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The existence of the earliest forts in India have been substantiated by documentation and excavation. While they are all called forts, most of them are larger and resemble castles. In the medieval times, the architecture of the forts had both Hindu and Muslim influence. Very few forts and castles have survived unchanged since the early Middle Ages or even since the early modern period: most of those built in the 10th-15th centuries were later rebuilt and altered. The forts constructed by the British initially opted for simple designs. The existing castles are continually modified and many of them are privately owned.
Most of the forts in India are actually castles or fortresses; but when the British Government in India were cataloging them in the 17th–19th century they used the word forts as it was common in Britain then. All fortifications whether European or Indian were termed forts. Thereafter this became the common usage in India. In local languages, the fort names are suffixed by local word for fort thus usage of the Sanskrit word durga, Urdu word qila, or the Hindi word garh or gad is common.[1] For example, Suvarnadurg, Mehrangarh, Sudhagad etc.
Three major methods were used for the construction of ancient Indian forts. The first consisted of earthen ramparts. Often, they were constructed of the sand which was dug out of the ditch surrounding the fort. The second of rubble with earth on the outside which was more sturdy. The third type of construction was with stone and masonry work. The last was the strongest. Often materials from demolished forts were reused in the building of new forts.[2]
By the 4th century BCE, fortified cities were common in India. The largest ones were between the city of Mathura (on the Yamuna river) and Magadha (on the Ganges). Another series of forts in the south was on the Ujjain (on the Narmada) leading into the Deccan. These are inferred by the remains of fort walls and bastions seen on excavation at Rajagriha and at several sites in the Gangetic plain notably Kaushambi. At the latter site huge walls of burnt brick, which look like they have been battered.[3]
There are few descriptions of these ancient structures. The most noted is the one by Megasthenes, an ambassador of Seleucus I Nicator to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. He describes Pataliputra as being guarded by a ditch with wooden walls. The fort had 570 towers and 54 gates with colonnaded halls decorated with gold and silver. One such hall has been excavated and is one of the oldest stone structures in India.[4]
Though most of the structures have decayed and are lost, India's legacy of ancient forts is seen mostly in the shastras (ancient Indian treatises) and in the reliefs on stupas.[5] On some of the early relief work, the carvings indicate that ancient Indian forts have crenellations, embrasures, and sloping walls.[3]
The Arthashastra the Indian treatise on military strategy describes six major types of forts differentiated by their major modes of defenses:[6]
Antardvipa-durga (island fortress): surrounded by natural (sea or river) water bodies. E.g. Murud-Janjira.
Sthala-durga (plain fortress): surrounded by artificial moats or irrigated by a river e.g. Deeg Fort, Lohagarh Fort.
Dhanvana- or Maru-durga (Desert Fort): Surrounded by an arid area of at least 5 yojanas (73km).
Giri-durga (Hill fort)
Prantara-durga: Located on a flat hill summit. E.g. medieval forts such as Chittor, Gwalior and Ranthambore.
Giri-parshva-durga: The fortifications and civilian structures extend down to the hill slope (not just the summit).
Guha-durga: Located in a valley surrounded by hills, where the outposts and the signal towers are located.
Vana-durga (Forest fort): Surrounded by a dense forest over a distance of at least 4 kroshas (14.6km).
Khanjana-durga, built on a fen surrounded by thorny forests.
Sthambha-durga, built in the forest among tall trees; lacks sufficient water sources.
Mahi-durga (Earthen fort)
Mrid-durga: surrounded by earthen walls
Parigha-durga: Surrounded by earthen walls, as well as stone or brick walls. The walls are at least 5.4 m high and their width is half of their height, the smallest of which is 2.7 m wide.
Panka-durga: Surrounded by fens or quicksand
Nri-durga (Human fort)
Defended by a large number of loyal and experienced warriors. Usually a city fortress, populated by a substantial garrison.
Each of these types had its own advantages and disadvantages. For example, according to the Manusmṛti, the forest fort suffers from monkey attacks, the earthen forts get swarmed with rodents, the water forts were plagued by diseases etc. The Manusmṛti considers the Hill fort to be the best defensive structure. Some Sanskrit text consider hill forts to be the abode of gods and hence auspicious. The Mahabharata describes the Human fort as the most effective fortification.[6]
Medieval period saw decline of large empires like Guptas and rise of local lordship. With more raiding, and close-range sieges, forts and castles with keeps, moats, gatehouses, and towers controlling roads and territory were constructed. One of the oldest forts in India can be found in Bathinda, Punjab, established around the early 9th century by local Bhatti chiefs.[7] Major hill and plateau forts, combining palaces, temples, and defensive walls were built. e.g.; Bhatner, Shivneri, Jaisalmer, Rajgad forts. With Muslim conquests, and prolonged sieges against castles; the need for layered passive defence and flanking fire increased. The response was concentric layouts, multiple walls, stronger gate systems, and deep defensive zoning. The construction of a citadel in the center and putting in more area between the citadel and the walls was characteristic of medieval forts (due to the same military pressures as the Norman motte and bailey). Classic examples of such structures are the Golkonda, Chittor, Gulbarga, Ranthambore, Daulatabad, Chitradurga, Amber and Bidar forts.[8]
Early modern period
With the introduction of gunpowder cannons, lower, thicker, larger, artillery-adapted fortresses with curtain walls and bastions were built.[9] Examples include Agra Fort, Fort Louis (Fort St. Louis), Pondicherry, Red Fort, Fort d’Orléans Chandernagore, Manjarabad Fort, and Fort St. David. The Sikh Confederacy began to construct mud-forts, known as garhis, as they began to establish their own states in the 18th century, such as by the Phulkians at Patiala, Nabha, and Jind.[7] The Marathas expanded and strengthened many existing hill and sea forts like Sindhudurg, Raigad, and Suvarnadurg. With the advent of the East India Company, the British established trading posts along the coast. Parsimony of the East India Company for materials and artisans and non-availability of trained engineers initially resulted in weak design and construction. The vulnerability of these earlier forts, hostilities with the French and the growing might of the Company resulted in stronger and more complex designs for the second round of construction. Mumbai fort, Fort William in Kolkata, Fort St George in Chennai were polygonal forts reflecting the influences of the French engineer Vauban.[10] The cities guarded by these forts developed from the small townships outside the forts and became the centers of individual presidencies. The Sikh Empire also built a number of polygonal forts.[7]
Modern period
An 18th-century painting of Fort St George, Madras
After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British converted many pre-existing forts into military barracks and training academies, which damaged the original sites.[7] After development of longer-range, more accurate rifled breech loader artillery threatening cities from beyond the walls, fortifications were not constructed.
