Rail transport in China began in the late nineteenth century during the Qing dynasty. Since then, the Chinese rail network has become one of the largest in the world.[1]
The first railways in China were built during the Qing dynasty in the late 19th century, after extensive railway networks were already in place in Europe, North America, India and Japan.[2] The late arrival of railways in China was due both to the lack of industrialization and skeptical attitude of the Qing government.[2] Although diverse and prominent personages such as Lin Zexu and Taiping rebelHong Rengan called for the building of railways in China in the mid-19th century, the conservative Qing court considered steam engines to be "clever but useless" contraptions, and resisted the railways, which would "deprive us of defensive barriers, harm our fields and interfere with our feng shui.[2] In the 1860s, Chinese laborers helped build the Central Pacific Railroad in the United States.
Early efforts
The opening of the short-lived Woosung Road, the first railway in China, between Shanghai and Wusong in 1876.
In 1865, a British merchant built a 600-meter long narrow gauge railroad outside the Xuanwu Gate in Beijing to demonstrate the technology to the imperial court.[3][4][5] The court found it "exceedingly special and strange in the utmost" and promptly had the railway dismantled.[5]
The first railroad to operate commercially in China opened in Shanghai in July 1876. The railway, known as the Woosung Road, ran from the American Concession in the present-day Zhabei District to Woosung in the present-day Baoshan District and was built by the British trading firm, Jardine, Matheson and Co.[6] Construction took place without approval from the Qing government, which had paid 285,000 taels of silver for the railroad[2] and had it dismantled in October 1877.[7][8] The rails and rolling stock were later shipped to Taiwan. In late 1884, Jardine, Matheson arranged a loan of 500 million taels of silver to the Chinese government in late 1884 "for the purpose of building railways".[9]
The first railway to endure was the Kaiping Tramway and Imperial Railways of North China constructed by British engineer Claude William Kinder. Initially, a 10 kilometre (6.2mi) line from Tangshan to Xugezhuang built in 1881 to transport coal from the coal mine in Tangshan, this line was extended to Tianjin in 1888 and Shanhaiguan and Suizhong in 1894. This railway became known as the "Guanneiwai Railway" (literally, inner and outer Shanhaiguan railway). The railway was backed by the powerful Viceroy of Zhili, Li Hongzhang, who overcame objections from conservative ministers. To secure the support of the Empress Dowager Cixi for railway construction, Li Hongzhang imported a small train set from Germany and built a 2 kilometres (1.2mi)narrow gauge railway from her residence in Zhongnanhai to her dining hall in Beihai in 1888.[10] The Empress, concerned that the locomotive's noise would disturb the geomancy or fengshui of the imperial city, required the train be pulled by eunuchs instead of steam engine.[10]
The next effort was made by Taiwan Governor Liu Mingchuan. From 1887 to 1893, 107 kilometres (66mi) of railway tracks were laid from Keelung to Taipei to Hsinchu. However, this railway was later demolished for modernization when Taiwan was under Japanese rule.
Qing China's defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War greatly stimulated the railway development as the government both recognized the importance of modernization and was compelled by foreign powers to grant concessions to build railways along with settlement and mineral rights. The imperial powers then took to building railways in their spheres of influence. The railroads already built in 1900 had a total length of only 292 miles (470km). Another 4,000 miles (6,400km) were in the planning stage.[11]
The British built the Shanghai–Nanjing Railway (1905–1908) and Kowloon–Canton Railway (completed 1911). The French built the Sino-Vietnamese Railway (1904–10), an 855km (531mi)1,000mm (3ft3+3⁄8in) line to connect Kunming with Vietnam, then a colony of French Indochina. The Germans built the Jiaoji Railway in Shandong Province. British and German industrialists jointly built the Tianjin–Pukou Railway. The Americans built the Canton–Sam Shui Railway in Guangdong in 1902–04. Czarist Russia built the China Eastern Railway (1897–1901) as a shortcut for the Trans-Siberian Railway and the Southern Manchuria Railway to Port Arthur. To prevent domination by bigger powers, the Qing Court gave the rights to the Beijing–Hankou railway to Belgians. The Japanese initially received numerous concessions along the coast of Fujian and Guangdong, and built the Chao Chow and Swatow Railway (1904–06). After winning the Russo-Japanese War in 1904, the Japanese took over the southern section of the China Eastern Railway (from Changchun to Port Arthur) and the entire Southern Manchuria Railway.
