The Short Empire was a medium-range four-engined monoplaneflying boat, designed and developed by Short Brothers during the 1930s to meet the requirements of the growing commercial airline sector, with a particular emphasis upon its usefulness upon the core routes that served the United Kingdom. It was developed and manufactured in parallel with the Short Sunderland maritime patrol bomber, which went on to serve in the Second World War; a further derivative that was later developed was the piggy-backShort Mayo Composite.
The development of the Short Empire had been heavily influenced by its primary customer, Imperial Airways, which had originally developed the requirements to which it was initially ordered and designed. Imperial Airways, and its successor, the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC), along with Qantas and TEAL, operated the type in commercial service. Upon entering service, the Empire routinely flew between the British mainland and Australia and the various British colonies in Africa and Asia, typically carrying a combination of passenger and mail cargoes; Empires were also used on various other routes, such as between Bermuda and New York City.
During the 1930s, global demand for air travel was consistently and rapidly growing. Thus, keen to grow its share of this emerging market, British airline Imperial Airways was keen to expand and sought the latest technology to do so. In particular, Imperial Airways' technical adviser, Major Robert Hobart Mayo developed a specification for a new type of aircraft to serve both passenger and freight requirements throughout the world.[2] This specification sought an aircraft that would be capable of carrying up to 24 passengers in spacious comfort along with adequate room for airmail or freight while simultaneously being capable of a cruising speed of 170 miles per hour (270km/h) and a range of at least 700 miles (1,100km); the capacity for an extended range of 2,000 miles (3,200km) to serve the North Atlantic route was also stipulated.[2] According to aviation author Geoffrey Norris, at the time, it was considered to be impossible to construct a land-based aeroplane of such size and weight that still possessed acceptable landing/take-off performance, thus it was determined that a flying boat would be required.[2]
Early on, it was apparent that Short Brothers, which had previously developed and produced several large flying boats for Imperial Airways and the Royal Air Force (RAF) that had proven to be sound designs in terms of performance and safety, would be a frontrunner to fulfil the requirement.[2] However, Shorts was hesitant to build such an aircraft, due to the necessary advances involved, straight from the drawing board without the production of a preceding prototype, and thus requested to be allowed the time to build such an aircraft; this was rejected by Imperial Airways, stating that such a delay was not permissible.[2] In 1935, Imperial Airways announced the placement of an order for 28 flying boats of an as-of-yet undesigned type, weighing 18 tonnes each; the order was reportedly hailed as being "one of the world's boldest experiments in aviation", while sceptics referred to the decision less favourably as being a gamble.[2]
A design team led by Arthur Gouge set about designing what would become the Empire. It was quickly determined that, in order to have sufficient clearance between the tips of the propellers and the water, the wing would need to be in a high mounted position; initially to be housed in a hump above the fuselage for sufficient height, the fuselage depth was instead increased, providing more internal volume than required but enabling a lighter and stronger integration of the cantilever wing with the fuselage.[2] Shorts' own convention for wide planing bottomed hulls for its flying boats was overturned as the 18-tonne weight would generate excessive drag with such a configuration; following a series of water tank experiments, a new type of planing bottom with a reduced beam deemed suitable.[2] The basic aerodynamic design was derived from the smaller Short Scion Senior floatplane, which served in all but name as a half-scale prototype for the Empire and for its sibling, the military-orientated Short Sunderland.[3]
At the time of development, the British aircraft industry had never attempted to construct an aeroplane of this size and complexity before; accordingly, many new techniques were devised to overcome problems encountered, particularly during its construction process.[4] Shorts had to develop its own machinery to produce the necessary T-shaped Hiduminiumalloy lengths that comprised the main spar.[4] A specialised and patented flap arrangement, known as Gouge flaps after their creator, was employed on the Empire to increase wing area with only a small increase in drag and without heavy disrupting airflow over the top of the aerofoil; in operation, the lift coefficient of the wing could be increased by 30 percent, reducing the landing speed by 12 per cent, without employing any trimming to adjust.[2]
Initial production
Captain Arthur Wilcockson, who was in charge of the notable flight of the flying boat Caledonia from Ireland to Canada, signs an autograph, 8 July 1937
On 4 July 1936, the first Empire flying boat to be built, G-ADHL, named Canopus, conducted its maiden flight, flown by Shorts' chief test pilot, John Lankester Parker.[5] Early flights of the type were relatively trouble-free, Parker declaring his satisfaction with the aircraft's performance; the new styling of the planing bottom used also quickly proved its value.[5] On 17 September 1936, G-ADHL first flew on behalf of Imperial Airways, piloted by Major H G Brackley, Imperial Airways' air superintendent; the final delivery and proving flight of the aircraft to Marseilles, France took place on 22 October 1936.[6] The first series of the Short Empires, the S.23, could carry five crew, 17 passengers, and 4,480lb (2,035kg) of cargo at a maximum speed of 174 knots (320km/h) and was powered by four 920 horsepower (690kW)Bristol Pegasus Xc radial engines.[7]
The second Empire and the first of the long-range models to be produced, G-ADHM, named Caledonia, performed her first flight on 15 September 1936 and was delivered to Imperial Airways on 4 December 1936.[6] From September 1936 onwards, the Empire was produced at a rate of one aircraft per month; typically, each aircraft's delivery date occurred only a few days after having performed its maiden flight, the hand-over sometimes happened immediately following the first flight.[6] The Empire was officially known as the C-class by Imperial Airways and each aircraft operated by them was given a name beginning with a C.
