Ostafrikasaurus

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Ostafrikasaurus
Temporal range: Late Jurassic, (Tithonian) 152.1–145  Ma
Ostafrikasaurus holotype tooth by PaleoGeek.png
Illustrated holotype tooth, with British penny for scale
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Clade: Dinosauria
Clade: Saurischia
Clade: Theropoda
Family:† Spinosauridae (?)
Genus:† Ostafrikasaurus
Buffetaut, 2012
Species:
†O. crassiserratus
Binomial name
†Ostafrikasaurus crassiserratus
Buffetaut, 2012

Ostafrikasaurus is a genus of theropod dinosaur from the Late Jurassic period of what is now Lindi Region, Tanzania. It is known only from fossil teeth discovered sometime between 1909 and 1912, during an expedition to the Tendaguru Formation by the Natural History Museum of Berlin. Eight teeth were originally attributed to the dubious dinosaur genus Labrosaurus , and later to Ceratosaurus , both known from the North American Morrison Formation. Subsequent studies attributed two of these teeth to a spinosaurid dinosaur, and in 2012, Ostafrikasaurus crassiserratus was named by French palaeontologist Eric Buffetaut, with one tooth as the holotype, and the other referred to the same species. The generic name comes from the German word for German East Africa, the former name of the colony in which the fossils were found, while the specific name comes from the Latin words for "thick" and "serrated", in reference to the form of the animal's teeth.

Contents

Ostafrikasaurus has been tentatively estimated at 8.4 metres (28 feet) long and weighing 1.15 tonnes (1.27 short tons ; 1.13 long tons ). The holotype tooth is 46 millimetres (1.8 inches) long, has a curved front edge, and is oval-shaped in cross section. The tooth shows serrations that—for spinosaur standards—are unusually large, more so than in any other known taxon. Both the front and back cutting edges are serrated, with two to four denticles per mm (0.04 in). The tooth also has longitudinal ridges on both sides, and the outermost enamel layer has a wrinkled texture in the regions between and without ridges.

Among the oldest known spinosaurid fossils, Ostafrikasaurus may be of importance in understanding the evolutionary origins of spinosaurids and their anatomical adaptations. From comparisons with its later relatives, Ostafrikasaurus indicates that spinosaur teeth became more conical and lost their serrations throughout their evolution. This is possibly a result of becoming more specialized for a piscivorous (fish-eating) diet, as has been suggested for the family based on fossil evidence and the semiaquatic adaptations exhibited by many species. They are also known to have fed on pterosaurs and other dinosaurs. Ostafrikasaurus lived in a subtropical to tropical environment alongside many other dinosaurs, as well as pterosaurs, crocodyliforms, fish, mammals, and invertebrates. Due to its age and location, Ostafrikasaurus indicates spinosaurids may have been globally distributed prior to the breakup of Pangaea.

History of research

Werner Janensch during the Tendaguru expedition, 1910 Janensch.jpg
Werner Janensch during the Tendaguru expedition, 1910

During the time of the German colonial empire, the Museum für Naturkunde (Natural History Museum) of Berlin arranged an expedition in German East Africa (now Tanzania) that took place from 1909 to 1912, and is now regarded by scientists as one of the largest expeditions in palaeontological history. Most of the excavations were situated in the southeastern Tendaguru Formation, a fossil-rich site part of the Mandawa Basin dated to the Late Jurassic period. [1] [2] Among the many dinosaur fossils retrieved from the dig sites were 230 specimens of theropod teeth. [3] One of these was an isolated tooth catalogued as MB R 1084, found either nearby or atop Tendaguru Hill at the Upper Dinosaur Member. [4] It was originally attributed to the species Labrosaurus ? stechowi in 1920 by German palaeontologist Werner Janensch, based on comparable ornamentation to a tooth described as Labrosaurussulcatus by Othniel Charles Marsh. [3] A detailed monograph by Janensch published in 1925 assigned MB R 1084, as well as eight teeth from the Middle Dinosaur Member to L.? stechowi and divided them into five morphotypes (from a to e). [5]