By 1911, there were around 9,000km (5,600mi) of rails in China. Most of the rails used the 1,435mm (4ft8+1⁄2in) standard gauge.
Map showing early railway expansion in China.Hankou Dazhimen Station, the original southern terminal of the Jinghan Railway
The imperial capital, Beijing, was designed as the center of the Chinese railway network. Several lines radiated out from Beijing. Three main lines are Beijing–Hankou Railway, Beijing–Fengtian Railway, and Tianjin–Pukou Railway. Jinghan railway was from eh Beijing to Hankou. The construction started in 1897 and was completed in 1906. The Guangneiwai railway was extended west to Beijing and east to Fengtian by 1912 and renamed as Beijing–Fengtian Railway. The Tianjin–Pukou Railway, built from 1908 to 1912. It ran from Tianjin, which was connected by the Beijing–Fengtian Railway, to Pukou across the Yangtze River from Nanjing.
Railway protection movement and the Xinhai Revolution
The rapid expansion of foreign railroad ownership and operation in China aroused strong public resentment and led to calls for domestic development of railways.[5] To help local economies develop and retain earnings from railways, the Qing government in 1904 permitted local provinces to organize their own railway companies and raise funds by selling shares to the public. From 1904 to 1907, 15 provincial governments formed their own railway building companies and raised funds by selling shares to citizens and levying taxes.[5] The Beijing–Zhangjiakou Railway built from 1905 to 1909, was the first railway to be designed and built indigenously. The chief engineer was Zhan Tianyou, who is known as the Father of China's Railways. The Shanghai–Hangzhou Railway, 189km (117mi) in length and completed in 1909, was financed by the provincial governments of Jiangsu and Zhejiang.[12] The Zhengding–Taiyuan Railway, originally planned to run from Zhengding County in Hebei Province, was routed from Shijiazhuang instead and opened in 1907.
In 1911, when some of the provincial railway ventures fell into bankruptcy, the foreign powers pressed the Qing government to permit them to take over the ventures.[5] In May 1911, the Qing government sought to nationalize these locally controlled railway companies and pledge their railway concessions to foreign banks in exchange for loans. The nationalization order provoked fierce public opposition that led to the Railway Protection Movement, which contributed to the outbreak of the Xinhai Revolution. Troops sent to Sichuan from neighboring Hubei weakened defenses in Wuhan where revolutionaries launched the Wuchang Uprising. The ensuing Xinhai Revolution toppled the Qing dynasty.
After founding the Republic of China on January 1, 1912, Dr. Sun Yat-sen agreed to cede the provisional presidency to Yuan Shikai in exchange for the latter's assistance in securing the abdication of Qing court. Sun believed that a national railway network was key to the modernization of China. He sought and received from Yuan Shikai, the portfolio of railway development for the new republic.
The Longhai Railway bombed during the Second Sino-Japanese War
During the Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937–1945, the Republican government dismantled a number of railways to slow the Japanese advance and added 1,900km (1,200mi) of railways, mostly in the interior of China after coastal regions were occupied.[2] Among the completed lines were the Longhai Railway (Lingbao–Tongguan and Xi'an–Baoji sections), Zhejiang–Jiangxi Railway (Hangzhou–Pingxiang section) and the Guangdong–Hankou Railway (Zhuzhou–Shaoguan section).[2] The Shanxi warlord Yan Xishan built the narrow gauge Datong–Puzhou Railway across Shanxi Province. The Japanese occupiers, using forced labor, built 5,700km (3,500mi) of railway in Manchuria and Rehe Province and 900km (559mi) of railway in China Proper.[2]
In 1941, construction began of the Yunnan Burma Railway, an attempt to link British occupied Burma with Kunming in Yunnan province. Ultimately, however, the project was aborted.
1945–1949
In 1945, just after the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese mainland had 27,000km (16,777mi) of rail, and it was estimated about 23,000km (14,292mi) was usable. By 1948, the number of usable kilometers of rail was estimated at only 8,000km (4,971mi) due to the Chinese Civil War. The Communists actively sabotaged rail lines to disrupt the ruling Nationalists (Kuomintang), and the Nationalists scavenged lesser used railways in order to repair the most important ones.[14]
In 1951, after extensive investment in reconstruction, the Communists, who established the People's Republic of China (PRC) in October 1949, had restored the usable network to about 22,000km (13,670mi). Most of the early reconstruction (about 11,000km (6,835mi)) was in Manchuria because Soviet and Japanese occupation there reduced the amount of sabotage between the fighting parties, allowing for quick repairs.[14]
On October 14, 1949, the cross-border service on the Kowloon–Canton Railway was suspended as a result of the communist revolution, and it was not resumed until April 4, 1979.
