Abelisauridae

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Abelisaurids
Temporal range: Cretaceous
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Possibly present since Jurassic based on Eoabelisaurus and indeterminate fossils
Majungasaurus SBU right.jpg
Majungasaurus crenatissimus skeleton, Stony Brook University
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Clade: Dinosauria
Clade: Saurischia
Clade: Theropoda
Superfamily:† Abelisauroidea
Family:† Abelisauridae
Bonaparte & Novas, 1985
Type species
† Abelisaurus comahuensis
Bonaparte & Novas, 1985
Subgroups

Abelisauridae (meaning "Abel's lizards") is a family (or clade) of ceratosaurian theropod dinosaurs. Abelisaurids thrived during the Cretaceous period, on the ancient southern supercontinent of Gondwana, and today their fossil remains are found on the modern continents of Africa and South America, as well as on the Indian subcontinent and the island of Madagascar. Isolated teeth were found in the Late Jurassic of Portugal, [1] and the Late Cretaceous genera Tarascosaurus , Arcovenator and Caletodraco have been described in France. [2] [3] Abelisaurids possibly first appeared during the Jurassic period based on fossil records, and some genera survived until the end of the Mesozoic era, around 66  million years ago. [4]

Contents

Like most theropods, abelisaurids were carnivorous bipeds. They were characterized by stocky hind limbs and extensive ornamentation of the skull bones, with grooves and pits. In many abelisaurids, such as Carnotaurus , the forelimbs are vestigial, the skull is shorter, and bony crests grow above the eyes. Most of the known abelisaurids would have been between 5 and 9 m (17 to 30 ft) in length, from snout to tip of tail, with a new and as yet unnamed specimen from northwestern Turkana in Kenya, Africa reaching a possible length of 11–12 m (36 to 39 ft). [5] Before becoming well known, fragmentary abelisaurid remains were occasionally misidentified as possible South American tyrannosaurids. [6]

Description

Size comparison of five abelisaurids; Carnotaurus, Ekrixinatosaurus, Skorpiovenator, Aucasaurus, and Majungasaurus Abelisauridae Scale.svg
Size comparison of five abelisaurids; Carnotaurus, Ekrixinatosaurus, Skorpiovenator, Aucasaurus, and Majungasaurus

Abelisaurid hind limbs were more typical of ceratosaurs, with the astragalus and calcaneum (upper ankle bones) fused to each other and to the tibia, forming a tibiotarsus. The tibia was shorter than the femur, giving the hind limb stocky proportions. Three functional digits were on the foot (the second, third, and fourth), while the first digit, or hallux, did not contact the ground. [7]

Skull

Skull of Abelisaurus. Abelisaurus comahuensis.JPG
Skull of Abelisaurus .

Although skull proportions varied, abelisaurid skulls were generally very tall and very short in length. In Carnotaurus, for example, the skull was nearly as tall as it was long. The premaxilla in abelisaurids was very tall, so the front of the snout was blunt, not tapered as seen in many other theropods. [5]

Two skull bones, the lacrimal and postorbital bones, projected into the eye socket from the front and back, nearly dividing it into two compartments. The eye would have been located in the upper compartment, which was tilted slightly outwards in Carnotaurus, perhaps providing some degree of binocular vision. The lacrimal and postorbital also met above the eye socket, to form a ridge or brow above the eye. [5]

Sculpturing is seen on many of the skull bones, in the form of long grooves, pits, and protrusions. Like other ceratosaurs, the frontal bones of the skull roof were fused together. Carnotaurines commonly had bony projections from the skull. Carnotaurus had two pronounced horns, projecting outward above the eyes, while its close relative Aucasaurus had smaller projections in the same area. Majungasaurus and Rajasaurus had a single bony horn or dome, projecting upwards from the skull. These projections, like the horns of many modern animals, might have been displayed for species recognition or intimidation. [7] [8] [9] In Arcovenator , the dorsal margin of the postorbital (and probably also the lacrimal) is thickened dorsolaterally, forming a strong and rugose bony brow ridge rising above the level of the skull roof. [2] Possibly, this rugose brow ridge supported a keratinous or scaly structure for displays.

