Vaishnavism in Tamil Nadu is documented in ancient Tamil Sangam literature dating back to the 5th century BCE. Maha Vishnu, also known as Perumal, is notably the most frequently mentioned deity in Sangam Literature.[1] Some of the earliest known mentions of Perumal, and the Tamil devotional poems ascribed to him, are found in Paripāṭal – the Sangam era poetic anthology.[2][3] He is a popular Hindu deity, particularly among Tamils in Tamil Nadu and the Tamil diaspora, as well as in Vaishnava temples.[4] One of the richest and largest Hindu temples complexes is dedicated to Perumal in South India. [where? citation needed]
The Padmanabhaswamy Temple, located in Thiruvananthapuram, is considered one of the wealthiest temples in the world. It is dedicated to a form of Lord Vishnu known as Padmanabhaswamy Perumal.[5] Several extant Hindu texts including the Vishnu Purana,[6]Brahma Purana,[7]Matsya Purana,[8]Varaha Purana,[8]Skanda Purana,[7]Padma Purana,[7]Vayu Purana and Bhagavata Purana mention the Padmanabhaswamy Temple.[7] In addition, the temple has several references in Sangam periodliterature.[9] Several historians and scholars believe that the name "The Golden Temple" attributed to the temple might reflect its immense wealth during the early Sangam period.[10][11][9] Many extant pieces of Sangam Tamil literature and poetry as well as later works of the 9th century of Tamil poet–such as saint Nammalwar refer to the temple and the city as having walls of pure gold.[12] Both the temple and the entire city are often eulogised as being made of gold, and the temple as heaven.[12][13] The temple is one of the 108 principal Divya Desams ("Holy Abodes") in Vaishnavism according to existing Tamil hymns from the fifth and eighth centuries C.E and is glorified in the Divya Prabandha.
The Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Perumal Temple, is also dedicated to a form of Maha Vishnu. It is considered to be the largest religious complex in the world.[14]:456 This temple is considered the foremost amongst the 108 principal Divya Desams in Vaishnavism according to existing Tamil hymns from the fifth and eighth century C.E and is glorified in the Divya Prabandha and sung by all the 12 Alvars. The temple is mentioned in Tamil literature of the Sangam era (6th century BCE to the 2nd century CE[15]), including in the epic Silapadikaram (book 11, lines 35–40):[16]
ஆயிரம் விரித்தெழு தலையுடை அருந்திறற் பாயற் பள்ளிப் பலர்தொழு தேத்த விரிதிரைக் காவிரி வியன்பெருந் துருத்தித் திருவமர் மார்பன் கிடந்த வண்ணமும்
On a magnificent cot having a thousand heads spread out, worshipped and praised by many, in an islet surrounded by Kaveri with billowing waves, is the lying posture of the one who has Lakshmi sitting on his chest
Silapadikaram (book 11, lines 35–40)
The temple was initially constructed by the Chola ruler, Dharmavarma. The Kaveri river flood destroyed the temple vimanam, and later, the early Chola ruler Killivalavan rebuilt the temple complex in the form that is present today. Beyond ancient textual history, archaeological evidence such as inscriptions refer to this temple. These stone inscriptions are from the late 1st millennium CE.[17] The inscriptions in the temple belong to the Chola, Pandya, Hoysala and Vijayanagara dynasties who ruled over the region. These inscriptions range between the 9th and 16th centuries.[18]
During the period of invasion and plunder by the Alauddin Khilji's Muslim general Malik Kafur and his Delhi Sultanate forces in 1311, the Arabic texts of the period state that he raided a "golden temple" on river "Kanobari" (Kaveri), destroyed the temple and took the plunder with the golden icon of the deity to Delhi. According to Steven P. Hopkins, this is believed to be the Ranganathaswamy Temple.[19]
Other significant institutions include Kanchipuram's Varadaraja Perumal temple, and Sri Vidhya Rajagopalaswamy Perumal TempleThe temple is called Dakshina Dvaraka (Southern Dvaraka) along with Guruvayoor by Hindus.[21][22] The deity Perumal is identified with Mayon, literally meaning, "the dark-complexioned one", who is first referenced in the texts Purananuru and Pattupattu. Regarded to be the Tamil equivalent of Krishna, poetry from this period compares his dark skin to the ocean.[23] Originally a folk deity, he was syncretised with Krishna and Vishnu, gaining popularity in the Sri Vaishnava tradition.[24] His consort is Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune, beauty, and prosperity, appearing in even the earliest strata of Tamil poetry.[25]
Mayon is indicated to be the deity associated with the mullai tiṇai (pastoral landscape) in the Tolkappiyam.[26][27] He is regarded to be the only deity who enjoyed the status of Paramporul (achieving oneness with Paramatma) during the Sangam age. He is also known as Māyavan, Māmiyon, Netiyōn, and Māl in Sangam literature.[1]
Lakshmi is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism. She is the goddess of wealth, fortune, power, beauty, fertility and prosperity,[28] and associated with Maya ("Illusion"). Lakshmi is venerated as the prosperity aspect of the Mother goddess.[29][30] Lakshmi is both the consort and the divine energy (shakti) of the Hindu god Vishnu, the Supreme Being of Vaishnavism; she is also the Supreme Goddess in the sect and assists Vishnu to create, protect, and transform the universe.[30][31][32] She is an especially prominent figure in Sri Vaishnavism, in which devotion to Lakshmi is deemed to be crucial to reach Vishnu.[33]
Mahalakshmi is often called Thayar in Tamil which literally translates to (Mother of the world).[34] Lakshmi is mentioned in several places of the Sangam Literature, Mahalakshmi is often portrayed as the wife of Mahavishnu and stays at the chest of Vishnu.