In fact, when the PRC was established in 1949, China had constructed 27,380km (17,013mi) of railway, but only 24,090km (14,969mi) was kept, including 10,309km (6,406mi) in the northeastern part of China, and 919km (571mi) in Taiwan.[15]
Railway construction in the 1950s
The end to decades of warfare in China allowed railway construction to proceed on a large scale. In the 1950s, the government initiated numerous railway building projects to fill in missing links in the country's rail network. The new government undertook a vigorous railway building campaign. From 1952, when the first railway of the People's Republic, the Chengdu–Chongqing Railway entered operation, to the end of the First Five Year Plan in 1957, 6,100 kilometres (3,790 miles) of railroads were built, accounting for 18% of the national total.[2] The lines completed during this period include the final sections of the Longhai and Xianggui Railways, the Litang–Zhanjiang, Yingtan–Xiamen, Lancun–Yantai and Xiaoshan–Ningbo Railways.[2] These lines, along with the Baoji–Chengdu Railway (completed in 1958) and the 1,900km (1,181mi)Lanzhou–Xinjiang Railway to Urumqi (completed in 1962), extended the national rail network to the Northwest and Southwest, and added connections between the coast and interior.[2] In 1957, passenger trains averaged 34.8km/h and freight trains averaged 25.2km/h.[2]
The Great Leap Forward
Map of China's railway network in 1961
The launch of the Great Leap Forward in 1958 was intended to rapidly expand railway transport, but produced counterproductive results.[2] The shipment of freight, which was not quite 300 million tons in 1957, was targeted to reach 900 million tons by 1959 and 3 billion tons by 1972.[2] The length of newly planned railways rose from 20,000 to 70,000km (12,427 to 43,496mi), and 120,000km (74,565mi) over the next 15 years.[2] To reach these targets, the railroads were pushed beyond their capacity.[2]
Without experimentation, freight trains on all major lines increased carrying load from 2,700 tons to 3,600 tons without adding power to locomotives.[2] This caused trains to backslide on slopes, damage to rolling stock and steam engines to dry boil.[2] On time rates fell precipitously.[2] The railways did set new records, 1.4 billion passenger rides and 1.5 billion tons of freight delivered in the three years between 1958 and 1960, some 200 million passengers and 0.5 billion tons more than the five years from 1953 to 1958, but the freight load fell to 345 million tons in 1962.[2] The economic dislocation caused by the Great Leap Forward slowed down railway construction. Numerous lines such as the Dazhou-Chengdu Railway were delayed for decades as a result.
Rail operations were revamped in 1961 and performance improved.[2] In 1965, freight carried reached 480 million tons and the system set a new record for net income.[2] The Sino-Soviet split prompted the leadership to shift railway building toward the "Third Line", in the mountainous regions of the interior, away from the east coast and Soviet border.
Cultural Revolution
The launch of the Cultural Revolution in 1966 brought political turmoil to the country and disruptions to railway operations.[2] In the fall of 1966, by Chairman Mao's edict, the Red Guards from around the country could travel on trains for free. To prevent political factional fighting to spread into the railways, the national railways were assigned to the command of the military in the summer of 1967.[2] Railway management and operations, nevertheless, slipped rapidly.[2] Accident rates rose 25% from 1966 to 1967, and another 20% from 1967 to 1968.[2] Premier Zhou Enlai and other moderate leaders pushed back against leftist-radical management of the railway and operations began to improve in 1969.[2] In 1973, the system shipped 800 million tons, a new record.[2] In 1974, however, the Gang of Four with the Criticize Lin, Criticize Confucius Campaign, reasserted the leftist line and railway performance plummted again.[2] From the summer of 1974 to early 1975, railway hubs in Xuzhou, Changsha, Guiyang, and Baotou experienced freight bottlenecks. In April 1975, Deng Xiaoping took control of the leadership and directed the railways to focus on productivity and safety.[2] In April 1975, the railways' coal carrying targets were met for the first time in nearly five years.[2] In early 1976, after Deng Xiaoping was removed from power and the Gang of Four reasserted control, railway performance declined again.[2] Compared to 1975, freight fell by 46.3 million tons year-on-year, accidents rose by 17% and tax revenues paid to the state fell by 740 million.[2]
Despite the turmoil of the Cultural Revolution and slowdown in rail construction at home, the Chinese Railway Ministry and the Rail Corps managed to build a 1,860km (1,156mi) railway across Tanzania and Zambia. The TAZARA Railway was by far the largest foreign aid project undertaken by China in Africa. As many as 56,000 Chinese engineers and workers were sent overseas from 1968 to 1975.