Fore limbs and hands

Hand bones of Carnotaurus, as interpreted by Ruiz and colleagues (2011) Carnotaurus manus.svg
Hand bones of Carnotaurus , as interpreted by Ruiz and colleagues (2011)

Data for the abelisaurid fore limbs are known from Eoabelisaurus and the carnotaurines Aucasaurus, Carnotaurus, and Majungasaurus. All had small fore limbs, which seem to have been vestigial. [11] The bones of the forearm (radius and ulna) were extremely short, only 25% of the length of the upper arm (humerus) in Carnotaurus and 33% in Aucasaurus. The entire arm was held straight, and the elbow joint was immobile. [11]

As is typical for ceratosaurs, the abelisaurid hand had four basic digits, but any similarity ends there. No wrist bones existed, with the four palm bones (metacarpals) attaching directly to the forearm. No phalanges (finger bones) were on the first or fourth digits, only one on the second digit and two on the third digit. These two external fingers were extremely short and immobile. Manual claws were very small in Eoabelisaurus, and totally absent in carnotaurines. [11]

More primitive relatives such as Noasaurus and Ceratosaurus had longer, mobile arms with fingers and claws. [12] Paleobiologist Alexander O. Vargas suggested a major reason for the evolution towards vestigial fore limbs in the group was because of a genetic defect; the loss of function in HOXA11 and HOXD11, two genes that regulate the fore limbs' development. [13]

Distribution

Illustration of Abelisaurus Abelisaurus comahuensis jmallon.jpg
Illustration of Abelisaurus

Abelisaurids are typically regarded as a Cretaceous period group. The earliest possible abelisaurid taxon is Eoabelisaurus mefi from the Jurassic period of Argentina, [14] though other researchers either consider it as a ceratosaurid, an abelisauroid or its sister taxon outside abelisaurids. [15] [16] [17] Indeterminate remains are also known from the Jurassic period of Madagascar and Tanzania. [18] [19] Abelisaurid remains are mainly known in the southern continents, which once made up the supercontinent of Gondwana. When first described in 1985, only Carnotaurus and Abelisaurus were known, both from the Late Cretaceous of South America. Abelisaurids were then located in Late Cretaceous India (Indosuchus and Rajasaurus) and Madagascar (Majungasaurus), which were closely connected for much of the Cretaceous. It was thought that the absence of abelisaurids from continental Africa indicated that the group evolved after the separation of Africa from Gondwana, around 100 million years ago. [20] However, the discovery of Rugops and other abelisaurid material from the middle of the Cretaceous in northern Africa disproved this hypothesis. [21] [22] Mid-Cretaceous abelisaurids are now known from South America as well, showing that the group existed prior to the breakup of Gondwana. [23] [24] [25] In 2014, the description of Arcovenator escotae from southern France provided the first indisputable evidence of the presence of Abelisaurids in Europe. Arcovenator presents strong similarities with the Madagascan Majungasaurus and Indian abelisaurids, but not with the South American forms. Arcovenator, Majungasaurus, and Indian forms are united in the new clade Majungasaurinae. [2]

Classification

Illustration of Carnotaurus Carnotaurus DB 2.jpg
Illustration of Carnotaurus

Paleontologists Jose Bonaparte and Fernando Novas coined the name Abelisauridae in 1985 when they described the eponymous Abelisaurus. The name is formed from the family name of Roberto Abel, who discovered Abelisaurus, and from the Greek word σαυρος (sauros) meaning lizard. The very common suffix -idae is usually applied to zoological family names and is derived from the Greek suffix -ιδαι (-idai) meaning 'descendants'. [26]