On 26 February 1938, the final three Empires of the initial order placed by Imperial Airways – Coorong, Coogee and Corio – were diverted from the Imperial Airways order and were delivered instead to the Anglo-Australian Qantas Empire Airways.[8] In late 1937, due to Imperial Airways' satisfaction with its operational experience with the aircraft of the initial batch, the company placed a follow-on order for another 11 Empires; combined with the original order of 28 this had the distinction of being the largest single order to have ever been placed for a British civil aircraft at that time.[9] While the first three aircraft of the additional order were of the typical S.23 class, intended for Qantas Empire Airways, the rest were manufactured to a differing design, designated as the S.30.[10] A total of 42 Empires were built, all at Short's Rochester factory.
Further development
The S.30 series was outfitted with four Bristol Perseus XIIcsleeve valve engines in the place of the Pegasus engines; the Perseus engines were more efficient but provided a lower power output of 890 horsepower (660kW), but the decrease in developed thrust was effectively compensated for via the adoption of smaller diameter nacelles which had resulted in a substantial reduction in drag.[10] It also had a strengthened airframe and used heavier gauge sheeting on the fuselage and wings; while these changes allowed the takeoff weight to be increased to 46,000 pounds (21,000kg) with a corresponding range of 1,500 miles (2,400km), the S.30 had broadly the same performance as the preceding S.23 flying boats.[10]
The first of the S.30 flying boats to be laid out and completed was G-AFCT, named Champion.[10] In December 1938, the second S.30 aircraft G-AFCU, named Cabot became the first aircraft of the series to conduct the first successful takeoff. The last three aircraft of this order – Captain Cook, Clare and Aotearoa – were renamed and re-registered for use by TEAL.[10] In 1939, a final S.30 flying boat, G-AFKZ, was ordered and delivered to Imperial Airways in late March 1940.[10]
A total of four flying S.30 series flying boats – Cabot, Caribou, Clyde and Connemara – were equipped with in-flight refuelling equipment and extra fuel tanks in order that they could be used to provide a regular transatlantic airmail service. The concept was for the aircraft to take off at lower weights and, once airborne, take on extra fuel to reach an all up weight of 53,000 pounds (24,000kg), giving the aircraft a range of over 2,500 miles (4,000km). The extra fuel reduced the payload to 4,270 pounds (1,940kg) against the 6,250 pounds (2,830kg) of the standard aeroplane. The refuelling was performed by three converted Handley Page Harrow bombers, one operating out of Ireland and two out of Newfoundland.
