Underground construction refers to the construction of underground tunnels, shafts, chambers, and passageways, [1] it is also sometimes used to describe the portion of traditional construction that takes place below grade.
Underground construction refers to the construction of underground tunnels, shafts, chambers, and passageways, [1] it is also sometimes used to describe the portion of traditional construction that takes place below grade.
Neanderthals also engaged in underground construction but they were believed to be less sophisticated in that regard than humans. Neanderthal construction sites in France have been dated to 174,000 bc, far earlier than the earliest human sites. [2] Human underground construction likely began with cave dwelling pre-historic people who wanted to expand their home. [3] The purpose of many ancient underground structures is a mystery, for instance erdstalls which are found across Europe. [4] All ancient civilizations practiced some form of underground construction with some also branching into rock-cut architecture. In early urban centers underground spaces served as burial places, provided protection against invaders, and enabled early public utilities. [3]
The first known use of gunpowder in underground construction occurred in France in 1681. The invention of dynamite and steam and compressed air powered drills in the 18th century revolutionized the industry. The 19th century saw innovations in shield tunneling techniques which made underground construction in soil safer. As nations urbanized the extent of underground urban construction increased significantly with improved sewers, public water systems, subways, and underground commercial spaces all being required by expanding cities. In the late 20th and early 21st century advances in automation and geotechnical engineering have allowed the ambition and scale of underground construction projects to increase. [5] [6]
Archeology in major cities often requires the use of underground construction techniques as excavations must be made without disturbing existing buildings on the site. Underground museums have been created to preserve historical structures in-situ and without altering the often historically significant building built above. [7] [8] Archeological sites are also commonly discovered during underground construction. [9]
Underground construction has a number of unique risks and challenges but shares a lot with traditional construction and mining. Underground construction workers often work under reduced light condition, in dangerous spaces, and are at a high risk of exposure to contaminants, fire, and explosions. In the United States the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) first adopted unique regulations for underground construction in 1971. OSHA regulates underground construction by companies and federal agencies but does not regulate underground construction activities associated with mining. [1] Underground construction is one of the most dangerous industries in the world but is becoming safer, especially as the most dangerous jobs are automated. [10]
Tunnels are the most common man-made subterranea. They have been constructed by various means since prehistory. [5]
Historically a wide variety of fortifications were either underground or partially below grade. Modern underground military facilities (primarily designed to resist aerial attack) emerged during the second world war and pre-war period. During the later years of WWII Nazi Germany moved much of its military industry underground. The Nazis used prisoners of war and slave labor to build their underground structures and large numbers perished during construction. [11]
The Cold War brought about two new underground structures, the nuclear powers built missile silos and all world powers built leadership protection bunkers in response. Examples of the latter include the Cheyenne Mountain Complex, Metro-2, and the Underground City (Beijing). [11]
Urban exploration is the exploration of manmade structures, usually abandoned ruins or hidden components of the manmade environment. Photography and historical interest/documentation are heavily featured in the hobby, sometimes involving trespassing onto private property. Urban exploration is also called draining, urban spelunking, urban rock climbing, urban caving, building hacking, or mousing.
A bunker is a defensive military fortification designed to protect people and valued materials from falling bombs, artillery, or other attacks. Bunkers are almost always underground, in contrast to blockhouses which are mostly above ground. They were used extensively in World War I, World War II, and the Cold War for weapons facilities, command and control centers, and storage facilities. Bunkers can also be used as protection from tornadoes.
Subterranean London refers to a number of subterranean structures that lie beneath London. The city has been occupied by humans for two millennia. Over time, the capital has acquired a vast number of these structures and spaces, often as a result of war and conflict.
Moffett Federal Airfield, also known as Moffett Field, is a joint civil-military airport located in an unincorporated part of Santa Clara County, California, United States, between northern Mountain View and northern Sunnyvale. On November 10, 2014, NASA announced that it would be leasing 1,000 acres (400 ha) of the airfield property to Google for 60 years.
A tunnel is an underground or undersea passageway. It is dug through surrounding soil, earth or rock, or laid under water, and is usually completely enclosed except for the two portals common at each end, though there may be access and ventilation openings at various points along the length. A pipeline is not a tunnel, though some recent tunnels have used immersed tube construction techniques rather than traditional tunnel boring methods.
A trench is a type of excavation or depression in the ground that is generally deeper than it is wide, and narrow compared with its length.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration is a regulatory agency of the United States Department of Labor that originally had federal visitorial powers to inspect and examine workplaces. The United States Congress established the agency under the Occupational Safety and Health Act, which President Richard M. Nixon signed into law on December 29, 1970. OSHA's mission is to "assure safe and healthy working conditions for working men and women by setting and enforcing standards and by providing training, outreach, education, and assistance." The agency is also charged with enforcing a variety of whistleblower statutes and regulations. OSHA's workplace safety inspections have been shown to reduce injury rates and injury costs without adverse effects on employment, sales, credit ratings, or firm survival.