She was worshipped by women in ancient Tamilakam for the return of the warriors (their husbands) with their soul in their body.[35][36] Maha Lakshmi has mentions in Sangam texts. Mahalakshmi was also considered as kotravai in her other form to marry Vishnu in the avatar of Shiva.
Purananuru mentions Sita, who is an avathara of (Mahalakshmi), was abducted by the demon king Ravana. Malaipaṭukaṭām mentions the goddess of wealth and fortune, Lakshmi in lines 463–464 and the "Goddess who sits enthroned on the chest of Vishnu".[37]Mullaippāṭṭu which mentions women praying to Maha Lakshmi for their husbands to live long and not to die in the war,[35]Paripāṭal mentions Maha Lakshmi seated on the chest of Vishnu,[38]Silapathikaram mentions Lakshmi several places. For example, she is mentioned as Thiru seated on the chest of Ranganatha sleeping in Srirangam,[39] She is in the form of Sita with Rama and Radha - the lover of Krishna. She is considered as the goddess of fortune, wealth and happiness. Maturaikkāñci mentions that the city gates and house walls had symbols and portraits of Mahalakshmi.[40]Manimekalai describes an event dedicated to Indra where the tired and sleeping young boys and girls who earlier in the day had run around in their costumes of Hindu gods (Vishnu) and goddesses (Lakshmi).[41] It also mentions a character called Aputra who reaches Madurai. He sits with his begging bowl inside Madurai's Temple dedicated to Maha Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune.[42] The worshippers of Lakshmi are kind and donate a large amount of food to the bowl of Aputra, which Aputra shares with the poor, the blind, the deaf, and other needy people. The text also mentions Kanyakumari as being a Hindu bathing pilgrimage site dedicated to Maha Lakshmi, The Akanāṉūṟu describes Rama at Dhanushkodi, sitting under a Banyan tree, involved in secret discussions about the war between him and Ravana who kidnapped Sita, while the birds are singing.[43][42]Thirukural mentions Goddess Lakshmi in couplets 167, 408, 519, 565, 568, 616, and 617 hints, which shows the existence of Sri Vaishnavism and Valluvar's beliefs on it.[44] There are many other mentions of Maha Lakshmi in Sangam literature.
Maha Vishnu in Sangam Literature
A reference to "Mukkol Pakavars" in Sangam literature indicates that only Vaishnava saints were holding Tridanda and were prominent during the period. Tirumal was glorified as "the supreme deity", whose divine lotus feet could burn all evil and grant moksha. During the post-Sangam period, his worship was further glorified by the poet-saints called the Alvars.[45][46] Perumal (Vishnu) was the only deity who enjoyed the status of Paramporul during the Sangam age. The reference to Mukkol Bhagavars in Sangam literature indicates that only Vaishnavaite saints holding Tridanda existed during the age and Perumal was glorified as the supreme deity, whose "divine lotus feet can burn all our evils and grant moksha" (maru piraparukkum maasil sevadi).[47]
Perumal is considered to be another name of Vishnu, and was traditionally the deity associated with the forests. Mayon is indicated to be the deity associated with the mullai tiṇai (pastoral landscape) in the Tolkappiyam.[26][27] Tolkappiyar mentions Mayon when he referred to deities in the different land divisions.[48] which gives a hint that he might be a scholar who follows Vaishnavism.
The Paripādal (Tamil: பரிபாடல், meaning the paripadal-metre anthology) is a classical Tamil poetic work and traditionally the fifth of the Eight Anthologies (Ettuthokai) in the Sangam literature.[49] According to Tolkappiyam, Paripadal is a kind of verse dealing only with love (akapporul) and does not fall under the general classification of verses. It has a minimum of 25 lines and a maximum of 400 lines. Tamil Sangam literature (200 BCE to 500 CE) mentions Mayon or the "dark one," as the supreme deity who creates, sustains, and destroys the universe and was worshipped in the mountains of Tamilakam. The earliest verses of Paripadal describe the glory of Perumal in poetic terms. Many poems of the Paripadal consider Perumal as the supreme god of the Tamils.[47]Paripāṭal also mentions that Vishnu is only Shiva and Brahma; he is everything and is the supreme god and represents himself as different gods.[47]
In fire, you are the heat; in blossoms, the fragrance; among the stones, you are the diamond; in speech, truth; among virtues, you are love; in valour—strength; in the Veda, you are the secret; among elements, the primordial; in the burning sun, the light; in moonshine, its sweetness; you are all, and you are the substance and meaning of all.