Abelisauridae is a family in rank-based Linnaean taxonomy, within the infraorder Ceratosauria and the superfamily Abelisauroidea , which also contains the family Noasauridae . It has had several definitions in phylogenetic taxonomy. It was originally defined as a node-based taxon including Abelisaurus, Carnotaurus, their common ancestor, and all of its descendants. [27] [28]

Later, it was redefined as a stem-based taxon, including all animals more closely related to Abelisaurus (or the more complete Carnotaurus) than to Noasaurus. [9] The node-based definition would not include animals such as Rugops or Ilokelesia , which are thought to be more basal than Abelisaurus and would be included by a stem-based definition. [29] Within the Abelisauridae is the subgroup Carnotaurinae, and among carnotaurines, Aucasaurus and Carnotaurus are united in Carnotaurini. [21]

Shared characteristics

Skeletal diagram of the known material of Carnotaurus Carnotaurus reconstruction Headden.jpg
Skeletal diagram of the known material of Carnotaurus

Complete skeletons have been described only for the most advanced abelisaurids (such as Carnotaurus and Aucasaurus ), making establishment of defining features of the skeleton for the family as a whole more difficult. However, most are known from at least some skull bones, so known shared features come mainly from the skull. [7] Many abelisaurid skull features are shared with carcharodontosaurids. These shared features, along with the fact that abelisaurids seem to have replaced carcharodontosaurids in South America, have led to suggestions that the two groups were related. [27] However, no cladistic analysis has ever found such a relationship, and aside from the skull, abelisaurids and carcharodontosaurids are very different, more similar to ceratosaurs and allosauroids, respectively. [7]

Phylogeny

Known material of Majungasaurus Majungasaurus crenatissimus skeleton.jpg
Known material of Majungasaurus

Below is a cladogram generated by Tortosa et al. (2014) in the description of Arcovenator and creation of a new subfamily Majungasaurinae. [2]

Abelisauridae

Ilokelesia was originally described as a sister group to the Abelisauroidea. [23] However, Sereno tentatively places it closer to Abelisaurus than to noasaurids, a result which agrees with several other recent analyses. [7] [24] [30] If a stem-based definition is used, Ilokelesia and Rugops are therefore basal abelisaurids. However, as they are more basal than Abelisaurus, they are outside of the Abelisauridae if the node-based definition is adopted. Ekrixinatosaurus was also published in 2004, so it was not included in Sereno's analysis. However, an independent analysis, performed by Jorge Calvo and colleagues, shows it to be an abelisaurid. [24]

Some scientists include Xenotarsosaurus from Argentina and Compsosuchus from India as basal abelisaurids, [31] [32] while others consider them to be outside the Abelisauroidea. [33] The French Genusaurus and Tarascosaurus have also been called abelisaurids but both are fragmentary and may be more basal ceratosaurians, [7] though Tortosa et al. (2014) considered both to be distinct abelisaurids. [2] Subsequent phylogenetic analyses recover Xenotarsosaurus and Tarascosaurus as an abelisaurid, [34] [35] but Genusaurus as either a noasaurid or an abelisaurid. [36] [37] [38]

Skeleton of Eoabelisaurus, a close relative of the Abelisauridae MEF Eoabelisaurus.jpg
Skeleton of Eoabelisaurus , a close relative of the Abelisauridae

With the description of Skorpiovenator in 2008, Canale et al. published another phylogenetic analysis focusing on the South American abelisaurids. In their results, they found that all South American forms, including Ilokelesia (except Abelisaurus), grouped together as a subclade of carnotaurines, which they named the Brachyrostra. [39] In the same year Matthew T. Carrano and Scott D. Sampson published new large phylogenetic analysis of ceratosaurian. [40] With the description of Eoabelisaurus , Diego Pol and Oliver W. M. Rauhut (2012) combined these analyses and added 10n new characters. The following cladogram follows their analysis. [41]

In the 2021 description of Llukalkan , the following consensus tree was recovered. [42]

Paleobiology

Feeding

Fossil teeth found amid the bones of a titanosaur from the Allen Formation of Argentina suggest that abelisaurids preyed upon or at least scavenged titanosaurs. [43]