Current state
After the abolition of the privy-purse in 1971, many forts owned by former royal families of the princely states fell into disrepair and neglect.[7] Although no Indian forts were destroyed by sudden disasters, there are several which were abandoned by their rulers and have consequently deteriorated over time. Castles were still used as living quarters until the 19th-20th centuries, and so were continually modified. Some of them are private property.
Construction and style
Stone was the most important material for building fortifications in India. Walls were erected by one of the following three construction methods. A wall could be an earthen rampart faced with stone on both sides. The rampart was built using the earth excavated while digging the ditch, with three-quarters of it used for building a rampart and one-quarter for leveling out the surface inside the fortress and in front of the ditch. Facing the rampart with stone allowed for the erection of higher and steeper walls than those possible with a purely earthen rampart. The structure had a substantial shortcoming, however: an earthen core accumulated water, which could destroy the stone shell. Drainage channels were therefore installed along the length of the wall from top to bottom. The main binding material for construction was Lime mortar.
Lime mortar mixer on Rasalgad
The second method consisted of filling the space between the outer layers with earth mixed with rubble. This core was considerably harder than simply using rammed earth. The third and most advanced method involved the use of mortar. A rubble-built wall fastened with mortar was strong and long lasting. Construction methods depended, however, on the materials available.[2]
The gates of Indian forts were highly decorated.[11] Two distinct styles are seen. The Hindu style with a lintel, and the Mughal style with an arch. Gates in Indian forts were often high and wide to allow elephants to pass.[12] Often they had rows of sharp, stout iron spikes to dissuade an attacking army from using elephants to break down the gates.[13] Such a gate with spikes can be seen on the Shaniwarwada fort, Pune. The walls of the forts often appeared higher from the outside than the inside as the forts used of the natural rock formations on hills. This not only gave an illusion of greater height but also lead to the lower walls of the fort to be entirely made up of natural rock or earthworks providing almost a perfect defense against the use of a battering ram or war elephants to tear down the walls.[14] The main gate to the forts usually faced north, this was to avoid its deterioration by the rains, winds and the sun. Along with the fortifications, emphasis was also given for construction of rock cut water cistern, ponds, wells and lakes. To avoid evaporation of water, the water bodies were covered. At times rooms were built close to water bodies to lower the temperatures.
Many Indian fortifications have parapets and crenellations with peculiarly shaped merlons and complicated systems of loopholes, which differ substantially from similar structures in other countries. Typical Indian merlons were semicircular and pointed at the top, although they were sometimes fake: the parapet may be solid and the merlons shown in relief on the outside (as at Chittorgarh). What was unique is the arrangement and direction of loopholes. Loopholes were made both in the merlons themselves, and under the crenels. They could either look forward (to command distant approaches) or downward (to command the foot of the wall). Sometimes a merlon was pierced with two or three loopholes, but more often, one loophole was divided into two or three slits by horizontal or vertical partitions. The shape of loopholes, as well as the shape of merlons, need not have been the same everywhere in the castle, as shown by Kumbhalgarh.[15][dubious–discuss]
Human sacrifice
Several reports exist of the practice of burying humans either dead or alive in the foundations of fort walls, to ensure their stability, being widely followed. It was believed that the ghosts of the sacrificed would keep evil spirits and bad luck away. During the building of the Sri Qila, Delhi Alauddin Khalji is reported to have buried 8,000 skulls of Mughals killed by him into the foundation.[16] During the building of Purandar Fort one its bastions gave way several times. The king of Berar then ordered his minister, Esaji Naik Chive to bury a first-born son and his wife into the foundation of the bastion. This was promptly done and after a further offering of gold and bricks. When the bastion was finished Esaji Naik was given possession of the fort and the father of the sacrificed boy was rewarded with two villages.[16]
Yule, Paul (2007). Review of J. Deloche, Studies on Fortifications in India, Pondicherry. Zurich.{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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