In 2000, American palaeontologists James Madsen and Samuel Welles referred the L.? stechowi teeth to Ceratosaurus sp. (of uncertain species), because they resembled teeth from the premaxilla and dentary jaw bones of Ceratosaurus, a theropod from the North American Morrison Formation. [6] In 2007, American palaeontologist Denver Fowler instead proposed that the teeth were those of a spinosaurid dinosaur similar to Baryonyx , which would make it among the oldest known spinosaurid fossils and thus some of the earliest evidence of the group. [7] This analysis was maintained by French palaeontologist Eric Buffetaut, who examined the teeth that year, and in a 2008 paper referred specimen MB R 1084 to the Spinosauridae. Bufetaut found that this specimen differed from other teeth previously referred to L.? stechowi, and that another isolated tooth (MB R 1091) from the Middle Dinosaur Member might represent the same animal. [8] He also questioned Janensch's provisional assignment of the teeth to the dubious genus Labrosaurus, which was based on scant remains from the Morrison Formation that were later attributed to Allosaurus. [8] [9] Furthermore, Buffetaut noted that the L. sulcatus tooth illustrated by Marsh is now regarded as belonging to Ceratosaurus. [4] Similarly, L. stechowi has been relegated as a dubious ceratosaurian related to Ceratosaurus. [6] [10]

Most of the teeth originally attributed to the same taxon as Ostafrikasaurus teeth are now believed to have represented Ceratosaurus (pictured) or a similar animal Ceratosaurus mount utah museum 1.jpg
Most of the teeth originally attributed to the same taxon as Ostafrikasaurus teeth are now believed to have represented Ceratosaurus (pictured) or a similar animal

In 2011, German palaeontologist Oliver Rauhut considered the Middle Dinosaur Member teeth ascribed to L.? stechowi as lacking diagnostic characters (unique derived traits), concurring that the species is a dubious name. Rauhut noted that they can still be differentiated from other theropod teeth from the Tendaguru Formation, based on their slight recurvature and sideways flattening of the tooth crown, and broad ridges on the lingual flank (which faced the inside of the mouth). [11] He recognized L. sulcatus as a dubious name, since the tooth referred to it was shown only in a single illustration and not properly described in text. In addition, the original remains of Labrosaurus did not include teeth, and an additional species, Labrosaurus ferox (now considered synonymous with Allosaurus fragillis [9] ), was based on a dentary bone bearing teeth of different morphology to those of L. sulcatus. Thus, Rauhut concluded there was no basis for attributing the Tendaguru teeth to Labrosaurus. He tentatively referred all of them except MB R 1084 to Ceratosaurus (under the name Ceratosaurus? stechowi), on the basis of anatomical similarities with teeth from that genus. According to Rauhut, the different features between Janensch's type b, c, e, and d teeth did not represent distinct taxa, but rather variation along the tooth row in the animal's jaws. Rauhut also attributed another tooth (MB R 1093) described by Janensch, yet not referred to L.? stechowi, to the same taxon. [11]

Rauhut also found that Janensch's type a (MB R 1084) was distinct in form from the other eight teeth, and possibly represented a different taxon closely related to C.? stechowi. He listed some differences between it and the other teeth originally referred to L.? stechowi: MB R 1084 has more lingual ridges (up to eleven) and three ridges and grooves on the labial side, which faced the outside of the mouth. Moreover, some of MB R 1084's ridges are confined to the base of the crown, joined by longer ridges extending throughout almost the whole length of the crown, with a 5 mm (0.20 in) high region at the tip of the tooth lacking any ornamentation. Additionally, ridges are present over almost the entire front three-fifths of the crown, whereas the rear two-fifths are smooth. Towards the front of the tooth, the ridged part is separated from the carina (cutting edge) by an area that is slightly concave front to back. The only similarities between MB R 1084 and the Middle Dinosaur Member teeth lie in their general shape and density of their serrations, as all teeth have 10 denticles per 5 millimetres (0.20 in) on the rear carina and 13 denticles per 5 millimetres (0.20 in) on the front carina. [11]

In a 2012 paper, Buffetaut used MB R 1084 as the holotype specimen for the new genus and species Ostafrikasaurus crassiserratus, describing it as an early spinosaurid theropod. Its generic name is derived from the German name of the colony in which the fossils were found, Deutsch-Ostafrika, meaning "German East Africa", combined with the Greek σαῦρος (sauros), meaning "lizard" or "reptile". The specific name comes from the Latin crassus, meaning "thick"; and serratus, meaning "serrated", in reference to the large serrations of its teeth. Due to similarities with MB R 1084, Buffetaut assigned MB R 1091 from the Middle Dinosaur Member to the same species. Both teeth have a curved front carina, no side to side curvature, and a comparable shape in cross section. Their main differences include MB R 1091 having five lengthwise ridges on its lingual side compared to MB R 1084's ten, the ridges on the former being less extensive. MB R 1091 also had less wrinkled tooth enamel. Buffetaut notes that these differences could be explained by individual variation within the taxon, but since both teeth originated from different members of the Tendaguru Formation, the referral is only tentative. [4]