Ontogeny and growth

Studies of the abelisaurid Majungasaurus indicate that it was a much slower-growing dinosaur than other theropods, taking nearly 20 years to reach adult size. [44] However, other mature abelisaurid specimens indicate that they generally reached a faster rate of maturation. The holotype of Aucasaurus had a minimum age of 11 years, [45] the holotype of Niebla had a minimum age of 9 years, [46] and MMCh-PV 69 had a minimum age of 14 years. [47]

See also

Related Research Articles

<i>Carnotaurus</i> Genus of dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous period

Carnotaurus is a genus of theropod dinosaur that lived in South America during the Late Cretaceous period, probably sometime between 72 and 69 million years ago. The only species is Carnotaurus sastrei. Known from a single well-preserved skeleton, it is one of the best-understood theropods from the Southern Hemisphere. The skeleton, found in 1984, was uncovered in the Chubut Province of Argentina from rocks of the La Colonia Formation. Carnotaurus is a derived member of the Abelisauridae, a group of large theropods that occupied the large predatorial niche in the southern landmasses of Gondwana during the late Cretaceous. Within the Abelisauridae, the genus is often considered a member of the Brachyrostra, a clade of short-snouted forms restricted to South America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ceratosauria</span> Extinct clade of dinosaurs

Ceratosaurs are members of the clade Ceratosauria, a group of dinosaurs defined as all theropods sharing a more recent common ancestor with Ceratosaurus than with birds. The oldest known ceratosaur, Saltriovenator, dates to the earliest part of the Jurassic, around 199 million years ago. Ceratosauria includes three major clades: Ceratosauridae, Noasauridae, and Abelisauridae, found primarily in the Southern Hemisphere. Originally, Ceratosauria included the above dinosaurs plus the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic Coelophysoidea and Dilophosauridae, implying a much earlier divergence of ceratosaurs from other theropods. However, most recent studies have shown that coelophysoids and dilophosaurids do not form a natural group with other ceratosaurs, and are excluded from this group.

<i>Rajasaurus</i> Abelisaurid dinosaur genus from Late Cretaceous India

Rajasaurus is a genus of carnivorous abelisaurid theropod dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous of India, containing one species: Rajasaurus narmadensis. The bones were excavated from the Lameta Formation in the Gujarat state of Western India, probably inhabiting what is now the Narmada River Valley. It was formally described by palaeontologist Jeffrey A. Wilson and colleagues in 2003 based on a partial skeleton comprising the braincase, spine, hip bone, legs, and tail–a first for an Indian theropod. The dinosaur likely measured 6.6 metres (22 ft), and had a single horn on the forehead which was probably used for display and head-butting. Like other abelisaurids, Rajasaurus was probably an ambush predator.

<i>Abelisaurus</i> Extinct genus of dinosaurs

Abelisaurus is a genus of predatory abelisaurid theropod dinosaur alive during the Late Cretaceous Period (Campanian) of what is now South America. It was a bipedal carnivore that probably reached about 7.4 metres in length, although this is uncertain as it is known from only one partial skull.

<i>Rugops</i> Genus of dinosaur

Rugops is a monospecific genus of basal abelisaurid theropod dinosaur from Niger that lived during the Late Cretaceous period in what is now the Echkar Formation. The type and only species, Rugops primus, is known only from a partial skull. It was named and described in 2004 by Paul Sereno, Jeffery Wilson and Jack Conrad. Rugops has an estimated length of 4.4–5.3 metres (14–17 ft) and weight of 410 kilograms (900 lb). The top of its skull bears several pits which correlates with overlaying scale and the front of the snout would have had an armour-like dermis.