After the Cultural Revolution ended and the economic reforms were launched in 1978, the railways were reorganized and rededicated to improving safety, performance, technology and profitability.[2] These principles have guided the railway's operations in the decades since.[2]
In 1998, passenger trains averaged 54.5km/h and freight trains averaged 31.8km/h.[2]
Slowdown in the 1980s
After China initiated market-oriented economic reforms in 1978, railway building slowed as state funds were directed toward higher return investments. It was not until the 1990s, after more than a decade of economic growth, that the state committed the funds to renew large-scale railway building.
The railway to Tibet however, was more difficult to build due to the high altitude and terrain. Rail lines were first extended to Xining in Qinghai, and by 1984 another section between Xining and Golmud was completed. It was not until 2006 that the whole of the Qingzang railway was finished, linking Lhasa with rest of China. Since then, every province-level entity in the People's Republic of China has a railway network.
End of the steam age
A steam locomotive and a diesel locomotive near the BadalingGreat Wall in Beijing in 1979.
Before the 1980s, due to the low labor cost, ease of manufacture, and cheap coal price, steam locomotives dominated the Chinese railways. During the 1980s and 90s, diesel and electric locomotives gradually replaced steam engines on the main lines. On some provincial rails, however, steam locomotives were not retired until the 21st century. In December 2005, the world's last regular revenue mainline steam train finished its journey [citation needed] on the Jitong railway, marking the end of the steam era. Nevertheless, there are still some steam locomotives used on the industrial railways in China.
In 1978, during Deng Xiaoping's visit to Japan, he experienced the Shinkansen, the world's first high-speed rail. This sparked an interest in high-speed rail systems in mainland China.[16] As part of an infrastructure upgrade, China opened its first high-speed rail lines in 2007, utilizing trains sourced from Canada, France, Germany, and Japan. As of 2021, China possesses the world's largest high-speed rail network, with a total operating length of 40,000 kilometers.[16]
a. ^ There is a significant discrepancy in the total length of China's railways reported by China Statistical Yearbook (120,970km (75,170mi) at year end 2015)[17] and the CIA Factbook (191,270km (118,850mi) in 2014).[18] The CIA Factbook figure is based on "the total length of the railway network and of its component parts."[18] The Statistical Yearbook figure includes "the total length of the trunk line for passenger and freight transportation in full operation or temporary operation" and measures the actual route distance between the midpoints of railway stations.[19][20] Any double-tracked route or route with a return track of shorter distance is counted using the length of the original route.[19][20] The length of any return tracks, other tracks within stations, maintenance and service tracks (such as those used to turn trains around), tracks of fork lines, special purpose lines and non-revenue connecting lines are excluded.[19][20] The Statistical Yearbook provides cross-year and cross-regional breakdowns of railway length and its figures are presented in China railway articles.[19][20]
Transport in China has experienced major growth and expansion in recent years. Although China's transport system comprises a vast network of transport nodes across its huge territory, the nodes tend to concentrate in the more economically developed coastal areas and inland cities along major rivers. The physical state and comprehensiveness of China's transport infrastructure tend to vary widely by geography. While remote, rural areas still largely depend on non-mechanized means of transport, urban areas boast a wide variety of modern options, including a maglev system connecting the city center of Shanghai with Shanghai Pudong International Airport. Airports, roads, and railway construction will provide a massive employment boost in China over the next decade.
The South Manchuria Railway, officially The South Manchuria Railway Company, Ltd., Mantetsu or Mantie for short, was a large National Policy Company of the Empire of Japan whose primary function was the operation of railways on the Dalian–Fengtian (Mukden)–Changchun corridor in northeastern China, as well as on several branch lines.
Zhang Zuolin was a warlord who ruled Manchuria from 1916 to 1928. He led the Fengtian clique, one of the most important factions during China's Warlord Era. During the last year of his life, he briefly installed himself as President of the Republic of China.