Buffetaut elaborated on the differences between the teeth of Ostafrikasaurus crassiserratus and Janensch's L.? stechowi morphotypes. Morphotype b (MB R 1083 and 1087) teeth had both front to back and side to side curvature, and a D-shaped cross section. Morphotype c (MB R 1090) was curved side to side but not front to back, was not flattened from side to side, had a rounded front with no carina, and bore five strong ridges on its lingual side, but none on its labial flank. Morphotype e (MB R 1092) resembled a typical theropod tooth. It is strongly flattened from side to side, curved from front to back, shows 3 denticles per millimetre (0.04 in), its front carina does not extend to the base of the crown, and there is no ornamentation aside from some weak furrowing of the crown, and two incipient ridges on the lingual side. [4]

In 2020, a study of teeth from the Tendaguru Formation and from the Late Jurassic of South America again suggested a ceratosaurid identification for Ostafrikasaurus. [12]

Description

Hypothetical life restoration as a primitive spinosaurid Ostafrikasaurus crassiserratus by PaleoGeek.png
Hypothetical life restoration as a primitive spinosaurid

In 2016, Spanish palaeontologists Molina-Pérez and Larramendi estimated Ostafrikasaurus at about 8.4 metres (28 feet) long, 2.1 m (6.9 ft) tall at the hips and weighing 1.15 tonnes (1.27 short tons ; 1.13 long tons ). [13] However, without more complete material, such as a skull or body fossil, the body size and weight of fragmentary spinosaur taxa, especially those known only from teeth, can not be reliably calculated. Thus estimates are only tentative. [14]

The holotype tooth is thick, somewhat flattened sideways, and 46 millimetres (1.8 inches) in length from top to bottom. Its tip has been rounded by erosion and the base is not fully preserved. The tooth crown has well-defined carinae (cutting edges), with the front carina being curved and the back carina almost straight. There is only mild side-to-side curvature. Both carinae are serrated, with rounded denticles perpendicular to the edge of the tooth. The serrations have no inderdenticle sulci, or grooves, in between them. They line the front carina from the base to its tip, and probably also did on the back carina, whose base has been largely eroded. Towards the tip of the tooth, these serrations are very worn down (especially on the front carina). On the front carina, there are two denticles per mm (0.04 in) near the tip of the tooth, and three to four per mm (0.04 in) as the denticles shrink towards the base of the crown. There are two denticles per mm (0.04 in) all along the back carina. The serrations are notably larger than in all other known spinosaurids. [4]

The enamel (outermost layer) of the tooth bears a series of ridges on its surface – 10 on the lingual side, and four fainter, less extensive ones on the labial side. The gaps between ridges are 1 mm (0.039 in) wide at most. None of the ridges on either side reach the tip of the crown. There is a 3 mm (0.12 in) wide region at the front of the tooth on both sides that lacks ridges; a similar area on the rear of the tooth side diminishes in width, from 8 to 4 mm (0.31 to 0.16 in) as it approaches the tip of the crown. On both sides of the tooth, between the ridges and ridge-less parts of the teeth, the enamel surface is finely wrinkled. [4]

Classification

Reconstructed skeleton of Baryonyx, a spinosaurid from the Early Cretaceous of western Europe Bryonyx.jpg
Reconstructed skeleton of Baryonyx , a spinosaurid from the Early Cretaceous of western Europe

Spinosaurids are usually separated into two subfamilies: Baryonychinae and Spinosaurinae. In regards to dental traits, baryonychines are characterized by slightly curved, finely-serrated teeth with more oval cross sections, while spinosaurine teeth are straight, bear highly reduced or completely absent serrations, have more circular cross sections, and bear prominent flutes (lengthwise grooves) on their enamel. [14] [15] In 2007, Fowler interpreted the L.? stechowi teeth as representing a possible primitive baryonychine or ancestral form to baryonychines, since they share features, such as tightly packed serrations, stout shape, marginally flattened tooth crowns, and ridges on their lingual face, typically associated with that clade. [7] In 2008, Buffetaut separated only Janensch's morphotype a (MB R 1084) and d (MB R 1091) as having baryonychine characteristics, which in the former included its general form, somewhat flattened cross section, finely wrinkled enamel, ridges that do not reach the tip of the tooth, and having more ridges on the lingual than labial side. In MB R 1091, only one side of the tooth has ridges, which can also be observed in the teeth of Baryonyx's holotype specimen. Furthermore, Buffetaut added that the only resemblance the other types (b, c, and e) share with Janensch's type a and d is ridges covering part of the tooth c rown, while in all other aspects, such as their shape and cross section, they are substantially different. In Buffetaut's analysis, types b, c, and e are probably ceratosaurid in origin, while type a likely represents an early spinosaurid that is different from Early Cretaceous baryonychines. [8]