<i>Aucasaurus</i> Extinct genus of dinosaurs

Aucasaurus is a genus of medium-sized abelisaurid theropod dinosaur from Argentina that lived during the Late Cretaceous of the Anacleto Formation. It was smaller than the related Carnotaurus, although more derived in some ways, such as its extremely reduced arms and almost total lack of fingers. The type skeleton is complete to the thirteenth caudal vertebra, and so is relatively well understood, and is the most complete abelisaurid yet described. However, the skull is damaged, causing some paleontologists to speculate that it was involved in a fight prior to death.

<i>Deltadromeus</i> Theropod dinosaur genus from mid-Cretaceous Period

Deltadromeus is a genus of theropod dinosaur from the Aoufous Formation of Morocco.

<i>Megaraptor</i> Extinct genus of dinosaurs

Megaraptor is a genus of large theropod dinosaur that lived in the ages of the Late Cretaceous. Its fossils have been discovered in the Patagonian Portezuelo Formation of Argentina, South America. Initially thought to have been a giant dromaeosaur-like coelurosaur, it was classified as a neovenatorid allosauroid in previous phylogenies, but more recent phylogeny and discoveries of related megaraptoran genera has placed it as either a basal tyrannosauroid or a basal coelurosaur with some studies still considering it a neovenatorid.

<i>Ilokelesia</i> Extinct genus of reptiles

Ilokelesia is an extinct genus of abelisaurid theropod, preserved in the layers of the earliest Late Cretaceous of the Huincul Formation, Neuquén Group, located near Plaza Huincul, Neuquén Province, Argentina. The specimen, consisting of very fragmentary elements of the skull and the axial and appendicular skeleton, was described by Rodolfo Coria and Leonardo Salgado in late 1998.

<i>Quilmesaurus</i> Extinct genus of dinosaurs

Quilmesaurus is a genus of carnivorous abelisaurid theropod dinosaur from the Patagonian Upper Cretaceous of Argentina. It was a member of Abelisauridae, closely related to genera such as Carnotaurus. The only known remains of this genus are leg bones which share certain similarities to a variety of abelisaurids. However, these bones lack unique features, which may render Quilmesaurus a nomen vanum.

<i>Majungasaurus</i> Abelisaurid theropod dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous period

Majungasaurus is a genus of abelisaurid theropod dinosaur that lived in Madagascar from 70 to 66 million years ago, at the end of the Cretaceous Period, making it one of the last-known non-avian dinosaurs that went extinct during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. The genus contains a single species, Majungasaurus crenatissimus. This dinosaur is also called Majungatholus, a name which is considered a junior synonym of Majungasaurus.

<i>Ekrixinatosaurus</i> Extinct genus of dinosaur

Ekrixinatosaurus is a genus of abelisaurid theropod which lived approximately 100 to 97 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous period. Its fossils have been found in Argentina. Only one species is currently recognized, Ekrixinatosaurus novasi, from which the specific name honors of Dr. Fernando Novas for his contributions to the study of abelisaurid theropods, while the genus name refers to the dynamiting of the holotype specimen. It was a large abelisaur, measuring between 6.5 and 8 m in length and weighing 800 kg (1,800 lb).

<i>Aerosteon</i> Extinct genus of dinosaurs

Aerosteon is a genus of megaraptoran dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous period of Argentina. Its remains were discovered in 1996 in the Anacleto Formation, which is from the late Campanian. The type and only known species is A. riocoloradensis. Its specific name indicates that its remains were found 1 km north of the Río Colorado, in Mendoza Province, Argentina.

<i>Skorpiovenator</i> Extinct genus of dinosaurs

Skorpiovenator is a genus of abelisaurid theropod dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous Huincul Formation of Argentina. It is one of the most complete and informative abelisaurids yet known, described from a nearly complete and articulated skeleton.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brachyrostra</span> Extinct subfamily of reptiles

Brachyrostra is a clade within the theropod dinosaur family Abelisauridae. It includes the famous genera Carnotaurus, Abelisaurus, Aucasaurus as well as their close relatives from the Cretaceous Period of Argentina and Brazil plus Caletodraco from France. The group was first proposed in an analysis conducted by Juan Canale and colleagues in 2008. They found that all South American abelisaurids described up to that point grouped together as a sub-clade of Abelisauridae, which they named based on the relatively unusual shape of their skulls. They defined the clade Brachyrostra as "all the abelisaurids more closely related to Carnotaurus sastrei than to Majungasaurus crenatissimus."

