail". The Sydney Morning Herald. Sydney. Archived from the original on 7 November 2012. Retrieved 3 November 2010.
  72. ↑ Lucas, Clay (23 April 2010). "Greens to push A$40bn fast-rail link to Sydney". The Age. Melbourne. Archived from the original on 4 November 2012.
  73. ↑ Russell, Christopher (31 January 2011), Adelaide must be in high-speed rail loop, archived from the original on 1 July 2012
  74. 1 2 Clay Lucas (23 November 2010), Baillieu pushes high-speed rail links, Melbourne: The Age, archived from the original on 6 November 2012
  75. ↑ Wright, Matthew (27 August 2009). "Fly by rail – Zero Emissions transport capital to capital". Beyond Zero Emissions campaign. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011.
  76. 1 2 3 "High Speed Rail". Department of Infrastructure and Transport. Archived from the original on 14 August 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  77. 1 2 3 4 High Speed Rail Study Phase 1 2011.
  78. ↑ Albanese, Anthony. "Moving forward with high speed rail". Anthony Albanese MP. Archived from the original on 9 March 2013. Retrieved 5 October 2012.
  79. ↑ High speed rail study underway, Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 2 February 2011, archived from the original on 12 November 2012
  80. ↑ Saulwick, Jacol (28 September 2010). "High speed rail between Sydney and Melbourne too expensive". Sydney Morning Herald . Archived from the original on 7 November 2012. Retrieved 17 October 2010.
  81. 1 2 3 4 5 East Coast Very High Speed Train Scoping Study: Phase 1 – Preliminary Study Final Report 2001, section 1, page 5.
  82. ↑ Saulwick, Jacob (15 August 2012). "Tilt trains seen as way to lure users to rural rail". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 18 October 2012. Retrieved 9 October 2012.
  83. ↑ "Countrylink". Archived from the original on 6 May 2013.
  84. ↑ "OAG reveals latest industry intelligence on the busiest routes (Press release)". OAG (UBM Aviation). 21 September 2007. Archived from the original on 13 November 2010. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
  85. ↑ Jacob Saulwick (26 August 2013). "High-Speed Rail back on track". Canberra Times. Archived from the original on 3 March 2018. Retrieved 26 August 2013.
  86. ↑ John Thistleton (26 August 2013). "Canberra-Sydney high-speed rail link backed in advisory group's report". The Examiner. Archived from the original on 8 August 2020. Retrieved 28 August 2013.
  87. ↑ Marr, Sid and Crowe, David (8 November 2013). "Tony Abbott keeps focus by cutting bodies past use-by date". The Australian. Sydney. Archived from the original on 28 March 2014. Retrieved 8 November 2013.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  88. ↑ Abbott, Tony (8 November 2013). "Media release: "Press conference, Melbourne"". Commonwealth of Australia. Archived from the original on 19 June 2015. Retrieved 8 November 2013.
  89. ↑ Murphy, Katharine (11 February 2016). "Barnaby Joyce wins Nationals leadership, Fiona Nash named deputy". The Guardian . Australia. Archived from the original on 16 February 2016. Retrieved 11 February 2016.
  90. ↑ Gartrell, Adam (11 February 2016). "Parliament pays tribute to retiring deputy PM Warren Truss ahead of Barnaby Joyce elevation". The Sydney Morning Herald . Archived from the original on 16 February 2016. Retrieved 11 February 2016.
  91. ↑ Keany, Francis (11 February 2016). "Barnaby Joyce elected unopposed as new Nationals leader". ABC News . Australia. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 11 February 2016.
  92. ↑ Ross Peake (2 December 2013). "Deputy Prime Minister Warren Truss gets high speed rail on track". Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 28 November 2020. Retrieved 22 June 2014.