Rauhut doubted this interpretation in 2011, stating that MB R 1084 has more similarities than differences with Ceratosaurus? stechowi teeth, like the rounded cross section, only marginal curvature of the crown, a more convex lingual than labial side, and similar size and shape of the denticles. Thus, according to his analysis, only the ridge count and distribution were left as unique to MB R 1084. Rauhut noted that though baryonychines also have ridges on either side of their teeth, they are usually most developed at the rear of the tooth, whereas MB R 1084 lacks ridges on that side. He also asserts that the wrinkling Buffetaut observed in MB R 1084's enamel is very faint and largely restricted to the lingual side, compared to the more conspicuously grainy texture of Baryonyx teeth. According to Rauhut, though MB R 1084 is potentially spinosaurid in origin, it shares only generic resemblance to baryonychine teeth, and instead probably represents a close relative of Ceratosaurus? stechowi. [11] In Buffetaut's 2012 naming of Ostafrikasaurus, he placed it in the Spinosauridae, asserting instead that the tooth is very much akin to those of baryonychines including Baryonyx. Among their shared dental features he included the slight sideways-flattening of the crown, fine enamel wrinkles, and ridges on both sides that do not reach the tooth tip, and are stronger and more numerous on the lingual than labial face. If this identification is correct, Ostafrikasaurus represents some of the earliest known evidence of spinosaurids. [16]

The naming and distinction of new dinosaurs based solely on teeth has been frequently considered problematic by palaeontologists, such as with the debated identity of the Asian genus Siamosaurus . [14] [17] Buffetaut stated that with thorough comparison and analysis of morphological features such as ornamentation, theropod teeth can be sufficiently diagnostic enough to raise new taxa. [16] Furthermore, spinosaurid teeth in particular share a unique morphology very divergent to those of other theropods. [16] [18] Nevertheless, the precise identification of Ostafrikasaurus is still unclear, and researchers have pointed out similarities in its enamel ornamentation with Ceratosaurus, Paronychodon , Zapsalis , Acheroraptor , and Coelophysis . [18]

Evolution

Tooth of the related genus Spinosaurus, Museo di Storia Naturale A. Stoppani, Lombardy Spinosaurus sp Marocco Cenom.JPG
Tooth of the related genus Spinosaurus , Museo di Storia Naturale A. Stoppani, Lombardy

Fowler in 2007 put forward the possibility of spinosaurids having evolved from ceratosaurian ancestors, given that baryonychine teeth have ridges on their crowns reminiscent to those seen on the premaxillary and dentary teeth of Ceratosaurus. [7] In 2008, Buffetaut rejected this proposal, citing that the D-shaped cross section of said Ceratosaurus teeth is not present in those of baryonychines. [8]

The main difference between MB R 1084 and all other known spinosaurid teeth, as Buffetaut noted, was in the large size of the denticles borne by the carinae. This led him to hypothesize in 2008 that spinosaurid dental evolution was largely characterized by the shrinking and eventual loss of serrations. [8] In 2012, Buffetaut posited that this pattern would begin with large serrations in primitive Jurassic taxa like Ostafrikasaurus (from the Tithonian age), which resembled those of typical, similarly sized theropods. These would then evolve into the fine, reduced, and more numerous serrations of Early Cretaceous baryonychines, like Baryonyx from the Barremian of Europe, and Suchomimus from the Aptian to Albian of West Africa.Baryonyx, for example, had seven denticles per mm (0.04 in) in comparison to Ostafrikasaurus's two to four. Finally, the denticles would disappear entirely in spinosaurines such as Spinosaurus from the Albian to Turonian of North Africa. [15] [16] Buffetaut points out that the heavily diminished serrations in taxa like Siamosaurus, from the Barremian of Thailand, seem to represent an intermediate form. He also noted similarities between Ostafrikasaurus's dentition and a set of Baryonyx-like teeth from the pre-Aptian Cabao Formation of Libya, with potentially important biogeographical implications. These teeth are similar in their general shape, oval-cross section, and wrinkled crown surface, but differ in having smaller serrations, and flutes instead of ridges. [16]

Possible spinosaurid tooth from the Middle Jurassic-aged Tiouraren Formation of Niger in multiple views (D1, D2, D3, D4), and a closeup of the serrations (D5) Spinosaurid tooth associated with Spinophorosaurus.png
Possible spinosaurid tooth from the Middle Jurassic-aged Tiourarén Formation of Niger in multiple views (D1, D2, D3, D4), and a closeup of the serrations (D5)