An underground city is a series of linked subterranean spaces that may provide a defensive refuge; a place for living, working or shopping; a transit system; mausolea; wine or storage cellars; cisterns or drainage channels; or several of these. Underground cities may be currently active modern creations or they may be historic including ancient sites, some of which may be all or partially open to the public.
A mezzanine is an intermediate floor in a building which is partly open to the double-height ceilinged floor below, or which does not extend over the whole floorspace of the building, a loft with non-sloped walls. However, the term is often used loosely for the floor above the ground floor, especially where a very high-ceilinged original ground floor has been split horizontally into two floors.
A confined space is a space with limited entry and egress and not suitable for human inhabitants. Alternative names for a confined space are enclosed space and dangerous space. An example is the interior of a storage tank, occasionally entered by maintenance workers but not intended for human occupancy. Hazards in a confined space often include harmful dust or gases, asphyxiation, submersion in liquids or free-flowing granular solids, electrocution, or entrapment.
Metro-2 is the informal designation for a clandestine and officially unacknowledged deep underground metro system in the Moscow metropolitan area. It was designed to provide the Soviet leadership with secure wartime evacuation routes, communication hubs, and command posts, including a dedicated bunker for the national command authority. One such bunker is located beneath the Kremlin.
Underground living refers to living below the ground's surface, whether in natural or manmade caves or structures. Underground dwellings are an alternative to above-ground dwellings for some home seekers, including those who are looking to minimize impact on the environment. Factories and office buildings can benefit from underground facilities for many of the same reasons as underground dwellings such as noise abatement, energy use, and security.
A roofer, roof mechanic, or roofing contractor is a tradesperson who specializes in roof construction. Roofers replace, repair, and install the roofs of buildings, using a variety of materials, including shingles, single-ply, bitumen, and metal. Roofing work includes the hoisting, storage, application, and removal of roofing materials and equipment, including related insulation, sheet metal, vapor barrier work, and green technologies rooftop jobs such as vegetative roofs, rainwater harvesting systems, and photovoltaic products, such as solar shingles and solar tiles.
Roof edge protection is fall protection equipment most commonly used during the construction of commercial buildings or residential housing. They can be used along with timber, steel, or concrete structures. It often consists of a toe board, a main guard rail and an intermediate rail.". Roof edge protection can take the form of personal fall arrest systems (PFAS), fall restraint systems, guardrail systems, warning line systems, safety monitors, or ladders. Since construction is one of the most dangerous professions in the world, roof edge protection offers much-needed protection against falls from heights which is one of the primary causes of fatalities for workers.
Rapid transit or mass rapid transit (MRT), commonly referred to as metro, is a type of high-capacity public transport that is generally built in urban areas. A grade separated rapid transit line below ground surface through a tunnel can be regionally called a subway, tube, or underground. They are sometimes grade-separated on elevated railways, in which case some are referred to as el trains – short for "elevated" – or skytrains. Rapid transit systems are railways, usually electric, that unlike buses or trams operate on an exclusive right-of-way, which cannot be accessed by pedestrians or other vehicles.
A physical hazard is an agent, factor or circumstance that can cause harm with contact. They can be classified as type of occupational hazard or environmental hazard. Physical hazards include ergonomic hazards, radiation, heat and cold stress, vibration hazards, and noise hazards. Engineering controls are often used to mitigate physical hazards.
An underground hangar is a type of hangar for military aircraft, usually dug into the side of a mountain for protection. It is bigger and more protected than a hardened aircraft shelter (HAS).
Barricade tape is brightly colored tape that is used to warn or catch the attention of passersby of an area or situation containing a possible hazard. It acts as a minor impediment to prevent accidental entrance to that area or situation and as a result enhances general safety. Barricade tape is also known as construction tape or barrier tape, or in reference to the safety hazard involved as caution tape, warning tape, danger tape or hazard tape. When used by police, the tape is named police tape.
Subterranean warfare or underground warfare is warfare conducted underneath the ground surface. It is predominantly conducted in tunnels and underground cavities, both natural and artificial.
Underwater construction is industrial construction in an underwater environment. It is a part of the marine construction industry. It can involve the use of a variety of building materials, mainly concrete and steel. There is often, but not necessarily, a significant component of commercial diving involved. Some underwater work can be done by divers, but they are limited by depth and site conditions, and it is hazardous work, with expensive risk reduction and mitigation, and a limited range of suitable equipment. Remotely operated underwater vehicles are an alternative for some classes of work, but are also limited and expensive. When reasonably practicable, the bulk of the work is done out of the water, with underwater work restricted to installation, modification and repair, and inspection.
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