  93. ↑ Gerard Drew, Earth to moon in 8 years, Melbourne to Brisbane in 45, Beyond Zero Emissions, archived from the original on 1 April 2015, retrieved 1 March 2015
  94. ↑ Jake Sturmer (29 November 2013), High-speed rail network $30 billion cheaper than first thought: study, ABC, archived from the original on 29 November 2020, retrieved 1 March 2015
  95. ↑ "Is this secret meeting with the PM about a speed rail link for Australia?". NewsComAu. Archived from the original on 18 July 2016. Retrieved 22 June 2016.
  96. ↑ High speed rail proposal raised by Malcolm Turnbull Archived 29 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine 7.30 11 April 2016
  97. ↑ Steven Trask (10 April 2017). "Andrew Leigh urges NSW government to support Canberra to Sydney highspeed train". Canberra Times. Archived from the original on 12 June 2017. Retrieved 19 May 2017.
  98. ↑ Tony Vermeer (10 May 2017). "ScoMo's big boost for planes, trains and automobiles". Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 13 May 2017. Retrieved 19 May 2017.
  99. ↑ Cole, David (5 December 2018). "New fast rail network for NSW announced". Goulburn Post. Archived from the original on 5 December 2018. Retrieved 5 December 2018.
  100. ↑ "NSW Premier announces high-speed rail options ahead of election". www.9news.com.au. 4 December 2018. Archived from the original on 5 December 2018. Retrieved 5 December 2018.
  101. 1 2 "A Fast Rail Future for NSW". NSW Government. Archived from the original on 5 December 2018. Retrieved 5 December 2018.
  102. ↑ "Sydney public transport: NSW Government unveils high speed rail plan". www.news.com.au. Archived from the original on 5 December 2018. Retrieved 5 December 2018.
  103. 1 2 Koziol, Michael (24 December 2022). "Revealed: Secret high-speed rail plan backs Newcastle, Sydney, Wollongong link" . The Age. Archived from the original on 28 December 2022. Retrieved 28 December 2022.
  104. 1 2 Davies, Anne (24 December 2022). "Secret report urges high-speed rail between Sydney and Newcastle but NSW government refuses to release it". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 28 December 2022. Retrieved 28 December 2022.
  105. ↑ Visontay, Elias; Transport, Elias Visontay; reporter, urban affairs (2 March 2023). "NSW slams brakes on high-speed rail plans after spending $100m on studies". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077. Archived from the original on 4 March 2023. Retrieved 4 March 2023.
  106. 1 2 "Geelong's High-Speed Rail on the Fast Track". Premier of Victoria. 26 September 2018. Archived from the original on 9 May 2019. Retrieved 9 May 2019.
  107. 1 2 3 4 Jacks, Timna (15 October 2018). "Geelong to Melbourne in 45 minutes under Labor's regional rail plan". The Age. Archived from the original on 9 May 2019. Retrieved 9 May 2019.
  108. 1 2 "Fast Rail to Geelong". metrotunnel.vic.gov.au. Archived from the original on 9 May 2019. Retrieved 9 May 2019.
  109. 1 2 Build, Victoria's Big (1 November 2018). "Western Rail Plan". bigbuild.vic.gov.au. Archived from the original on 2 March 2021. Retrieved 9 May 2019.
  110. ↑ Willingham, state political reporter Richard (16 October 2018). "New Melbourne rail link plan makes Sunshine a 'super hub'". ABC News. Archived from the original on 26 March 2019. Retrieved 9 May 2019.
  111. ↑ "Andrews unveils Western Rail Plan as Federal Labor commit to Suburban Rail Loop". Urban. 16 October 2018. Archived from the original on 9 May 2019. Retrieved 9 May 2019.
  112. ↑ "Regional Rail Revival". regionalrailrevival.vic.gov.au. Archived from the original on 9 May 2019. Retrieved 9 May 2019.
  113. 1 2 Koob, Simone Fox (21 March 2019). "Fast rail between Melbourne and Geelong would slash travel time in half". The Age. Archived from the original on 9 May 2019. Retrieved 9 May 2019.