<i>Eoabelisaurus</i> Extinct genus of dinosaurs

Eoabelisaurus is a genus of abelisauroid theropod dinosaur from the Lower Jurassic Cañadón Asfalto Formation of the Cañadón Asfalto Basin in Argentina, South America. The generic name combines a Greek ἠώς, (eos), "dawn", with the name Abelisaurus, in reference to the fact it represents an early relative of the latter. Only one species is currently recognized, E. mefi; the specific name honours the MEF, the Museo Paleontológico "Egidio Feruglio", where discoverer Diego Pol is active. It is characterized by reduced forelimb proportions that show primitive characteristics of the Abelisauridae family.

<i>Arcovenator</i> Extinct genus of dinosaurs

Arcovenator is an extinct genus of abelisaurid theropod dinosaurs hailing from the Late Cretaceous of France and possibly Spain. The type and only described species is Arcovenator escotae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Majungasaurinae</span> Extinct subfamily of reptiles

Majungasaurinae is a subfamily of large carnivorous theropods from the Upper Cretaceous, found in Madagascar, India, and France. It is a subgroup within the theropod family Abelisauridae, a Gondwanan clade known for their thick and often horned skulls and vestigial arms. The two subfamilies of Abelisauridae are Carnotaurinae, best known from the South American Carnotaurus, and Majungasaurinae, consisting of Madagascar’s Majungasaurus and its closest relatives. Their ancestors emerged in the Middle Jurassic, and the clade lasted until the Upper Cretaceous.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Timeline of ceratosaur research</span>

This timeline of ceratosaur research is a chronological listing of events in the history of paleontology focused on the ceratosaurs, a group of relatively primitive, often horned, predatory theropod dinosaurs that became the apex predators of the southern hemisphere during the Late Cretaceous. The nature and taxonomic composition of the Ceratosauria has been controversial since the group was first distinguished in the late 19th century. In 1884 Othniel Charles Marsh described the new genus and species Ceratosaurus nasicornis from the Late Jurassic Morrison Formation of the western United States. He felt that it belonged in a new family that he called the Ceratosauridae. He created the new taxon Ceratosauria to include both the Ceratosauridae and the ostrich-like ornithomimids. The idea of the Ceratosauria was soon contested, however. Later that same decade both Lydekker and Marsh's hated rival Edward Drinker Cope argued that the taxon was invalid.

Tralkasaurus is a genus of abelisaurid dinosaur from the Huincul Formation from Río Negro Province in Argentina. The type and only species is Tralkasaurus cuyi, named in 2020 by Mauricio Cerroni and colleagues based on an incomplete skeleton. A medium-sized abelisaurid, Tralkasaurus exhibits a conflicting blend of characteristics found among the early-diverging abelisauroids with others that characterize the highly specialized clade Brachyrostra, and thus its position within the clade is poorly-resolved.

