Related Research Articles
The 1440s decade ran from January 1, 1440, to December 31, 1449.
Year 1443 (MCDXLIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar.
John Hunyadi was a leading Hungarian military and political figure in Central and Southeastern Europe during the 15th century. According to most contemporary sources, he was the member of a noble family of Wallachian ancestry. He mastered his military skills on the southern borderlands of the Kingdom of Hungary that were exposed to Ottoman attacks. Appointed voivode of Transylvania and head of a number of southern counties, he assumed responsibility for the defense of the frontiers in 1441.
The Second Battle of Kosovo was a land battle between a Hungarian-led Crusader army and the Ottoman Empire at Kosovo field that took place from 17–20 October 1448. It was the culmination of a Hungarian offensive to avenge the defeat at Varna four years earlier. In the three-day battle the Ottoman army under the command of Sultan Murad II defeated the Crusader army of regent John Hunyadi.
The first siege of Krujë occurred in 1450 when an Ottoman army led by Sultan Murad II and his crown prince Mehmed II tried to besiege the Albanian town of Krujë. The League of Lezhë, led by Skanderbeg, experienced low morale after losing Svetigrad and Berat between 1448 and 1450. Nevertheless, Skanderbeg's exhortations and the support of the clergy, who claimed to have had visions of angels and victory, motivated the Albanians to defend the capital of the League, Krujë, at all costs. After leaving a protective garrison of 4,000 men under his trusted lieutenant Vrana Konti, Skanderbeg harassed the Ottoman camps around Krujë and attacked the supply caravans of Sultan Murad II's army. By September, the Ottoman camp was in disarray as morale sank and disease ran rampant. The Ottoman army acknowledged that the castle of Krujë would not fall by strength of arms, lifted the siege, and made its way to Edirne. Soon thereafter, in the winter of 1450–51, Murad died in Edirne and was succeeded by his son, Mehmed II.
The Battle of Nish was fought between the Crusaders led by John Hunyadi and Đurađ Branković and the Ottoman Empire led by Kasim Pasha. It saw the Crusaders capture the Ottoman stronghold of Nish in Serbia, and defeat two armies of the Ottoman Empire. The Battle of Niš was part of Hunyadi's expedition known as the long campaign. Hunyadi, at the head of the vanguard, crossed the Balkans through the Gate of Trajan, captured Nish, defeated three Ottoman pashas, and after taking Sofia from the Ottomans, united with the royal army and defeated Sultan Murad II at Snaim (Kustinitza). The impatience of the king and the severity of the winter then compelled him to return home.
Gjergj Kastrioti, commonly known as Skanderbeg, was an Albanian feudal lord and military commander who led a rebellion against the Ottoman Empire in what is today Albania, North Macedonia, Greece, Kosovo, Montenegro, and Serbia.
The Ottoman–Hungarian Wars were a series of battles between the Ottoman Empire and the medieval Kingdom of Hungary. Following the Byzantine Civil War, the Ottoman capture of Gallipoli, and the decisive Battle of Kosovo, the Ottoman Empire was poised to conquer the entirety of the Balkans and also sought and expressed desire to expand further north into Central Europe beginning with the Hungarian lands.
The Battle of Torvioll, also known as the Battle of Lower Dibra, was fought on 29 June 1444 on the Plain of Torvioll, in what is modern-day Albania. Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg was an Ottoman Albanian general who decided to go back to his native land and take the reins of a new Albanian League against the Ottoman Empire. He, along with 300 other Albanians fighting at the Battle of Niš, deserted the Ottoman army to head towards Krujë, which fell quickly through a subversion. He then formed the League of Lezhë, a confederation of Albanian princes united in war against the Ottoman Empire. Murad II, realizing the threat, sent one of his most experienced captains, Ali Pasha, to crush the new state with a force of 25,000-40,000 men.
The Battle of Mokra took place on October 10, 1445 near mountain Mokra. It was an Ottoman retaliation to a message sent by Skanderbeg to Murad II. The Albanian forces under Skanderbeg defeated the Ottoman forces under Firuz Pasha. It was the second major Albanian victory over the Ottoman Empire.
The Battle of Otonetë occurred on September 27, 1446, in upper Dibra in Albania. The Ottoman commander, Mustafa Pasha, was sent into Albania, but was soon intercepted and defeated by Skanderbeg. It was one of the many victories won by Skanderbeg.