In 1939, Imperial Airways placed a further follow-on order for a modified model of the S.30, designated as the S.33.[10] This series had the same basic construction as its immediate predecessors, the new Pegasus XI engine, a development of the powerplant used by the original S.23 series, was adopted instead. Out of these three final aircraft, only two – Clifton and Cleopatra – would be completed and delivered to the newly formed British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC).[10]
A substantial larger development of the Empire flying boat, effectively a new aircraft, was the S.26, designated as the G-class.[11] The aircraft had similar appearance to the standard Empire, but was in fact roughly about 15 percent larger in all dimensions, as well as differing in its use of the more powerful Bristol Herculesradial engine. It adopted an improved hull design, featuring a wing span of 134 feet (41m) and a length of 101 feet (31m). It was intended to be used for year-round services on the north Atlantic route.[11] Only a small number were built, and these were quickly impressed into military service during the Second World War.[12]
Design
Short S.23 Empire G-ADHM, named Caledonia, on its beaching gear at Felixstowe, Suffolk, England, September 1936
The Short Empire flying boat was a relatively clean-looking high-wing monoplane, initially powered by an arrangement of four wing-mounted Bristol Pegasus Xcradial engines which drove de Havilland-built variable-pitch propellers.[13] The engines were each enclosed within NACA cowls and mounted ahead of the leading edge of the wings. This allowed portions of the leading edge adjacent to the engines to be hinged forwards and used as platforms from which to maintain the engines.[14]
The Pegasus Xc engines could each produce 910 horsepower (680kW) on takeoff, decreasing to 740 horsepower (550kW) at an altitude of 3,500ft.[15] Alternative engines were installed upon various models of the aircraft, of both greater and lower power outputs depending upon the model's role and purpose. Initial production aircraft were designed for a 40,500lb (18,400kg) gross weight; however, by 1939, many aircraft had been strengthened for an increased gross weight of 53,000lb (24,000kg).[16] Overall, its useful load included 600 imperial gallons (720USgal; 2,700L) of fuel (weighing 4,560lb (2,070kg)), 44impgal (53USgal; 200L) of oil, assorted onboard equipment (weighing 3,340lb (1,510kg)), along with the payload itself and a crew complement of five (weighing 8,200 pounds (3,700kg)).[4] The S.23 series achieved a top speed of 200 miles per hour (320km/h) at an altitude of 5,500 feet (1,700m) along with a cruising speed of 165 miles per hour (266km/h) and a minimum flying speed of 73 miles per hour (117km/h).[6]
The wings had a flush-rivetedAlclad covering and featured both Frise-type ailerons and the internally-developed Gouge flaps, the latter of which were actuated by an electric motor connected via a gearing system and screw jacks, allowing the flaps to be lowered in 60 seconds and raised within 90 seconds.[4] Large cylindrical 325-gallon fuel tanks were accommodated within the wings, set in between the inner and outer engines, and were fitted as standard; on long-range variants of the aircraft, additional fuel tanks were present in the wings, up to a total of three containing 280 gallons, 325 gallons, and 175 gallons in each wing. Elements of the leading edge of the wing, set upon either side of the engine nacelles, could be folded down to act as servicing platforms for both the engines and the floats, the latter of which were carried upon tandem struts fixed onto the main spar and featured shock absorbers in order to eliminate undue torsional loads being transmitted to the wings by the sudden impact of waves while travelling at speed.[4]
The hull, which had adopted a radically new shape, employed mainly traditional construction methods at Shorts. The structure used a combination of Z-shaped stringers and I-shaped girders to form triangular sections that ran along the chines located at the point where the fuselage sides met with the planing underside.[17] As a measure to simplify manufacturing and to increase the available internal volume, only a simple curvature sweeping the sides of the hull into the chines was employed; on previous Shorts-built flying boats, a more complex S-shaped curvature and a sudden reduction in beam just above the chines had been employed instead.[17]
S.23 Empire G-AETV, named Coriolanus, moored at Pinkenba on the Brisbane River, 1939
The 17ft (5.2m) deep hull accommodated a total of two decks, the upper deck forming a lengthy compartment divided into sections to accommodate 3,000lb (1,400kg) of freight and mail along with a storage space and a ship's clerk's office. This office contained controls such as electrical fuseboxes and circuit switches, ventilation controls, and fuelcocks.[17] The lower deck contained a large marine compartment containing an anchor, a pair of drogues, a mooring bollard, and a boat hook, along with a step ladder to the cockpit; aft of the mooring compartment was the forward passenger saloon, followed by a central corridor flanked by the toilets and galley, a mid-ship cabin, a spacious promenade cabin, and finally an aft-cabin.[18] The cabins could be alternatively outfitted with comfortable seating or bunks for sleeper services. Near the rear of the aircraft, a further compartment for the purpose of containing freight and mail was present which extended into the after fuselage.[18]
While designed as civil aircraft, examples of the type would not only see military service but be specifically refitted for this purpose. In 1941, two Empire flying boats – Clio and Cordelia returned to Shorts' Belfast facility, where they were modified with the addition of gun turrets in dorsal and rear positions and air to surface vessel (ASV) radar equipment installed on the top and sides of the fuselage.[19] They were used by Coastal Command. More extensive military use was made of the Empire's sibling design, the Short Sunderland.