Maduraikanchi (Tamil: மதுரைக் காஞ்சி), [51] is an ancient Tamil poem in the Sangam literature. Lines 497 to 511 allude to gods and goddesses in temples like Thirumohoor Kalamegaperumal temple[52] and Koodal Azhagar temple[52] with iconographic items of Hinduism. Maha Vishnu is called the 'ruler of the three worlds' and the "Supreme Deity" and it identifies Rama and Krishna as his incarnations of Maha Vishnu.[52] He is alluded to with "God who protects the world" and also as Tirivikrama - the lord who measured the three worlds. A bathing festival with rituals that include a dip in the water to "cleanse their sins" is mentioned in the poem. Chanting of the Vedas is mentioned in lines 512–518,[40] The lines related to the Vedas, states Chelliah, alludes to the jivanmukta ideology found in Hinduism.[53]Maduraikanchi also details the Thiruvonam festival celebrated in the Koodal Azhagar temple, Madurai.[54]
Several poems echo the Hindu puranic legends about Parashurama, Rama, Krishna and others in the Akanaṉūṟu .[55][56] According to Alf Hiltebeitel – an Indian Religions and Sanskrit Epics scholar, the Akanaṉūṟu has the earliest known mentions of some stories such as "Krishna stealing sarees of Gopis" which is found later in north Indian literature, making it probable that some of the ideas from Tamil Hindu scholars inspired the Sanskrit scholars in the north and the Bhagavata Purana, or vice versa.[57] However the text Harivamsa which is complex, containing layers that go back to the 1st or 2nd century BCE, consists of parts that mention Krishna playing with Gopis and stealing their sarees.[citation needed]
The Akanāṉūṟu has a reference to the Ramayana in poem 70. The poem places a triumphant Rama at Dhanushkodi, sitting under a Banyan tree, involved in some secret discussions when the birds are chirping away.[43] This seems to indicate that the story of the Ramayana was familiar in the Tamil lands before the Kamba Ramayanam of the 12th century.
The earliest reference to the story of the Ramayana is found in the Purananuru which is dated from the 1st century BCE and 5th century CE.[58] Purananuru 378, attributed to the poet Unpodipasunkudaiyar, written in praise of the Chola king Ilancetcenni. The poem makes the analogy of a poet receiving royal gifts and that worn by the relatives of the poet as being unworthy of their status,that worn by the relatives as unworthy[vague] to the event in the Ramayana, where Sita drops her jewels when abducted by Ravana and these jewels being picked up by red-faced monkeys who delightfully wear the ornaments.[59][60]
Kalittokai is notable for including allusions and references to pan-Indian love and moral legends found in Epics– and Puranas–genre Sanskrit texts. According to Kamil Zvelebil, some examples in the Kalittokai include Krishna an avathara of Maha Vishnu killing his uncle Kansa in poems 52 and 134, Duryodhana's evil plans to kill the Pandava brothers in poem 25, the battle of Murugan and Surapadma in poem 27. An event mentioned in the epic Ramayana, of Ravana lifting the Kailasa is described in the Poem 139 of Lines 33 to 37, Bhima in poem 52, the love story of Urvasi and Tilottama in poem 109, among others.[63]
Malaipaṭukaṭām is an ancient Tamil poem in the Pattuppāṭṭu anthology of the Sangam literature.[68] The lengthy poem mentions Maha Vishnu primarily. Maha Vishnu was considered the "Supreme Deity" in the poem and worshiped by many saints and kings. It also mentions the goddess of wealth, Lakshmi in lines 463–464 and the "god on whose breast she sits enthroned".[citation needed][69] The Malaipatukatam uses the word ool (Sanskrit: karma).[70]
Paṭṭiṉappālai is a Tamil poem in the ancient Sangam literature.[71] It contains 301 lines, of which 296 lines are about the port city of Kaveripoompattinam. It is notable for its mention of the early Chola kingdom as a cosmopolitan region, where Hindu and Jain monasteries and communities co-existed. It mentions the worship of Maha Vishnu, Mahalakshmi and Murugan.[72]
Mullaippāṭṭu (Tamil: முல்லைப்பாட்டு, lit. "the forest or jungle song") is an ancient Tamil poem in the Sangam literature.[79] Authored by Napputanar, it is the shortest poem in the Ten Idylls (Pattuppāṭṭu) anthology, consisting of 103 lines in akaval meter. The poem is "one of the most beautiful of the Pattuppattu songs, as stated by Zvelebil.[80]
The short poem mentions the Hindu god Vishnu through an elaborate simile.[81][82] Lines 46–47 of Mullaippattu mentions Brahmin yogis in ochre-colored clothes carrying three staves and called as "Mukkol Pakavars" and indicates that only Vaishnava saints were holding Tridanda and were prominent during the period and considered Maha Vishnu as the Supreme god.[83] The poem has about 500 words, predominantly Tamil. It has 13 Sanskrit loan words and 2 non-Tamil provincial words.[84]
Certain verses from the epic show Maha Vishnu as the father of Brahma and who gave Vedas to the entire universe and is considered as the Paramatma - The Supreme Deity of the World.