The siege of Svetigrad or Sfetigrad began on 14 May 1448 when an Ottoman army, led by Sultan Murad II, besieged the fortress of Svetigrad. After the many failed Ottoman expeditions into Albania against the League of Lezhë, a confederation of Albanian Principalities created in 1444 and headed by Skanderbeg, Murad II decided to march an army into Skanderbeg's dominions in order to capture the key Albanian fortress of Svetigrad. The fortress lay on an important route between present-day North Macedonia and Albania, and thus its occupation would give the Ottomans easy access into Albania.
Skanderbeg's Italian expedition (1460–1462) was undertaken to aid his ally Ferdinand I of Naples, whose rulership was threatened by the Angevin Dynasty. Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg was the ruler of Albania who had been leading a rebellion against the Ottoman Empire since 1443 and allied himself with several European monarchs in order to consolidate his domains. In 1458, Alfonso V of Aragon, ruler of Sicily and Naples and Skanderbeg's most important ally, died, leaving his illegitimate son, Ferdinand, on the Neapolitan throne; René d'Anjou, the French Duke of Anjou, laid claim to the throne. The conflict between René's and Ferdinand's supporters soon erupted into a civil war. Pope Calixtus III, of Spanish background himself, could do little to secure Ferdinand, so he turned to Skanderbeg for aid.
Vrana, historically known as Vrana Konti was an Albanian military leader who was distinguished in the Albanian-Turkish Wars as one of the commanders of Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg, of whom he was one of the closest councillors. He probably belonged to the class of small lords who were tied to the Kastrioti family and possibly belonged to a common lineage (fis) with them. In his youth, he fought as a mercenary in the armies of Alfonso the Magnanimous. The term conte ("count") with which he became known in historical accounts didn't refer to an actual title he held, but to his status as a figure of importance.
Skanderbeg's Macedonian campaign was a preemptive campaign into the Ottoman Empire in Macedonia by Skanderbeg to defeat three Ottoman armies which had been prepared for the joint-invasion of Albania. From 1461 to 1462, Skanderbeg campaigned in Italy to protect his ally, Ferdinand I, from being overrun by the Angevin dynasty which claimed the Kingdom of Naples. Before setting out for Italy, Skanderbeg forged a truce with Sultan Mehmed II. Upon returning to Albania after securing Ferdinand, the Venetians became hostile to Skanderbeg and a sort of undeclared war took place. Mehmed saw an opportunity to attack Skanderbeg and sent three armies in one year. All three were defeated by Skanderbeg, however, in August 1462.
On August 1465, Ballaban Badera, a sanjakbey of the Sanjak of Ohrid who was an Albanian-born janissary launched his fourth but largest campaign against Skanderbeg. He was defeated in both battles of Ohrid and Vajkal the year before. Ballaban had previously inflicted severe casualties on Skanderbeg's forces and soon received high favor from Mehmet II. He soon appointed Ballaban and Jakup Arnauti—both Albanian peasants by birth—to lead a joint-campaign against Skanderbeg's forces. According to some scholars, this act of inclusion by the Sultan was a promotion of a social revolution within Albania to wean forces away from Skanderbeg.
The Second Battle of Mokra occurred on July 7, 1462, right before Skanderbeg's Macedonian campaign. Sultan Mehmed II had come out of his recent campaigns victorious, adding large swaths of lands to his domains. He was confident enough to send a new force into Albania to weaken the Albanian forces. He thus sent an army under Sinan bey to complete the job. Skanderbeg had been prepared and moved towards the Albanian frontier. The armies came near Mokra where Skanderbeg had positioned his forces on a mountain dominating the landscape. When the Turkish force got near enough, the Albanians ambushed and the Turks routed. Skanderbeg then raided Macedonia and shared the loot with his men.
The Battle of Ohrid took place on 14 or 15 September 1464 between Albanian ruler Skanderbeg's forces and Ottoman forces. A crusade against Sultan Mehmed II had been planned by Pope Pius II with Skanderbeg as one of its main leaders. The battle near Ohrid occurred as a result of an Albanian incursion into Ottoman territory. The Ottomans stationed in the area were assaulted by Skanderbeg's men and 1,000 Venetian soldiers under Cimarosto. The Ottomans were lured out of their protections in Ohrid and ambushed by the Albanian cavalry. Skanderbeg won the resulting battle and his men earned 40,000 ducats after captured Ottoman officers were ransomed. Pius II died before the planned crusade began, however, forcing Skanderbeg to fight his battles virtually alone.