The Beijing–Harbin railway, or the Jingha Railway, is the railway that connects Beijing with Harbin, the capital of Heilongjiang Province. It spans 1,249 km (776 mi). It is a very prominent route in the provinces of northeastern China.
Guangshen railway or Guangzhou–Shenzhen railway, also known as the Chinese section of the Kowloon–Canton railway (廣九鐵路華段) in 1911–1949, is a railway in Guangdong province in the People's Republic of China, between Guangzhou and Shenzhen. It is operated by Guangshen Railway Co., Ltd., a publicly traded company.
The Beijing–Shanghai railway or Jinghu railway is a railway line between Beijing and Shanghai.
The Tianjin–Pukou or Jinpu railway runs from Tianjin to Pukou district outside Nanjing in Jiangsu province. Pukou was the nearest station to Nanjing on the left bank of the Yangtze River from central Nanjing, which lies on the right bank. For most of the 20th century, rail carriages were ferried across the river to continue their journey into Nanjing and then on to Shanghai. Since 1968, when a bridge was built across the river, the Jinpu railway has formed part of the Beijing–Shanghai railway, connecting China's two largest cities.
The high-speed rail (HSR) network in the People's Republic of China (PRC) is the world's longest and most extensively used – with a total length of 42,000 kilometres (26,000 mi) by the end of 2022. The HSR network encompasses newly built rail lines with a design speed of 200–350 km/h (120–220 mph). China's HSR accounts for two-thirds of the world's total high-speed railway networks. Almost all HSR trains, track and service are owned and operated by the China Railway Corporation under the brand China Railway High-speed (CRH).
The gauge for the most of the China national railway network is standard gauge. Currently, in the national railway network, only the 1,000 mmmetre gauge Kunming–Haiphong railway uses narrow gauge. In addition, there are some industrial lines still using narrow gauge, mostly 2 ft 6 in narrow gauge or 600 mm narrow gauge. As of 2003, 600+ km narrow-gauge railways, 50000+ km standard gauge railways, and 9.4 km broad gauge railways were in use in mainland China.
The Woosung railway was a 19th-century, 2 ft 6 in narrow-gauge passenger railway in Shanghai, China, between the outskirts of the American Concession in the modern city's Zhabei District and Wusong in Baoshan District. Surreptitiously conceived and constructed, it ran for less than a year before it was purchased and dismantled by the Qing viceroy Shen Pao-chen. The line would not be rebuilt for twenty years. This fate was a commonly invoked symbol of the Qing dynasty's backwardness and insularity, despite the road's admitted illegality and numerous legitimate objections voiced by the Chinese during its construction and operation.
Double-stack rail transport is a form of intermodal freight transport in which railroad cars carry two layers of intermodal containers. Invented in the United States in 1984, it is now being used for nearly seventy percent of United States intermodal shipments. Using double stack technology, a freight train of a given length can carry roughly twice as many containers, sharply reducing transport costs per container. On United States railroads special well cars are used for double-stack shipment to reduce the needed vertical clearance and to lower the center of gravity of a loaded car. In addition, the well car design reduces damage in transit and provides greater cargo security by cradling the lower containers so their doors cannot be opened. A succession of larger container sizes have been introduced to further increase shipping productivity in the United States.
The Fuzhou–Xiamen railway or Fuxia railway is a dual-track, electrified, higher-speed rail line in eastern China. The line is named after its two terminal cities Fuzhou and Xiamen, both coastal cities in Fujian. The line has a total length of 274.9 kilometres (170.8 mi) and forms part of China's Hangzhou–Fuzhou–Shenzhen passenger-dedicated railway. Construction began in 2005, and the line entered into operation on April 26, 2010.
The Nanjing–Xi'an railway or Ningxi railway, is a major trunkline railroad in China connecting Nanjing, the capital of Jiangsu Province and Xi'an, the capital of Shaanxi Province. The Chinese name for the line, Ningxi, is named after the two terminal cities, Ning, the Chinese character shorthand for the city of Nanjing, and Xi for Xian. The line is 1,196 km (743 mi) in length and comprises the Xi’an-Hefei section in the west, 1,196 km (743 mi) in length, that opened on January 7, 2004. And the high-speed Hefei–Nanjing section in the east, better known as the Hefei–Nanjing passenger railway, 166 km (103 mi) in length opened on April 18, 2008. In addition, a connection line 72 km (45 mi) in length was built in 2004 connected the main line in Sui County and the Hankou–Danjiangkou railway in northern Hubei. The Ningxi railway passes through five provinces in central and eastern China. Major cities along route include Nanjing and Pukou in Jiangsu Province; Feidong, Hefei and Lu'an in Anhui Province; Huangchuan, Xinyang, Nanyang and Xixia County in Henan Province and Shangluo, Weinan and Xian in Shaanxi Province. The main line skirts Hubei Province near Sui County.