"Aputra then meets and accuses the Brahmins of twisting the meaning of the Veda verses taught by Brahma born from the navel of Maha Vishnu who holds a golden disc as his weapon. Aputra reminds the Brahmins that the greatest Vedic teachers such as Vasishtha and Agastya were born of low birth."[42]
This epic also makes several references to the Ramayana, such as a setu (bridge) being built by monkeys in canto 5, line 37 (however the location is Kanyakumari rather than Dhanushkodi). In another reference, in canto 17, lines 9 to 16, the epic talks about Rama being the incarnation of Trivikrama or Netiyon, and he built the setup with the help of monkeys who hurled huge rocks into the ocean to build the bridge. Further, canto 18, lines 19 to 26, refers to the illegitimate love of Indra for Ahalya, the wife of Rishi Gautama.[86][87][88] The epic again mentions Rama as Vishnu, from the story Ramayana, It states that Rama built a link (bridge) to Sri Lanka, but a curse of an ascetic dissolved the bridge link.[89]
Silappatikaram
The Silappatikaram (transl.The tale of an anklet) written by a prince turned Jain monk Ilango Adigal, dated to the 2nd century AD or later. The epic narrates the tale of Kovalan, son of a wealthy merchant, his wife Kannagi, and his lover Madhavi, and has many references to the Ramayana, avatars of Para Brahman and temples of Maha Vishnu. It describes the fate of Poompuhar suffering the same agony as experienced by Ayodhya when Rama leaves for exile to the forest as instructed by his father (Dikshitar, 1939, p.193). The Aycciyarkuravai section (canto 27), makes mention of the Lord who could measure the three worlds, going to the forest with his brother, waging a war against Lanka and destroying it with fire (Dikshitar, 1939, p.237). These references indicate that the author was well aware of the story of the Ramayana in the 2nd century AD.[90]
It also mentions Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple which was visited and built by many kings and praised by saints (book 11, lines 35–40).[citation needed] The temple was first built by the Chola ruler, Dharmavarma. The Kaveri River flood destroyed the temple, and later, the early Cholas King Killivalavan who found the vimana and the idol of Ranganathaswamy rebuilt the temple complex as is present today.
According to D. Dennis Hudson – a World Religions and Tamil literature scholar, the Cilappatikaram is the earliest and first complete Tamil reference to Pillai (Nila, Nappinnai, Radha), who is described in the epic as the cowherd lover of Krishna.[91] The epic includes abundant stories and allusions to Krishna and his stories, which are also found in ancient Sanskrit Puranas. In the canto where Kannaki is waiting for Kovalan to return after selling her anklet to a Madurai merchant, she is in a village with cowgirls.[91] These cowherd girls enact a dance, where one plays Mayavan (Krishna), another girl plays Tammunon (Balarama), while a third plays Pinnai (Nappinnai). The dance begins with a song listing Krishna's heroic deeds and his fondness for Nappinnai, then they dance where sage Narada plays music. Such scenes where cowgirls imitate Krishna's life story are also found in Sanskrit poems of Harivamsa and Vishnu Purana, both generally dated to be older than Cilappatikaram.[91] The Tamil epic calls portions of it as vāla caritai nāṭaṅkaḷ, which mirrors the phrase balacarita nataka – dramas about the story of the child Krishna" – in the more ancient Sanskrit kavyas.[91]
Meaning (I also came to see) the beauty of the red-eyed Lord, holding in His beautiful lotus-hands the discus which is death to His enemies, and also the milk-white conch; (to see Him) wearing a garland of tender flowers on His chest, and draped in golden flowers; and dwelling on the topmost crest of the tall and lofty hill named vēṅkaṭam.[94]
Thirukural is a classic Tamil language text consisting of 1,330 short couplets, or kurals, of seven words each. In the introductory chapters of the Kural, Valluvar cites Indra, the king of heaven, to exemplify the virtue of conquest over one's senses.[citation needed] According to Tamil Hindu scholars such as Parimelalakar, other concepts and teachings found in Valluvar's text and also found in Hindu texts include Vedas,[98] gods (Trimurti), sattva, guṇa, munis and sadhus (renouncers), rebirth, affirmation of a primordial God, among others.[citation needed] According to Purnalingam Pillai, who is known for his critique of Brahminism, a rational analysis of the Valluvar's work suggests that he was a Hindu, and not a Jain.[citation needed] Similarly, J. J. Glazov, a Tamil literature scholar and the translator of the Kural text into the Russian language, sees "Thiruvalluvar as a Hindu by faith", according to a review by Kamil Zvelebil.[99]
Thiruvalluvar's mentioning of Maha Vishnu in couplets 610 and 1103 and Lakshmi in couplets 167, 408, 519, 565, 568, 616, and 617 hints at the Vaishnavite beliefs of Valluvar.[citation needed]
Couplet Explanation: The king who never gives way to idleness will obtain entire possession of (the whole earth) passed over by Vishnu who measured (the worlds) with His foot. (Thirukural Number 610).