References

  1. ↑ Hendrickx, Christophe; Mateus, Octávio (2014). "Abelisauridae (Dinosauria: Theropoda) from the Late Jurassic of Portugal and dentition-based phylogeny as a contribution for the identification of isolated theropod teeth". Zootaxa. 3759: 1–74. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3759.1.1. PMID   24869965. S2CID   12650231.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Tortosa, Thierry; Buffetaut, Eric; Vialle, Nicolas; Dutour, Yves; Turini, Eric; Cheylan, Gilles (2014). "A new abelisaurid dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous of southern France: Palaeobiogeographical implications". Annales de Paléontologie. 100: 63–86. Bibcode:2014AnPal.100...63T. doi:10.1016/j.annpal.2013.10.003.
  3. ↑ Buffetaut, E.; Tong, H.; Girard, J.; Hoyez, B.; Párraga, J. (2024). "Caletodraco cottardi: A New Furileusaurian Abelisaurid (Dinosauria: Theropoda) from the Cenomanian Chalk of Normandy (North-Western France)". Fossil Studies. 2 (3): 177–195. doi: 10.3390/fossils2030009 .
  4. ↑ Longrich, Nicholas R.; Pereda-Suberbiola, Xabier; Jalil, Nour-Eddine; Khaldoune, Fatima; Jourani, Essaid (2017). "An abelisaurid from the latest Cretaceous (late Maastrichtian) of Morocco, North Africa". Cretaceous Research. 76: 40–52. Bibcode:2017CrRes..76...40L. doi: 10.1016/j.cretres.2017.03.021 .
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  6. ↑ "Abelisaurus." In: Dodson, Peter & Britt, Brooks & Carpenter, Kenneth & Forster, Catherine A. & Gillette, David D. & Norell, Mark A. & Olshevsky, George & Parrish, J. Michael & Weishampel, David B. The Age of Dinosaurs. Publications International, LTD. p. 105. ISBN   0-7853-0443-6.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Tykoski, R.S. & Rowe, T. (2004). "Ceratosauria". In: Weishampel, D.B., Dodson, P., & Osmolska, H. (Eds.) The Dinosauria (2nd edition). Berkeley: University of California Press. Pp. 47–70 ISBN   0-520-24209-2
  8. ↑ Bonaparte, J.F.; Novas, F.E.; Coria, R.A. (1990). "Carnotaurus sastrei Bonaparte, the horned, lightly built carnosaur from the middle Cretaceous of Patagonia". Contributions in Science of the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County. 416: 1–42.
  9. 1 2 Wilson, J.A.; Sereno, P.C.; Srivastava, S.; Bhatt, D.K.; Khosla, A.; Sahni, A. (2003). "A new abelisaurid (Dinosauria, Theropoda) from the Lameta Formation (Cretaceous, Maastrichtian) of India". Contributions of the Museum of Palaeontology of the University of Michigan. 31: 1–42.
  10. ↑ Ruiz, Javier; Torices, Angélica; Serrano, Humberto; López, Valle (2011). "The hand structure of Carnotaurus sastrei (Theropoda, Abelisauridae): implications for hand diversity and evolution in abelisaurids" (PDF). Palaeontology. 54 (6): 1271–1277. Bibcode:2011Palgy..54.1271R. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2011.01091.x. S2CID   43168700. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-09-22. Retrieved 2019-07-12.
  11. 1 2 3 Senter, P. (2010). "Vestigial skeletal structures in dinosaurs". Journal of Zoology. 280 (1): 60–71. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2009.00640.x.
  12. ↑ Agnolin, Federico L.; Chiarelli, Pablo (2009). "The position of the claws in Noasauridae (Dinosauria: Abelisauroidea) and its implications for abelisauroid manus evolution". Paläontologische Zeitschrift. 84 (2): 293. doi:10.1007/s12542-009-0044-2. S2CID   84491924.
  13. ↑ Magazine, Smithsonian. "Need a Hand? Don't Ask an Abelisaurid". Smithsonian Magazine. Archived from the original on 2015-07-23. Retrieved 2015-07-23.
  14. ↑ Pol, D.; Rauhut, O. W. M. (2012). "A Middle Jurassic abelisaurid from Patagonia and the early diversification of theropod dinosaurs". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 279 (1741): 3170–5. doi:10.1098/rspb.2012.0660. PMC   3385738 . PMID   22628475.