Operational history
Empire flying boat, G-ADVD, named Challenger, at her moorings in the Townsville Harbour, Queensland, December 1938
On 8 February 1937, one of the Empire flying boats, Castor, conducted the first regular flight, flying from Calshot, Hampshire, England to Alexandria, Egypt.[20] This flight, which covered a distance of roughly 2,300 miles (3,700km) non-stop, showed that Britain could move military materiel to its overseas bases by air.[21] On 18 February 1937, Caledonia, the first of the Empires built, flew the same Calshot-Alexandria route; it was able to traverse the route non-stop at an average speed of 170mph.[20]
On 5 July 1937, the first crossing of the Atlantic by an Empire flying boat was conducted.[20] On an experimental basis, Caledonia, piloted by Captain W N Cummings, flew a 1,993 miles (3,207km) route from Foynes on the River Shannon, Ireland west to Botwood on the Bay of Exploits, Newfoundland. On the same day, an American Sikorsky S-42 flying boat flew the opposite direction.[20]Caledonia took just over 15 hours (including a period spend searching for a landing spot), flying at an altitude of 1,500 to 5,000ft (460 to 1,520m) to cover 1,993 miles (3,207km)—an average speed of about 130mph (210km/h). On its return flight, conducted on 22 July 1937, Caledonia flew the same route in the opposite direction in a time of 12 hours; in comparison to the competing Sikorsky S-42, the Empire was able to traverse the overall route faster.[20]
Several more survey flights of the Atlantic were made by Caledonia and Cambria. In August 1937, Cambria conducted the East-West flight in 14 hrs 24 min. In 1937, Cavalier was shipped to Bermuda and, after reassembly, started a service between there and New York City on 25 May 1937.[22]
The Short Empire was designed to operate along the Imperial Airways routes to South Africa and Australia, where no leg was much over 500 miles (800km). After the design of the Empire had been finalised and production had commenced, it was recognised that, with some pressure from the United States, it would be desirable to offer a similar service across the Atlantic. The range of the S.23 was less than that of the equivalent American-built counterpart in the form of the Sikorsky S-42, and as such it could not provide a true transatlantic service. Two boats (Caledonia and Cambria) were lightened and furnished with long-range tanks; both aircraft were used in experimental in-flight refuelling trials in order for them to conduct the journey; these modifications came at the cost of being able to carry fewer passengers and less cargo.
In an attempt to manage the Atlantic crossing, an alternative 'piggy-back' approach was trialled. This concept had been strongly advocated for by Imperial Airways' technical adviser, Major Robert Hobart Mayo, as a means of significantly increasing both range and payload, and had been well received by both the airline and the British Air Ministry, the latter of which placed an order with Shorts.[23] Using the S.21 design (based on the S.23) as the carrier, a smaller four-engined floatplane, the Short S.20, was mounted upon its back; the most obvious difference between the S.21 and regular S.23 aeroplanes was the additional superstructure to carry the floatplane.[24] Only a single example was built of the S.21 carrier aircraft, named Maia, and of the S.20, named Mercury. Together, they were known as the Short Mayo Composite.[25][24]
On 21 July 1938, a successful mid-air launch of Mercury was executed off the west coast of Ireland while carrying a 600lb payload of mixed cargo and mail; it arrived at Montreal, Canada, 2,860 miles (4,600km) 22 hrs 22 min later, having achieved an average speed of 141mph (227km/h).[24] In further flights, the Empire-Mercury combination went on to set a number of long distance records; one such flight was conducted on 6 October 1938, flying from Dundee, Scotland to Orange River, South Africa, covering 6,045 miles (9,728km) in 42 hrs 5 min.[26] However, in spite of the demonstrated merits and workability of the concept, the outbreak of the Second World War resulted in the effective termination of all development work. During wartime, there was interest in the concept using alternative land-based aircraft to deliver Hawker Hurricane fighter aircraft for aerial protection over the mid-Atlantic.[11]
After Italy entered the Second World War in June 1940, it became impossible for mail to be safely flown between Britain and Egypt (and thus onto Australia) via the Mediterranean. Accordingly, a new "Horseshoe Route" was established that ran from Auckland/Sydney via Cairo (following the old "Eastern Route") to Durban, South Africa, and thence by sea to Britain. This was restricted after the loss of Singapore in February 1942 to being between Durban and Calcutta, India.