The devotional outpourings of the Alvars, composed during the early medieval period of Tamil history, were the catalysts behind the Bhakti Movement through their hymns of worship to Vishnu and his avatars. They praised the Divya Desams, the 108 divine realms of deities affiliated with Vaishnavism. The poetry of the Alvars echoes bhakti to God through love, and in the ecstasy of such devotions, they sang hundreds of songs that embodied both depth of feeling and the felicity of expressions.[102] The collection of their hymns is known as the Naalayira Divya Prabandham. The bhakti literature that sprang from Alvars has contributed to the establishment and sustenance of a culture that deviated from the Vedic religion and rooted itself in devotion as the only path for salvation. In addition, they contributed to Tamil devotional verses independent of a knowledge of Sanskrit.
Naalayira Divya Prabandham
The Divya Prabandham sings the praises of Narayana (Vishnu) and his many forms. The Alvars sang these songs at various sacred shrines known as the Divya Desams.[103] The TamilVaishnavites are also known as Ubhaya Vedanti (those that follow both Vedas, that is, the Sanskrit Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda, as well as the Tamil-language Tiruvaymoli, a work which devotees of Sri Vaishnavism regard as the Tamil Veda).[104] In many temples — Srirangam, for example — the chanting of the Divya Prabandham forms a major part of the daily service. It is also recited in some North Indian Vaishnavite temples, such as Badrinath.[105] The Divya Prabandham is recited along with the Vedas,[106] and it is given equal status to the Vedas in the Tenkalai denomination of Sri Vaishnavism, largely due to the efforts of Ramanuja who enshrined the Divya Prabandham on the same pedestal as the Vedas.[107]
Prominent among its 4,000 verses are the over 1,100 verses known as the Tiruvaymoli ("verses of the sacred mouth"), composed by Nammalvar (Kaari Maaran, Sadagopan of Alvarthirunagari Temple) and which forms the third portion of the overall Divya Prabandham. Nammalvar self-identifies as a lovelorn gopi pining for Krishna.[104]
The compendium begins with the Tirupallantu, a benedictory hymn written by Periyalvar, wishing long life to Vishnu.[108]
Combination of Sanskrit Vaishnavism and Tamil Vaishnavism
Nathamuni (10th century), combined the two traditions, by drawing on Sanskrit philosophical tradition and combining it with the aesthetic and emotional appeal of the Tamil Bhakti movement pioneers called the Alvars.[citation needed]Sri Vaishnavism developed in Tamil Nadu in the 9th century after Nathamuni returned from a pilgrimage to Vrindavan in north India (modern Uttar Pradesh).[citation needed]
Nathamuni's ideas were continued by Yamunacharya, who maintained that the Vedas, Vaikhanasa and Pancaratras are equal, devotional rituals and bhakti are important practices.[citation needed] The legacy of Yamunacharya was continued by Ramanuja,[citation needed] but they never met.[109] Legend goes that Ramanuja saw Yamunacharya's corpse, which had three fingers curled. Ramanuja was told that they represented the three wishes that Yamunacharya had revealed before he passed. One of the wishes was that Ramanuja should write a commentary on the Brahma Sutras.[110] Ramanuja, a scholar who studied in an Advaita Vedanta monastery and disagreed with some of the ideas of Advaita, became the most influential leader of Sri Vaishnavism.[111][112] He developed the Visistadvaita ("qualified non-dualism") philosophy.[citation needed]
During the period of Nathamuni, Kambar, or Kavichakravarthy Kamban (1180 CE–1250 CE),[113] wrote the Ramavataram, popularly known as Kambaramayanam, the Tamil version of the epic Ramayana.[114]
The original version of Ramayana was written by Valmiki. Kambar was inspired by Valmiki and rewrote the Ramayana in Tamil. The Ramavataram or Kamba Ramayanam of Kamban is an epic of about 11,000 stanzas.[115][116][117] The Rama-avataram or Rama-kathai as it was originally accepted into the holy precincts in the presence of Vaishnava Acharya Naathamuni.[118] Kambar is believed to have come to the Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple to get the approval of his work from scholars. The Vaishnava Acharya Naathamuni and Jain scholar Tirunarungundam honoured the work and it resulted in Tamil and Sanskrit scholars approving the work. The open hall where he recited his verse lies close to the Ranganayaki shrine within the temple and now called as the Kamba Ramayana Mandapam.[citation needed]
Nammalvar was one of the twelve Alvar saints of Tamil Nadu, India, who are known for their affiliation to the Vaishnava tradition of Hinduism. The verses of the Alvars are compiled as the Naalayira Divya Prabandham, where praises are sung of 108 temples that are classified as divine realms, called the Divya Desams. Nammalvar is considered to be the fifth in the line of the twelve Alvars. He is highly regarded as a great mystic of the Vaishnava tradition. He is also considered to be the foremost among the twelve Alvars, and his contributions amount to 1352 among the 4000 stanzas in the Naalayira Divya Prabandam.