  15. ↑ Delcourt, Rafael (2018-06-27). "Ceratosaur palaeobiology: new insights on evolution and ecology of the southern rulers". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 9730. Bibcode:2018NatSR...8.9730D. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-28154-x. ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   6021374 . PMID   29950661.
  16. ↑ Agnolín, Federico L.; Cerroni, Mauricio A.; Scanferla, Agustín; Goswami, Anjali; Paulina-Carabajal, Ariana; Halliday, Thomas; Cuff, Andrew R.; Reuil, Santiago (2022-02-10). "First definitive abelisaurid theropod from the Late Cretaceous of Northwestern Argentina". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 41 (4): e2002348. doi:10.1080/02724634.2021.2002348. ISSN   0272-4634. S2CID   246766133.
  17. ↑ Aranciaga Rolando, Mauro; Cerroni, Mauricio A.; Garcia Marsà, Jordi A.; Agnolín, Federico l.; Motta, Matías J.; Rozadilla, Sebastián; Brisson Eglí, Federico; Novas, Fernando E. (2020-10-14). "A new medium-sized abelisaurid (Theropoda, Dinosauria) from the late cretaceous (Maastrichtian) Allen Formation of Northern Patagonia, Argentina". Journal of South American Earth Sciences. 105: 102915. doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2020.102915. hdl: 11336/150468 . ISSN   0895-9811. S2CID   225123133.
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  27. 1 2 Novas, F.E. (1997). "Abelisauridae". In: Currie, P.J. & Padian, K.P. Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs. San Diego: Academic Press. Pp. 1–2 ISBN   0-12-226810-5.
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  35. ↑ Malafaia, Elisabete; Escaso, Fernando; Coria, Rodolfo A.; Ortega, Francisco (2023-01-19). "An Eudromaeosaurian Theropod from Lo Hueco (Upper Cretaceous. Central Spain)". Diversity. 15 (2): 141. doi: 10.3390/d15020141 . ISSN   1424-2818.
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  38. ↑ Baiano, M. A.; Coria, R.; Chiappe, L. M.; Zurriaguz, V.; Coria, L. (2023). "Osteology of the axial skeleton of Aucasaurus garridoi: phylogenetic and paleobiological inferences". PeerJ. 11. e16236. doi: 10.7717/peerj.16236 . PMC   10655716 . PMID   38025666.
  39. ↑ Canale, Juan I.; Scanferla, Carlos A.; Agnolin, Federico L.; Novas, Fernando E. (2008). "New carnivorous dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous of NW Patagonia and the evolution of abelisaurid theropods". Naturwissenschaften. 96 (3): 409–14. Bibcode:2009NW.....96..409C. doi:10.1007/s00114-008-0487-4. hdl: 11336/52024 . PMID   19057888. S2CID   23619863.
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  44. ↑ "Fearsome Malagasy Dinosaur Remained a Pipsqueak Most of Its Life". Live Science . 16 November 2016. Archived from the original on 2016-11-22. Retrieved 2016-11-22.
  45. ↑ Baiano MA, Cerda IA (2022). "Osteohistology of Aucasaurus garridoi (Dinosauria, Theropoda, Abelisauridae): inferences on lifestyle and growth strategy". Historical Biology: An International Journal of Paleobiology. 35 (5): 693–704. doi:10.1080/08912963.2022.2063052. S2CID   248288065.
  46. ↑ Aranciaga Rolando, Mauro; Cerroni, Mauricio A.; Garcia Marsà, Jordi A.; Agnolín, Federico L.; Motta, Matías J.; Rozadilla, Sebastián; Brisson Eglí, Federico; Novas, Fernando E. (2020-10-14). "A new medium-sized abelisaurid (Theropoda, Dinosauria) from the late cretaceous (Maastrichtian) Allen Formation of Northern Patagonia, Argentina". Journal of South American Earth Sciences. 105: 102915. doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2020.102915. hdl: 11336/150468 . ISSN   0895-9811. S2CID   225123133.
  47. ↑ Canale, J.I.; Cerda, I.; Novas, F.E.; Haluza, A. (2016). "Small-sized abelisaurid (Theropoda: Ceratosauria) remains from the Upper Cretaceous of northwest Patagonia, Argentina". Cretaceous Research. 62: 18–28. Bibcode:2016CrRes..62...18C. doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2016.02.001. hdl: 11336/59930 .

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