In conjunction with their disappearing serrations, the cross sections of spinosaur teeth were initially blade-like and lenticular in earlier taxa like Ostafrikasaurus and Baryonyx, and became more circular in derived forms like Spinosaurus. The ornamentation of spinosaur tooth enamel, however, developed more irregularly than their serrations and cross section shape. Most non-avian theropods generally had smooth teeth with, at most, minimal wrinkles. Ostafrikasaurus teeth in contrast bore strong lengthwise ridges, a feature also seen in Baryonyx and its close relatives, though their prominence varies between taxa. Spinosaurus teeth, like those of typical theropods, were usually smooth, and Asian forms like Siamosaurus exhibited an increase in the amount of dental ridges. Furthermore, the tooth crown was wrinkled in Ostafrikasaurus, Baryonyx, and Suchomimus, and Asian spinosaurids, but smooth in Spinosaurus, with only some specimens of the latter showing fine wrinkles. [16]

In 2016, Spanish palaeontologist Aleandro Serrano-Martínez and colleagues described a possible spinosaurid tooth, catalogued as MUPE HB-87, from the Irhazer Shale of Niger. Found in association with a skeleton of the sauropod dinosaur Spinophorosaurus , the tooth likely dates to the Bathonian stage of the Middle Jurassic, 14 million years prior to Ostafrikasaurus. If this identification is correct, MUPE HB-87 represents the oldest known evidence of spinosaurids in the fossil record. Based on this specimen, the authors proposed a new evolutionary model for the transition between "normal" theropod teeth, to those of spinosaurids. The tooth is oval in cross section, is recurved, and bears small serrations, as well as strong fluting that does not reach the tip of the crown. [18] However, this specimen has been noted by other researchers to possess many non-spinosaurid features, these researchers instead favoring a megalosaurid identification. [19] [12]

Palaeobiology

Though no skull material has been discovered for Ostafrikasaurus, it is known that spinosaurid skulls resembled those of crocodiles; they were long, low, narrow and expanded at their front ends into a terminal rosette-like shape, with a robust secondary palate on the roof of the mouth that made them more resistant to stress and bending. In contrast, the primitive and typical condition for theropods was a tall, broader and wedge-like snout with a less developed secondary palate. The skull adaptations of spinosaurids converged with those of crocodilians; early members of the latter group had skulls similar to typical non-avian (or non-bird) theropods, later developing elongated snouts, conical teeth, and secondary palates. These adaptations may have been the result of a dietary change from terrestrial prey to fish. [20] [21] In 2012, Buffetaut suggested that the reduction of serrations on spinosaurid teeth illustrated by Ostafrikasaurus may represent a transition during this shift in diet. [16] Most theropod dinosaurs have recurved, blade-like teeth with serrated carinae for slicing through flesh, whereas spinosaurid teeth evolved to be straighter, more conical, and have small or nonexistent serrations. Such dentition is seen in living piscivorous predators such as gharials, as it is better suited for piercing and maintaining grip on slippery aquatic prey so it can be swallowed whole, rather than torn apart. [14] [20] [22]

Palaeoenvironment and palaeobiogeography

Depiction of two Dicraeosaurus traversing tidal flats in the Tendaguru Formation Dicraeosaurus BW.jpg
Depiction of two Dicraeosaurus traversing tidal flats in the Tendaguru Formation

The Upper Dinosaur Member of the Tendaguru Formation is composed mostly of siltstones, calcareous sandstones, and claystone beds. These rocks likely date back to the Tithonian stage of the Late Jurassic Period, approximately 152.1 to 145 million years ago. [2] [23] However, the precise chronological boundary between the Early Cretaceous and Late Jurassic of the Tendaguru Formation is still unclear. [4] Ostafrikasaurus' habitat would have been subtropical to tropical, shifting between periodic rainfall and pronounced dry seasons. Three types of palaeoenvironments were present at the Tendaguru Formation, the first was a shallow water marine setting with lagoon-like conditions shielded behind shoals of ooid and siliciclastic rocks, evidently subjected to tides and storms. The second was a coastal environment of tidal flats, consisting of brackish water lakes, ponds, and fluvial channels. There was little plant life at this ecosystem for sauropod dinosaurs to feed on and most dinosaurs likely came to the area only during droughts. The third and most inland habitat would have been dominated by conifer plants in a well-vegetated area, offering a large feeding ground for sauropods. [24]