Perumal or Tirumal is a Hindu deity. Perumal is worshipped mainly among Tamil Hindus in South India and the Tamil diaspora, who consider Perumal to be a form of Vishnu.
The Sangam literature, historically known as 'the poetry of the noble ones', connotes the early classical Tamil literature and is the earliest known literature of South India. The Tamil tradition and legends link it to three legendary literary gatherings around Madurai and Kapāṭapuram: the first lasted over 4,440 years, the second over 3,700 years, and the third over 1,850 years. Scholars consider this Tamil tradition-based chronology as ahistorical and mythical. Most scholars suggest the historical Sangam literature era, also called the Sangam period, spanned from c. 300 BCE to 300 CE, while others variously place this early classical Tamil literature period a bit later and more narrowly but all before 300 CE. According to Kamil Zvelebil, a Tamil literature and history scholar, the most acceptable range for the Sangam literature is 100 BCE to 250 CE, based on the linguistic, prosodic and quasi-historic allusions within the texts and the colophons.
The Paripādal is a classical Tamil poetic work and traditionally the fifth of the Eight Anthologies (Ettuthokai) in the Sangam literature. According to Tolkappiyam, Paripadal is a kind of verse dealing only with love (akapporul) and does not fall under the general classification of verses. It has a minimum of 25 lines and a maximum of 400 lines. It is an "akam genre", odd and hybrid collection which expresses love in the form of religious devotion (Bhakti) to gods and goddesses predominantly to Maha Vishnu and Murugan. According to Kamil Zvelebil, a Tamil literature and history scholar. This is the only anthology in the Eight Anthologies collection that is predominantly religious, though the other seven anthologies do contain occasional mentions and allusions to gods, goddesses and legends.
Malaipaṭukaṭām is an ancient Tamil poem in the Pattuppāṭṭu anthology of the Sangam literature. Authored by Perunkunrur Perunkausikanar who is considered as a Brahmin due to his name Kausikanar which denotes the Vedic Rishi Kaushika, it consists of 583 lines according to Kamil Zvelebil lines that describe the nature scenes, the people and the culture of mountain countryside under king Nannan. The poem is dated approximately to 210 CE by Kamil Zvelebil – a Tamil literature scholar. The lengthy poem mentions the Hindu god Maha Vishnu primarily. Maha Vishnu was considered as the "Supreme Deity" in the poem and worshiped by many saints and kings. It also mentions the goddess of wealth, Lakshmi in lines 463–464 and the "goddess who sits enthroned on Maha Vishnus chest". There are also mentions where the king is looking similar to the god Murugan – the god of war.
Maduraikanchi, is an ancient Tamil poem in the Sangam literature. It is a didactic poem and its title connotes the "poetic counsel addressed to the king of Madurai". Composed by Mankuti Marutanar – probably the chief court poet of the Pandya king Nedunjeliyan II, the Maduraikkāñci is the sixth poem in the Pattuppāṭṭu anthology. The poem is generally dated to the late classical period.
Perumpāṇāṟṟuppaṭai is an ancient Tamil poem in the Pattuppattu anthology of the Sangam literature. It contains 500 lines in the akaval meter. It is one of five arruppatai genre poems and was a guide to other bards seeking a patron for their art. Set as a praise for chieftain Tonataiman Ilantiraiyan of the Kanchi territory, it was composed by Uruttirankannanar sometime around 190–200 CE, states Kamil Zvelebil – a Tamil literature scholar. While the poem is from the 2nd century, it was likely added to the Pattuppāṭṭu anthology in the 4th or 5th century CE, states Dennis Hudson – an Indologist and World Religions scholar. The poem has Several Mentions Of Vishnu and his temples present in Kanchipuram, It also refers Lord Vishnu as the supreme god of the world and Brahma was born from the navel of Maha Vishnu.
Mullaippāṭṭu is an ancient Tamil poem in the Sangam literature. Authored by Napputanar, it is the shortest poem in the Ten Idylls (Pattuppāṭṭu) anthology, consisting of 103 lines in akaval meter. It is largely an akam-genre (love) poem about a wife in grief when her husband does not return from the war front, when he promised he will. The Mullaippattu weaves her sorrow with her attempts at patience and self-control. The poem was likely composed about 230 CE or slightly later, according to Kamil Zvelebil – a Tamil literature scholar.