The Battle of Zlatitsa was fought on 12 December 1443 between the Ottoman Empire and Serbian and Hungarian troops in the Balkans as part of the larger Crusade of Varna. The battle was fought at Zlatitsa Pass near the town of Zlatitsa in the Balkan Mountains, Ottoman Empire. The impatience of the King of Poland and the severity of the winter then compelled John Hunyadi to return home in February 1444, but not before he had utterly broken the Sultan's power in Bosnia, Herzegovina, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Albania.
The Albanian-Ottoman Wars (1432–1479) were a series of wars and revolts against the rising Ottoman Empire by Albanian feudal lords. The wars and revolts took place in present-day Albania, Montenegro, Kosovo, North Macedonia and South Serbia. In this period, Albanians under the leadership of Gjergj Arianiti and especially later under Skanderbeg resisted the Ottomans under two Sultans in over 30 battles. Skanderbeg continued this resistance until his death in 1468, and the Albanians persevered for another 11 years before being defeated.
References
- ↑ Peter Niederhäuser, Christian Sieber: Ein «Bruderkrieg» macht Geschichte 2006
- ↑ Mureşanu, Camil (2001). John Hunyadi: Defender of Christendom. The Center for Romanian Studies. ISBN 973-9432-18-2, 127-128.
- ↑ Makkai, László (1994). "The Three Nations of Transylvania (1360–1526)". In Köpeczi, Béla; Barta, Gábor; Bóna, István; Makkai, László; Szász, Zoltán; Borus, Judit (eds.). History of Transylvania. Akadémiai Kiadó. pp. 178–243. ISBN 963-05-6703-2.
- ↑ Peter Niederhäuser, Christian Sieber: Ein «Bruderkrieg» macht Geschichte 2006
- ↑ http://www.guteinfo.com/?id=2811, read on 2023-06-26 (Swedish)
- ↑ on 2023-06-26 (Swedish)
- ↑ http://www.guteinfo.com/?id=2811, read on 2023-06-26 (Swedish)
- ↑ "Erik av Pommern". Svenskt biografiskt lexikon. Retrieved June 1, 2018.
- ↑ Albanische Forschungen (in German). O. Harrassowitz. 1964. p. 110. ISBN 978-3-87828-106-1.
- ↑ Francione, Gennaro (2006) [2003]. Aliaj, Donika (ed.). Skënderbeu, një hero modern : (Hero multimedial) [Skanderbeg, a modern hero (Hero multimedia)] (in Albanian). Translated by Tasim Aliaj. Tiranë, Albania: Shtëpia botuese "Naim Frashëri". ISBN 99927-38-75-8.
- ↑ Erhan Afyoncu, (2009), Truvanın İntikamı (ISBN 978-605-4052-11-0), p. 2, (In Turkish)
- ↑ "A.B.C. Isn't Simple as A.B.C. in Korea— Alphabet on 525th Birthday, Both Hailed and Assailed", The New York Times, October 10, 1971, p. 8
- ↑ Nicol, Donald M. (1992). The Immortal Emperor: The Life and Legend of Constantine Palaiologos, Last Emperor of the Romans. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-511-58369-8.
- ↑ Setton, Kenneth M. (1978), The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Volume II: The Fifteenth Century, DIANE Publishing, pp. 96–97, ISBN 0-87169-127-2
- ↑ Gomes Eanes de Zurara (1453) Crónica dos feitos notáveis que se passaram na Conquista da Guiné por mandado do Infante D. Henrique or Chronica do descobrimento e conquista da Guiné. [Trans. 1896–99 by C.R. Beazley and E. Prestage, The Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea, London: Halykut]
- ↑ Teixeira da Mota, Avelino (1946) "A descoberta da Guiné", Boletim cultural da Guiné Portuguesa, Vol. 1. Part 1 in No. 1 (Jan), p. 11-68, Pt. 2 in No. 2 (Apr), p. 273-326; Pt. 3 in No. 3 (Jul), p. 457-509.
- ↑ Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 3. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd, 174.
- ↑ Block, Wolfgang (1913). Die condottieri. Berlin.
- ↑ Samuel, Mark; Hamlyn, Kate (2007). Blarney Castle: Its History, Development and Purpose. Cork University. ISBN 978-1-85918-411-0.
- ↑ Yvonne Bleyerveld; Lamot (Mechelen, Belgium) (2005). Women of Distinction: Margaret of York, Margaret of Austria. Brepols Publishers. p. 24. ISBN 978-90-5826-342-1.
- ↑ Sir John Wyndham Pope-Hennessy (1986). Italian Renaissance Sculpture. Phaidon. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-7148-2416-1.