The Tendaguru Formation was home to a diverse abundance of organisms. Invertebrates like bivalves, gastropods, oysters, echinoderms, arthropods, brachiopods, corals, and many microfauna, including ostracods, foraminifera, charophytes, and palynomorphs are known from the deposits. [25] [2] Sauropod dinosaurs were prominent in the region, represented by Giraffatitan brancai , Dicraeosaurus hansemanni and D. sattleri , Australodocus bohetii , Janenschia robusta , Tornieriaafricana, Tendaguria tanzaniensis , Wamweracaudia keranjei , as well as indeterminate diplodocids, flagellicaudatans, and turiasaurians. [26] [27] [28] They would have coexisted with low-browsing ornithischians like the ornithopod Dysalotosaurus lettowvorbecki , and the stegosaurian Kentrosaurus aethiopicus. [2] [29] Theropods besides Ostafrikasaurus included the carcharodontosaurid Veterupristisaurusmilneri and the noasaurid Elaphrosaurus bambergi . Fragmentary fossils also indicate the presence of a basal ceratosaurid (Ceratosaurus? stechowi) and tetanuran, an unidentified abelisauroid, as well as a possible abelisaurid, carcharodontosaurid, and megalosauroid. [11]

Generalised locations of spinosaurid fossil discoveries from the Bajocian-Bathonian (A), Tithonian (B), Barremian-Aptian (C), and Albian-Cenomanian (D) marked on maps of those time spans. Palaeogeographic locations of spinosaurids (white) and the specimen of HB site (black), through time from Bajocian-Bathonian (A), Tithonian (B), Barremian-Aptian (C), and Albian-Cenomanian (D).jpg
Generalised locations of spinosaurid fossil discoveries from the Bajocian–Bathonian (A), Tithonian (B), Barremian−Aptian (C), and Albian−Cenomanian (D) marked on maps of those time spans.

Other vertebrates that shared this environment included pterosaurs such as Tendaguripterusrecki, and an indeterminate dsungaripteroid, azhdarchid, and possible archaeopterodactyloid. There was also the dwarf crocodyliform Bernissartia sp., [30] [31] lissamphibian amphibians, paramacellodid lizards, and various small mammals, [2] including Brancatherulumtendagurense, [32] Allostaffia aenigmatica, Tendagurodon janenschi , Tendagurutherium dietrichi , and multiple unidentified symmetrodonts. [2] The aquatic fauna of the region has been revealed by fossils of the actinopterygiian Lepidotes tendaguriensis and L. sp., the ray Engaibatis schultzei , and hybodont sharks like Hybodus sp., Lonchidion sp., and Sphenodus sp. [25] [33] The flora of the Tendaguru Formation was equally varied, with vegetation consisting of araucarians, cypresses, cycads, yews, Cheirolepidiaceae, Ginkgoaceae, and Prasinophyta. There were also dinoflagellate and Zygnemataceae algae, as well as numerous pollen and spore taxa. [33] [34] [35]

In 2007, Fowler noted that a baryonychine identification for the L.? stechowi teeth would suit biogeographical models proposed at the time for spinosaur evolution and distribution, which assumed an origin for the group in the southern supercontinent Gondwana, with later spread and diversification in Europe. [7] In 2012, Buffetaut noted that the presence of such a basal genus as Ostafrikasaurus in Africa does not necessarily indicate that spinosaurids originated there. Instead, the group may have been widespread early in its evolutionary history, with other taxa inhabiting North America, Europe, and the rest of Gondwana contemporaneously with Ostafrikasaurus. Buffetaut deemed this especially likely due to the discovery of spinosaurid fossils in Asia, which was likely separated from the other continents during much of the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous as Pangaea continued breaking apart, thus how the group arrived in Asia is still uncertain. [4] An early global distribution for the group was also deemed probable by authors such as Stephen Brusatte and colleagues in 2010, [36] and Ronan Allain and colleagues in 2012, the latter having suggested that such a spread may have occurred earlier across Pangaea, prior to its breakup starting in the Late Jurassic. [37] The palaeobiogeography of spinosaurids remains poorly understood, and was likely very complex, given discoveries in Asia and possibly Australia, as well as the resemblance between some European and Asian taxa. [18] [38] [39]

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Ceratosaurus was a carnivorous theropod dinosaur that lived in the Late Jurassic period. The genus was first described in 1884 by American paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh based on a nearly complete skeleton discovered in Garden Park, Colorado, in rocks belonging to the Morrison Formation. The type species is Ceratosaurus nasicornis.