Paṭṭiṉappālai is a Tamil poem in the ancient Sangam literature. It contains 301 lines, of which 296 lines are about the port city of Kaveripoompattinam, the early Chola kingdom and the Chola king Karikalan. The remaining 5 lines are on the proposed separation by a man who wants to move there and the separation pain of his wife who would miss her husband's love. Of the 301 lines, 153 are in the vanci meter and the rest are in akaval. It is sometimes referred to as Vancinetumpattu, or the "long song in the vanci meter". The poem was composed by Katiyalur Uruttirankannanar, sometime around 1st century and 2nd century CE, states Kamil Zvelebil – a Tamil literature scholar. There are mentions of Mahalakshmi painted on walls and considered her as the goddess of fortune and wealth. The poem explains that the high and strong walls of the city secure the king where Mahalakshmi sits enthroned. There are mentions in Paṭṭiṉappālai that many Tamilians worshiped tall pillars or posts as Mayon (Vishnu). There are Many mentions of Maha Vishnu throughout the poem. There are temples present even now, where Maha Vishnu is worshiped in a pillar form. A well known example is the Kaliyuga Varadaraja Perumal Temple. It mentions the worship of Maha Vishnu, Mahalakshmi and Murugan. Muruga was worshiped as the red god and the god of war.
Koodal Aḻagar Temple in Madurai, a city in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu, is dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu. Constructed in the Dravidian style of architecture, the temple is glorified in the Naalayira Divya Prabandham, the early medieval Tamil canon of the Alvar saints from the 6th–9th centuries CE. It is one of the 108 Divya Desams dedicated to Vishnu, who is worshipped as Viyooga Sundarrajan, and his consort Lakshmi as Mathuravalli.
Tiruvekkaa Temple or Yathothkari Perumal Temple is a Hindu temple located in Kanchipuram in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu and dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu. Constructed in the Dravidian style of architecture, the temple is glorified in the Naalayira Divya Prabandham, the early medieval Tamil canon of the Alvar saints from the 6th–9th centuries CE. It is one of the 108 Divya Desams dedicated to Vishnu, who is worshipped as Yathothkari Perumal, and his consort Lakshmi as Komalavalli.
Nachiyar Kovil or Thirunarayur Nambi Temple is a Hindu temple in Thirunarayur, a village in the outskirts of Kumbakonam in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu, is dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu and her consort lakshmi. Nachiyar koil is one of 2 divyadesams were Lakshmi is pradaana over Vishnu. Thirunaraiyur is the sub urban region of business city of Kumbakonam.
The Thirumohoor Kalamegaperumal Temple is a Hindu temple near Melur, Madurai district in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu, is dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu. Constructed in the Dravidian style of architecture, the temple is glorified in the Nalayira Divya Prabandham, the early medieval Tamil canon of the Alvar saints from the 6th–9th centuries CE. It is one of the 108 Divya Desams dedicated to Vishnu, who is worshipped as Kalamega Perumal and his consort Lakshmi as Mohanavalli Thayar. As per Hindu legend, the presiding deity is believed to have appeared as the divine enchantress Mohini to allure the asuras to support the devas, the celestial deities. The temple is also known as Mohanapuram and Mohanakshetram.
The Naanmadiya Perumal Temple is a Hindu temple situated in the village of Thalaichangadu, near Akkur in Mayiladuthurai district in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Constructed in the Dravidian style of architecture, the temple is glorified in the Nalayira Divya Prabandham, the early medieval Tamil canon of the Alvar saints from the 6th–9th centuries CE. It is one of the 108 Divya Desams dedicated to Vishnu, who is worshipped as Nanmadiya Perumal and his consort Lakshmi as Talaichanga Nachiar.
Ulagalantha Perumal Temple or Trivikrama Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to Vishnu located in Tirukkoyilur, Tamil Nadu, India. Constructed in the Dravidian style of architecture, the temple is glorified in the Naalayira Divya Prabandham, the early medieval Tamil canon of the Alvar saints from the 6th–9th centuries CE. It is one of the 108 Divya Desams dedicated to Vishnu, who is worshipped as Ulagalantha Perumal and his consort Lakshmi as Poongothai. The temple is believed to have been built by the Medieval Cholas, with later contributions from Vijayanagara kings and Madurai Nayaks. The temple covers an area of 5 acres (20,000 m2) and has a temple tower that is the third tallest in Tamil Nadu, measuring 192 ft (59 m) in height.
Thiruvaragunamangai Perumal Temple is one of the Nava Tirupati, the nine Hindu temples dedicated to Vishnu located in the Tiruchendur-Tirunelveli route, Tamil Nadu, India in the banks of Thamiraparani river. All these 9 temples are classified as Divya Desams, the 108 temples of Vishnu revered by the 12 poet-saints of the Sri Vaishnava tradition, called the Alvars. The temple at Natham also known as Chandran Sthalam, the second of the Nava Tirupatis. Constructed in the Dravidian style of architecture, the temple is dedicated to Vishnu who is worshipped as Vijayasana Perumal and Lakshmi as Varagunavalli.