  114. ↑ Carey, Timna Jacks, Simone Fox Koob, Adam (21 March 2019). "Morrison 'can't deliver' Geelong rail plan for $4b, minister claims". The Age. Archived from the original on 9 May 2019. Retrieved 9 May 2019.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  115. ↑ Carmody, Kieran Rooney, Shane Wright, Najma Sambul, Broede (16 November 2023). "Funding feud looms for Victoria's two biggest rail projects". The Age. Retrieved 16 July 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  116. 1 2 "Federal budget 2019: fast rail solution to traffic congestion". Australian Financial Review. 2 April 2019. Archived from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 20 July 2019.
  117. 1 2 "Projects | National Faster Rail Agency (NFRA)". www.nfra.gov.au. Archived from the original on 19 July 2019. Retrieved 20 July 2019.
  118. ↑ "National Faster Rail Agency". NFRA. 1 July 2019. Archived from the original on 19 July 2019. Retrieved 19 July 2019.
  119. ↑ "National Faster Rail Investment Program" (PDF). National Faster Rail Agency. April 2022. p. 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 May 2022. Retrieved 12 June 2022.
  120. 1 2 Bannister, Maeve (7 September 2022). "High-speed rail plans to be put on track". AAP . Archived from the original on 8 September 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022– via The West Australian.
  121. 1 2 3 "High Speed Rail Authority Bill 2022". www.aph.gov.au. Canberra. 12 December 2022 [8 September 2022]. Archived from the original on 8 September 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
  122. 1 2 Catherine King, Minister for Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Local Government (8 September 2022). "High Speed Rail Authority Bill 2022". House Hansard. Canberra: House of Representatives. p. 1199. Archived from the original on 6 October 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
  123. ↑ King, Catherine (11 January 2024). "Inaugural High Speed Rail Authority CEO announced". Ministers for the Department of Infrastructure (Press release). Archived from the original on 21 April 2024. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
  124. ↑ King, Catherine; Claydon, Sharon; Parker, Tim (26 August 2024). "All aboard as high-speed rail accelerates with first investigation works". minister.infrastructure.gov.au (Press release). Archived from the original on 26 August 2024. Retrieved 26 August 2024.
  125. ↑ King, Catherine. "Funding released for Sydney to Newcastle high-speed rail business case". Ministers for the Department of Infrastructure (Press release). Archived from the original on 21 April 2024. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
  126. ↑ Ikonomou, Tess (30 January 2024). "Australia splashes $78m on high-speed rail case" . Newcastle Herald . Archived from the original on 21 April 2024. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
  127. ↑ "Tenders to develop business case for high-speed rail network" . Newcastle Herald. 17 March 2024. Archived from the original on 21 April 2024. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
  128. ↑ "'Very serious': firms named to shape high-speed rail business case" . Newcastle Herald. 13 June 2024. Retrieved 15 June 2024.
  129. ↑ King, Catherine (13 June 2024). "World-leading experts on board for high-speed rail". Ministers for the Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications and the Arts (Press release). Archived from the original on 26 August 2024. Retrieved 15 June 2024.
  130. 1 2 3 Visontay, Elias; Transport, Elias Visontay; reporter, urban affairs (23 February 2023). "Australia's high-speed rail should be rolled out in small stages with Sydney to Canberra first, experts say". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077. Archived from the original on 2 March 2023. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  131. ↑ Glazebrook, Garry; Lowrey, Ross (20 January 2023). "HSRA Final 20th Jan 2023 - HSRA Final 20th Jan 2023.pdf" (PDF). Fastrack Australia. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 March 2023. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  132. ↑ Rudd's road and rail cash Archived 30 January 2022 at the Wayback Machine Daily Telegraph 19 December 2006
  133. ↑ Smith, A. Parramatta to city in 11 minutes: now that's a fast train Archived 24 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine . Sydney Morning Herald 15 March 2005
  134. ↑ Hast, Mike (3 August 2008). "Rapid train could slash travel times". The Cranbourne Journal. Archived from the original on 1 October 2009. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
  135. ↑ "Melbourne Concepts – E Page 3: Maglev's relevence(sic) to Western Melbourne". Archived from the original on 12 May 2013.