<i>Torvosaurus</i> Megalosaurid theropod dinosaur genus from Late Jurassic Period

Torvosaurus is a genus of large megalosaurine theropod dinosaur that lived approximately 165 to 148 million years ago during the Callovian to Tithonian ages of the late Middle and Late Jurassic period in what is now Colorado, Portugal, Germany, and possibly England, Spain, Tanzania, and Uruguay. It contains two currently recognized species, Torvosaurus tanneri and Torvosaurus gurneyi, plus a third unnamed species from Germany.

<i>Suchomimus</i> Extinct genus of dinosaurs

Suchomimus is a genus of spinosaurid dinosaur that lived between 125 and 112 million years ago in what is now Niger, West Africa, during the Aptian to early Albian stages of the Early Cretaceous period. It was named and described by paleontologist Paul Sereno and colleagues in 1998, based on a partial skeleton from the Elrhaz Formation. Suchomimus's long and shallow skull, similar to that of a crocodile, earns it its generic name, while the specific name Suchomimus tenerensis alludes to the locality of its first remains, the Ténéré Desert.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spinosauridae</span> Family of dinosaurs

The Spinosauridae are a clade or family of tetanuran theropod dinosaurs comprising ten to seventeen known genera. Spinosaurid fossils have been recovered worldwide, including Africa, Europe, South America and Asia. Their remains have generally been attributed to the Early to Mid Cretaceous.

<i>Elaphrosaurus</i> Ceratosaurian theropod dinosaur genus from the Late Jurassic Period

Elaphrosaurus is a genus of ceratosaurian theropod dinosaur that lived approximately 154 to 150 million years ago during the Late Jurassic Period in what is now Tanzania in Africa. Elaphrosaurus was a medium-sized but lightly built member of the group that could grow up to 6.2 m (20 ft) long. Morphologically, this dinosaur is significant in two ways. Firstly, it has a relatively long body but is very shallow-chested for a theropod of its size. Secondly, it has very short hindlimbs in comparison with its body. Phylogenetic analyses indicate that this genus is likely a ceratosaur. Earlier suggestions that it is a late surviving coelophysoid have been examined but generally dismissed. Elaphrosaurus is currently believed to be a very close relative of Limusaurus, an unusual beaked ceratosaurian which may have been either herbivorous or omnivorous.

<i>Siamosaurus</i> Potentially dubious genus of spinosaurid theropod dinosaur

Siamosaurus is a genus of spinosaurid dinosaur that lived in what is now known as China and Thailand during the Early Cretaceous period and is the first reported spinosaurid from Asia. It is confidently known only from tooth fossils; the first were found in the Sao Khua Formation, with more teeth later recovered from the younger Khok Kruat Formation. The only species Siamosaurus suteethorni, whose name honours Thai palaeontologist Varavudh Suteethorn, was formally described in 1986. In 2009, four teeth from China previously attributed to a pliosaur—under the species "Sinopliosaurus" fusuiensis—were identified as those of a spinosaurid, possibly Siamosaurus. It is yet to be determined if two partial spinosaurid skeletons from Thailand and an isolated tooth from Japan also belong to Siamosaurus.

<i>Cristatusaurus</i> Extinct genus of dinosaurs

Cristatusaurus is a genus of theropod dinosaur that lived during the Early Cretaceous Period of what is now Niger, 112 million years ago. It was a baryonychine member of the Spinosauridae, a group of large bipedal carnivores with well-built forelimbs and elongated, crocodile-like skulls. The type species Cristatusaurus lapparenti was named in 1998 by scientists Philippe Taquet and Dale Russell, on the basis of jaw bones and some vertebrae. Two claw fossils were also later assigned to Cristatusaurus. The animal's generic name, which means "crested reptile", alludes to a sagittal crest on top of its snout; while the specific name is in honor of the French paleontologist Albert-Félix de Lapparent. Cristatusaurus is known from the Albian to Aptian Elrhaz Formation, where it would have coexisted with sauropod and iguanodontian dinosaurs, other theropods, and various crocodylomorphs.

<i>Dromaeosauroides</i> Genus of dromaeosaurid theropod dinosaur from the Early Cretaceous

Dromaeosauroides is a genus of dromaeosaurid theropod dinosaur from the Early Cretaceous of what is now Denmark and possibly also England. It was discovered in the Jydegaard Formation in the Robbedale valley, on the island of Bornholm in the Baltic Sea. This is the only likely place for dinosaur remains to be discovered on Danish territory, since the Mesozoic deposits exposed in the rest of the country are marine. Dromaeosauroides is the first known dinosaur from Denmark, and the only one which has been scientifically named. It is one of the oldest known dromaeosaurs in the world, and the first known uncontested dromaeosaur from the Early Cretaceous of Europe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ceratosauridae</span> Extinct family of dinosaurs

Ceratosauridae is an extinct family of theropod dinosaurs belonging to the infraorder Ceratosauria. The family's type genus, Ceratosaurus, was first found in Jurassic rocks from North America. Ceratosauridae is made up of the genera Ceratosaurus, found in North America, Tanzania, and Portugal, and Genyodectes, from the Early Cretaceous of Argentina. Unnamed probable ceratosaurids are known from limited material in the Middle Jurassic of Madagascar, the Late Jurassic of Switzerland, the Late Jurassic of Tanzania, and the Late Jurassic or possibly Early Cretaceous of Uruguay.