Wartime experience in operating the type at overload weights resulted in the realisation that the Empires could take off at considerably higher weights than the conservative maxima provided by Shorts and, although the last Empire crossings to America were made in 1940 (by Clare and Clyde), many more flights were made on the long, demanding and vital over-water Lisbon-Bathurst flights.[citation needed]
Variants
Qantas Short C Class Empire flying boat VH-ABB Coolangatta, ca. 1940
42 "C Class" Short Empire flying boats were built, including 31 S.23s, nine S.30s and two S.33s.[1]
S.30 Mk I (Cathay): powered by four 920hp (690kW) Bristol Pegasus Xc poppet valve radial engines. One built.[1]
S.30 Mk II New Zealand: powered by four 890hp (660kW) Bristol Perseus XIIc sleeve valve radial engines. One built.[1]
S.30 Mk III Atlantic: powered by four 890hp (660kW) Bristol Perseus XIIc sleeve valve radial engines. Four built.[1]
S.30 Mk IV New Zealand: powered by four 890hp (660kW) Bristol Perseus XIIc sleeve valve radial engines. Two built.[1]
S.30M: two converted from impressed S.30 Mk III Atlantic for ASV trials and transport duties.
S.33: powered by four 920hp (690kW) Bristol Pegasus Xc poppet valve radial engines. Two completed, third example scrapped when 75% complete.[1]
Many S.23, S.30 & S.33 were re-engined during the war with 1,010hp (750kW) Bristol Pegasus XXII poppet valve radial engines.[1]
Accidents and incidents
Most accidents involving the aircraft occurred during landing and were generally attributed to pilot error. For pilots trained on smaller less sophisticated aircraft judgement of height was difficult due to the high cockpit of the Empire, as well as the concept of using flaps to manage speed.[27] With time improved familiarity reduced the accident rate. Once in service the structure was found to be weak in places, especially on the planing bottoms, which led to later models employing thicker gauge skins on the hull and wings.[27]
G-ADUU Cavalier of Imperial Airways ditched in the Atlantic Ocean due to carburettor icing affecting all four engines. The aircraft subsequently sank with the loss of three lives. Ten survivors were rescued by the American tanker Esso Baytown.[30]
14 March 1939
G-ADVB Corsair (under Capt E.S. Alcock, brother of John Alcock) foundered during a forced landing on the Dungu River. After 10 months' salvage work, and one failed take-off attempt, it was flown off the river on 6 January 1940.[31]
1 May 1939
G-ADVD Challenger of Imperial Airways crashed on landing in Mozambique Harbour with the loss of two lives.[32]
February 1941
G-AFCX Clyde of BOAC was wrecked in a gale at Lisbon, Portugal.[33]
29 December 1941
G-ADUX Cassiopeia of BOAC crashed after striking debris on takeoff from Sabang, Indonesia, killing four.[34]
G-AEUB (VH-ADU) crashed off Port Moresby, with 18 survivors.[37]
List of aircraft
An Empire, G-AFBK, named Coolangatta, June 1936An Empire, G-AFKZ, named Cathay, at Vaal Dam, South Africa, circa 1942An Empire, G-ADUV, named Corsair, moored on the lake at Gwalior, IndiaAn Empire, ZK-AMA, named Aotearoa, flying above Auckland, New ZealandAn Empire, G-ADUV, named Cambria, taking off from the Nile at Rod El Farag flying boat base, CairoAn Empire, G-ADUV, idling in the waterAn Empire, G-ADUT, named Centaurus photographed in flight from a Beech Staggerwing
Imperial Airways, to QANTAS in 1938 (as VH-ABD), to Imperial Airways in 1939 (as G-AEUH)
G-AEUI
Coorong
Imperial Airways, to QANTAS in 1938 (as VH-ABE), to Imperial Airways in 1939 (as G-AEUI)
G-AFBJ
Carpentaria
Imperial Airways not used, to QANTAS in 1937 (as VH-ABA), to BOAC in 1942 (as G-AFBJ)
G-AFBK
Coolangatta
Imperial Airways not used, to QANTAS in 1937 (as VH-ABB), to RAAF in 1939 (as A18-13)
G-AFBL
Cooee
Imperial Airways not used, to QANTAS in 1937 (as VH-ABF) to BOAC in 1942
S.30
G-AFCT
Champion
Imperial Airways, later BOAC
G-AFCU
Cabot
Imperial Airways, to RAF in 1939 (as V3137). Destroyed 5 May 1940
G-AFCV
Caribou
Imperial Airways, to RAF in 1939 (as V3138). Destroyed 6 May 1940
G-AFCW
Connemara
Imperial Airways
G-AFCX
Clyde
Imperial Airways, later BOAC
G-AFCY
Captain Cook
Imperial Airways, to TEAL in 1940 (as ZK-AMC Awarua). Sold as obsolete in 1948[38][39]
G-AFCZ
Australia then Clare
Imperial Airways, to TEAL in 1940 (as ZK-AMB), later to BOAC
G-AFDA
Aotearoa
Imperial Airways, to TEAL in 1940 (as ZK-AMA). Sold as obsolete in 1948[40][39]
G-AFKZ
Cathay
Imperial Airways, later BOAC
S.33
G-AFPZ
Clifton
BOAC April 1940, to RAAF (as A18-14), to QANTAS in 1942 (as VH-ACD). Crashed January 1944.