Rail transport is an important mode of long-distance transportation in China. As of 2021, the country had more than 155,000 km (96,313 mi) of railways, the second longest network in the world. By the end of 2022, China had more than 42,000 kilometres of high-speed rail (HSR), the longest HSR network in the world.
The Shenyang–Dandong railway or Shendan Railway is a China Railway line connecting the Liaoning cities of Shenyang and Dandong, with an onward connection to Sinŭiju Ch'ŏngnyŏn Station in Sinŭiju, North Korea, on the P'yŏngŭi Line of the Korean State Railway. The line is 277 km (172 mi) in length and is subordinate to the Shenyang Railway Bureau. It is the most important of the railway lines connecting China with the DPRK.
The Manchukuo National Railway was the state-owned national railway company of Manchukuo. Generally called the "國線", it was controlled by the Manchukuo Ministry of Transportation and had its lines primarily in the central and northern parts of the country. In local newspapers it was simply referred to as "國鉄". It was built, operated and managed by the South Manchuria Railway, a state-owned national railway company of the Empire of Japan, of which the Kwantung Army frequently intervened in its affairs.
The China Railways SL3 class steam locomotive was a class of 4-6-2 passenger steam locomotives operated by the China Railway. They were originally built for the South Manchuria Railway, the Manchukuo National Railway and the North China Transportation Company by several Japanese manufacturers between 1934 and 1940. They were designed in 1933 based on the design of the first Pashisa class locomotives ; the first order was placed by Mantetsu in March of that year.
The China Railways MT1 class steam locomotive was a class of 4-8-2 steam locomotives for goods trains operated by the China Railway. They were originally built for the South Manchuria Railway (Mantetsu) in Japan in 1936. The "Mate" name came from the American naming system for steam locomotives, under which locomotives with 4-8-2 wheel arrangement were called "Mountain".
The Renkyō Line was the primary trunk line of the South Manchuria Railway from 1907 to 1945. The 701.4 km (435.8 mi) line ran between Dalian (Dairen) and Changchun (Xinjing).
Peking–Mukden Railway was a 19th-century steam powered trunkline connecting Peking (Beijing) and Mukden through Tianjin, northeastern Hebei, and southwestern Liaoning; it was a crucial railway in North China and Northeast China.
1 2 cycles, This text provides general information Statista assumes no liability for the information given being complete or correct Due to varying update; Text, Statistics Can Display More up-to-Date Data Than Referenced in the. "Topic: High-speed rail in China". Statista. Retrieved 2023-05-10.
Croizier, Ralph C. "Antecedents of the Burma Road: British Plans for a Burma-China Railway in the Nineteenth Century." Journal of Southeast Asian History 3.2 (1962): 1–18.
Hsu, Mongton Chih. Railway problems in China (Columbia University Press, 1915) online.
Jui-Te, Chang. "Technology transfer in modern China: the case of railway enterprise (1876–1937)." Modern Asian Studies 27.2 (1993): 281–296.
Kent, Percy Horace Braund. Railway enterprise in China: an account of its origin and development (E. Arnold, 1907) online.
Lim, Tai Wei. "A Survey of Modern and Contemporary China’s Coal Railway Development." in Energy Transitions in Japan and China (Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore, 2017) pp.49–76.
Matsusaka, Y. Tak. "Japan’s South Manchuria Railway Company in Northeast China, 1906–34." in Manchurian railways and the opening of China: An international history (Routledge, 2015) pp.57–78.
Pong, David. "Confucian patriotism and the destruction of the Woosung railway, 1877." Modern Asian Studies 7.3 (1973): 647–676.
Sun, E-tu Zen. "The Pattern of Railway Development in China." Journal of Asian Studies 14.2 (1955): 179–199.
Tang, Man, and Honglin Sun. "China’s High-Speed Railway Development History." pn High-Speed Rail: An Analysis of the Chinese Innovation System (2020). 385–424.
How the Railroad is Modernising Asia, The Advertiser, Adelaide, S. Australia, 22 March 1913. N.B.: A historical article is of approx. 1,500 words, covering approx. a dozen Asian countries.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