<i>Suchosaurus</i> Extinct genus of dinosaurs

Suchosaurus is a spinosaurid dinosaur from Cretaceous England and Portugal, originally believed to be a genus of crocodile. The type material, consisting of teeth, was used by British palaeontologist Richard Owen to name the species S. cultridens in 1841. Later in 1897, French palaeontologist Henri-Émile Sauvage named a second species, S. girardi, based on two fragments from the mandible and one tooth discovered in Portugal. Suchosaurus is possibly a senior synonym of the contemporary spinosaurid Baryonyx, but is usually considered a dubious name due to the paucity of its remains, and is considered an indeterminate baryonychine. In the Wadhurst Clay Formation of what is now southern England, Suchosaurus lived alongside other dinosaurs, as well as plesiosaurs, mammals, and crocodyliforms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tendaguru Formation</span> Geological formation and paleontological site in Tanzania

The Tendaguru Formation, or Tendaguru Beds are a highly fossiliferous formation and Lagerstätte located in the Lindi Region of southeastern Tanzania. The formation represents the oldest sedimentary unit of the Mandawa Basin, overlying Neoproterozoic basement, separating by a long hiatus and unconformity. The formation reaches a total sedimentary thickness of more than 110 metres (360 ft). The formation ranges in age from the late Middle Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous, Oxfordian to Hauterivian stages, with the base of the formation possibly extending into the Callovian.

<i>Oxalaia</i> Extinct genus of dinosaurs

Oxalaia is a genus of spinosaurid dinosaur that lived in what is now the Northeast Region of Brazil during the Cenomanian stage of the Late Cretaceous period, sometime between 100.5 and 93.9 million years ago. Its only known fossils were found in 1999 on Cajual Island in the rocks of the Alcântara Formation, which is known for its abundance of fragmentary, isolated fossil specimens. The remains of Oxalaia were described in 2011 by Brazilian palaeontologist Alexander Kellner and colleagues, who assigned the specimens to a new genus containing one species, Oxalaia quilombensis. The species name refers to the Brazilian quilombo settlements. Oxalaia quilombensis is the eighth officially named theropod species from Brazil and the largest carnivorous dinosaur discovered there. It is closely related to the African genus Spinosaurus, and/or may be a junior synonym of this taxon.

<i>Veterupristisaurus</i> Genus of carcharodontosaurid theropod dinosaur from the Late Jurassic period

Veterupristisaurus is an extinct genus of carcharodontosaurid theropod dinosaur known from the Jurassic of Tendaguru, Lindi Region of southeastern Tanzania.

<i>Ichthyovenator</i> Genus of dinosaur

Ichthyovenator is a genus of spinosaurid dinosaur that lived in what is now Laos, sometime between 125 and 113 million years ago, during the Aptian stage of the Early Cretaceous period. It is known from fossils collected from the Grès supérieurs Formation of the Savannakhet Basin, the first of which were found in 2010, consisting of a partial skeleton without the skull or limbs. This specimen became the holotype of the new genus and species Ichthyovenator laosensis, and was described by palaeontologist Ronan Allain and colleagues in 2012. The generic name, meaning "fish hunter", refers to its assumed piscivorous lifestyle, while the specific name alludes to the country of Laos. In 2014, it was announced that more remains from the dig site had been recovered; these fossils included teeth, more vertebrae (backbones) and a pubic bone from the same individual.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Baryonychinae</span> Subfamily of dinosaurs (fossil)

Baryonychinae is an extinct clade or subfamily of spinosaurids from the Early Cretaceous (Valanginian-Albian) of Britain, Portugal, and Niger. In 2023, it consisted of seven genera: Ceratosuchops, Cristatusaurus, Protathlitis, Riparovenator, Suchomimus, Suchosaurus, and Baryonyx, the nominal genus. The clade was named by Charig & Milner in 1986 and defined by Sereno et al. in 1998 and Holtz et al. in 2004 as all taxa more closely related to Baryonyx walkeri than to Spinosaurus aegyptiacus.

References

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