G-AFRA
Cleopatra
BOAC May 1940, 1st Service 5 June 1940 Poole to Durban. Final Service ended 5 November 1946 at Poole. Scrapped 1946.
Operators
Short S.23 Cooee of Qantas—this aircraft is also pictured at the top of the page while later serving with BOAC, as G-AFBLThe third TEAL aircraft, ZK-AMC, named Awarua, circa 1940
↑ "Airliner Vanishes". The Daily Telegraph. Vol.VII, no.9. New South Wales, Australia. 1 April 1942. p.6. Retrieved 15 September 2020– via National Library of Australia.
Imperial Airways was an early British commercial long-range airline, operating from 1924 to 1939 and principally serving the British Empire routes to South Africa, India, Australia and the Far East, including Malaya and Hong Kong. Passengers were typically businessmen or colonial administrators, and most flights carried about 20 passengers or fewer. Accidents were frequent: in the first six years, 32 people died in seven incidents. Imperial Airways never achieved the levels of technological innovation of its competitors and was merged into the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) in 1939. BOAC in turn merged with the British European Airways (BEA) in 1974 to form British Airways.
The Bristol Pegasus is a British nine-cylinder, single-row, air-cooled radial aero engine. Designed by Roy Fedden of the Bristol Aeroplane Company, it was used to power both civil and military aircraft of the 1930s and 1940s. Developed from the earlier Mercury and Jupiter engines, later variants could produce 1,000 horsepower from its capacity of 1,750 cubic inches by use of a geared supercharger.
The Short Stirling was a British four-engined heavy bomber of the Second World War. It has the distinction of being the first four-engined bomber to be introduced into service with the Royal Air Force (RAF).
The Bristol Type 175 Britannia is a retired British medium-to-long-range airliner built by the Bristol Aeroplane Company in 1952 to fly across the Commonwealth. During development two prototypes were lost and the turboprop engines proved susceptible to inlet icing, which delayed entry into service while solutions were sought.
The Saunders-Roe SR.45 Princess was a British flying boat aircraft developed and built by Saunders-Roe at their Cowes facility on the Isle of Wight. It has the distinction of being the largest all-metal flying boat to have ever been constructed.
The Short S.25 Sunderland is a British flying boat patrol bomber, developed and constructed by Short Brothers for the Royal Air Force (RAF). The aircraft took its service name from the town and port of Sunderland in North East England.
The Short Calcutta or S.8 was a civilian biplane airliner flying boat made by Short Brothers.
The de Havilland DH.95 Flamingo was a British twin-engined high-wing monoplane airliner first flown on 22 December 1938. During the Second World War some were used by the Royal Air Force (RAF) as a transport and general communications duties.
The Short S.25 Sandringham is a British civilian flying boat designed and originally produced by Short Brothers. They were produced as conversions of the widely used Short Sunderland, a military flying boat that was commonly used as a maritime patrol aircraft.
The Short S.45 Seaford was a 1940s flying boat, designed as a long range maritime patrol bomber for RAF Coastal Command. It was developed from the Short S.25 Sunderland, and initially ordered as "Sunderland Mark IV".
The Short Solent is a passenger flying boat that was produced by Short Brothers in the late 1940s. It was developed from the Short Seaford, itself a development of the Short Sunderland military flying boat design.