Alwarthirunagari Permual Temple is a Hindu temple, dedicated to Vishnu and Lakshmi in Alwarthirunagari, a town in Thoothukudi district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu.
Sri Srinivasa Perumal Temple or Sri Mayakoothar Permual Temple is one of the Nava Tirupatis, nine Hindu temples dedicated to Vishnu located Perungulam along Tiruchendur-Tirunelveli route, Tamil Nadu, India in the southern bank of Thamiraparani river. It is located 5 km from Alvar Thirunagari. All these 9 temples are classified as Divya Desams, the 108 temples of Vishnu revered by the 12 poet-saints of Sri Vaishnavism called the Alvars. The temple is referred to as Shani sthalam, a location for the planet deity, Shani (Saturn). Constructed in the Dravidian style of architecture, the temple is glorified in the Nalayira Divya Prabandham, the early medieval Tamil canon of the Alvar saints from the 6th–9th centuries CE. It is one of the 108 Divya Desams dedicated to Vishnu, who is worshipped as Mayakoothar and his consort Lakshmi as Kulandhaivalli Tayar.
Hinduism in Tamil Nadu finds its earliest literary mention in the Sangam literature dated to the 5th century BCE. The total number of Tamil Hindus as per 2011 Indian census is 63,188,168 which forms 87.58% of the total population of Tamil Nadu. Hinduism is the largest religion in Tamil Nadu.
Ramayana is one of the ancient Indian epics. According to Robert P. Goldman, the oldest parts of the Ramayana date to the mid-8th century BCE. The story is narrated by the saint poet Valmiki and tells the tale of Prince Rama of the city of Ayodhya, who is banished into the forest, accompanied by his wife Sita and half-brother Lakshmana. During the exile, Sita gets kidnapped by the king Ravana of Lanka, and Rama, with the help of a vanara army, rescues Sita from Lanka. The original set in Sanskrit consists of 24,000 verses, and there are several variations in the story narrated in South Asian and South East Asian cultures, across the Indian subcontinent, Thailand and Indonesia, with several versions re-written in various Indian and other Asian languages.
↑ Raman, Srilata (2020). "Reflections on the King of Ascetics (Yatirāja): Rāmānuja in the Devotional Poetry of Vedānta Deśika". In Dominic Goodall; Shaman Hatley; Harunaga Isaacson; Srilata Raman (eds.). Śaivism and the Tantric Traditions: Essays in Honour of Alexis G.J.S. Sanderson. Brill. p.201. ISBN9789004432666. JSTOR10.1163/j.ctv2gjwvrz.16.
↑ Upendra Nath Dhal (1978). Goddess Laksmi: Origin and Development. Oriental Publishers & Distributors. p.109. Goddess Lakşmī is stated as the genetrix of the world; she maintains them as a mother ought to do. So she is often called the Mātā.
1 2 Williams, George M. (2003). Handbook of Hindu Mythology. ABC-CLIO, Inc. pp.196–8. ISBN1-85109-650-7.
↑ Isaeva 1993, p.252. sfn error: no target: CITEREFIsaeva1993 (help)
↑ Carman, John Braisted; Vasudha Narayanan (1989). The Tamil Veda: Piḷḷān's interpretation of the Tiruvāymol̲i. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN0-226-09305-0. OCLC18624684.
1 2 3 M. S., Ramesh (1993). 108 Vaishnavite Divya Desams: Divya desams in Pandya Nadu. Tirumalai-Tirupati Devasthanam.
↑ JV Chelliah 1946, pp.226–227, p. 259 "They feel they are one with the Universe, and reach for high heaven while yet they are on earth, they never depart from virtue, love all life, and live a saintly life of joy supreme.". sfn error: no target: CITEREFJV_Chelliah1946 (help)
↑ M., Rajagopalan (1993). 15 Vaishnava Temples of Tamil Nadu. Chennai, India: Govindaswamy Printers. pp. 119–128.
1 2 D. Dennis Hudson (2008). Martha Ann Selby and Indira Viswanathan Peterson (ed.). Tamil Geographies: Cultural Constructions of Space and Place in South India. State University of New York Press. pp. 89–93. ISBN978-0-7914-7945-2.
↑ Ananthanathan, A.K. (1994). "Theory and Functions of the State The Concept of aṟam (virtue) in Tirukkural". East and West. 44 (2/4): 321. JSTOR29757156.
↑ Zvelebil, Kamil (1984). "Tirukural, translated from Tamil into Russian by J. Glazov". Archiv Orientální. 32: 681–682.
↑ R., Dr. Vijayalakshmy (2001). An introduction to religion and Philosophy - Tévarám and Tivviyappirapantam (1st ed.). Chennai: International Institute of Tamil Studies. pp. 471–2.
↑ Andrea Nippard. "The Alvars"(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 20 April 2013.
↑ Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam (ed.). India through the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p.212.
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