  136. ↑ Paul Fisher. "Perth Bunbury Fast Train Feasibility study and route selection". Archived from the original on 13 October 2012.
  137. ↑ Baillieu, Ted (23 November 2010). "Coalition to push for high-speed rail" (PDF) (Press release). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 August 2013. Retrieved 28 August 2013.
  138. ↑ Tony Moore (19 November 2010), "High-speed rail plan: Brisbane to Gold Coast in 21 minutes", Brisbane Times, archived from the original on 8 October 2012
  139. ↑ Jacob Saulwick and Kelsey Munro (6 April 2011). "O'Farrell calls for high-speed trains instead of second Sydney airport". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 7 November 2012.
  140. ↑ Dunn, John (2010), Comeng : a history of Commonwealth Engineering. Volume 3, 1967-1977, Rosenberg, p. 88, ISBN   978-1-877058-90-5
  141. ↑ "GENERAL NEWS". The Evening Echo . No. 6946. Victoria, Australia. 17 August 1916. p. 4. Archived from the original on 30 January 2022. Retrieved 8 July 2021– via National Library of Australia.
  142. ↑ "TO CORRESPONDENTS". Chronicle . Vol. LIX, no. 3, 021. South Australia. 15 July 1916. p. 16. Archived from the original on 30 January 2022. Retrieved 8 July 2021– via National Library of Australia.
  143. ↑ "Fastest Train in Australia". The Eastern Recorder. Vol. XVII, no. 904. Western Australia. 3 June 1927. p. 3. Archived from the original on 30 January 2022. Retrieved 8 July 2021– via National Library of Australia.
  144. ↑ "CAVES EXPRESS". National Advocate . New South Wales, Australia. 11 January 1930. p. 3. Archived from the original on 30 January 2022. Retrieved 8 July 2021– via National Library of Australia.
  145. ↑ "NEW RAIL MOTOR'S SPEED". The Labor Daily . No. 3246. New South Wales, Australia. 1 May 1934. p. 7. Archived from the original on 30 January 2022. Retrieved 4 October 2017– via National Library of Australia.
  146. ↑ "VICTORIA'S NEW EXPRESS MAKES 79 MILES AN HOUR". The Age . No. 25, 769. Victoria, Australia. 18 November 1937. p. 7. Archived from the original on 30 January 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2021– via National Library of Australia.
  147. ↑ "80 M.P.H. RAIL RECORD". National Advocate . New South Wales, Australia. 16 July 1952. p. 1. Archived from the original on 30 January 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2017– via National Library of Australia.
  148. ↑ "Budd Railcar Makes Two Records Over Nullarbor". The West Australian . Vol. 67, no. 20, 211. Western Australia. 30 April 1951. p. 3. Archived from the original on 30 January 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2017– via National Library of Australia.
  149. ↑ "80 M.P.H. RAIL RECORD". National Advocate . New South Wales, Australia. 16 July 1952. p. 1. Archived from the original on 30 January 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2017– via National Library of Australia.
  150. ↑ "Visit XPT 'to make transport point'". The Canberra Times . Vol. 56, no. 16, 782. Australian Capital Territory, Australia. 7 September 1981. p. 3. Archived from the original on 30 January 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2021– via National Library of Australia.
  151. ↑ "The making of an XPT speed record" Railway Digest November 1992 page 417
  152. ↑ QR Limited (1999). Annual Report June 1999 (PDF). Brisbane: QR Limited. p. 53. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 September 2009.
  153. ↑ "World's fastest on narrow tracks – National – www.smh.com.au". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 19 August 2017. Retrieved 28 June 2017.

Sources

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.