The Armstrong Whitworth A.W.27 Ensign was a British four-engine monoplane airliner and the largest airliner built in Britain during the Interwar period.
The Short S.26 G-class was a large transport flying boat designed and produced by the British aircraft manufacturer Short Brothers. It was designed to achieve a non-stop transatlantic capability, increasing the viability of long distant services/duties.
The Short Shetland was a British high-speed, long-range, four-engined flying boat built by Short Brothers at Rochester, Kent for use in the Second World War. It was designed to meet an Air Ministry requirement for a very-long range reconnaissance flying boat. The design used the company's experience with large scale production of the Short Sunderland. The end of World War II prevented the Shetland from entering production. It was the first aircraft designed with a 110 volt electrical system.
The Short Mayo Composite was a piggy-back long-range seaplane and flying boat combination produced by Short Brothers to provide a reliable long-range air transport service to North America and, potentially, to other distant places in the British Empire and the Commonwealth.
The Short L.17 Scylla was a British four-engined 39-seat biplane airliner designed and built by Short Brothers at the request of Imperial Airways to supplement the Handley Page H.P.42 fleet already in service after Handley Page quoted an excessive price for two additional H.P.42s. They were ordered in 1933.
The Short S.17 Kent was a British four-engined 15-seat biplane luxury flying boat airliner, designed and built by Shorts to meet a requirement from Imperial Airways for an aircraft with greater range than the Short Calcutta. The new aircraft was to have sufficient range to fly the stage from Mirabella, Crete, to Alexandria in Egypt without the need for refuelling stops in Italian colonial territory due to a political row which had led the Italian Government to ban British aircraft from its ports.
The Short S.16 Scion and Scion II were 1930s British two-engine, cantilever monoplanes built by Short Brothers and by Pobjoy Airmotors and Aircraft Ltd. in Rochester, Kent between 1933 and 1937. Altogether 22 Scion/Scion II aircraft were built and they provided useful service to operators working from small airstrips/water courses in many parts of the globe, including Europe, the Near and Middle East, Sierra Leone, Papua New Guinea and Australia. Many were impressed into the Royal Air Force during the Second World War, providing pilot ferry services, anti-aircraft co-operation and radar calibration duties. Of the civilian Scions, at least two were still operating in Australia in 1966, one having been re-engined with de Havilland Gipsy Minor engines.
The de Havilland DH.50 was a 1920s British large single-engined biplane transport built by de Havilland at Stag Lane Aerodrome, Edgware, and licence-built in Australia, Belgium, and Czechoslovakia.
British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) was the British state-owned airline created in 1939 by the merger of Imperial Airways and British Airways Ltd. It continued operating overseas services throughout World War II. After the passing of the Civil Aviation Act 1946, European and South American services passed to two further state-owned airlines, British European Airways (BEA) and British South American Airways (BSAA). BOAC absorbed BSAA in 1949, but BEA continued to operate British domestic and European routes for the next quarter century. The Civil Aviation Act 1971 merged BOAC and BEA, effective 31 March 1974, forming today's British Airways.
References
Barnes, C.H.; James D.N (1989). Shorts Aircraft since 1900. London: Putnam. ISBN0-85177-819-4.
BOAC at War – Part 2 – Aeroplane Monthly – August 1975.
Cassidy, Brian (2011). "Flying Empires: Short 'C' Class Empire Flying Boats". CiteSeerX10.1.1.463.3896.
Cassidy, Brian (2013). Empire flying boat: 1936 to 1947 (all models): owners' workshop manual. Sparkford: Haynes. ISBN978-0-85733-158-8.
Yea, Hugh J. (September–October 1999). "The 'Empire' Strikes Back: Notes on the Shorts 'Empire' Flying-boats". Air Enthusiast (65): 70–71. ISSN0143-5450.
ATLANTIC ROUTINE Flight 1937 – contemporary article on Sikorksy S42 and Empire Caledonia operating across Atlantic
LIFE photos by Margaret Bourke-White of CAVALIER and its competitor the Bermuda Clipper New York area 1937
LIFE photos by Margaret Bourke-White of CALEDONIA with a Beech Staggerwing near Central Park New York City July 1937
LIFE colour photos by Dmitri Kessel of CLARE at the La Guardia Marine Terminal New York City, during a series of mail/courier flights it, and CLYDE, operated to New York via Newfoundland during the Battle of Britain, 1940
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