STS-8

Last updated

STS-8
View of the INSAT-1B PAM-D being deployed S08-49-1722.jpg
INSAT-1B is deployed from Space Shuttle Challenger
Names Space Transportation System-8
Mission type Communications satellite deployment
Operator NASA
COSPAR ID 1983-089A OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
SATCAT no. 14312 OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
Mission duration6 days, 1 hour, 8 minutes, 43 seconds
Distance travelled4,046,660 km (2,514,480 mi)
Orbits completed98
Spacecraft properties
Spacecraft Space Shuttle Challenger
Launch mass110,108 kg (242,747 lb)
Landing mass92,508 kg (203,945 lb)
Payload mass12,011 kg (26,480 lb)
Crew
Crew size5
Members
Start of mission
Launch dateAugust 30, 1983, 06:32:00 (August 30, 1983, 06:32:00)  UTC (2:32 am  EDT)
Launch site Kennedy, LC-39A
Contractor Rockwell International
End of mission
Landing dateSeptember 5, 1983, 07:40:43 (September 5, 1983, 07:40:43) UTC (12:40:43 am  PDT)
Landing site Edwards, Runway 22
Orbital parameters
Reference system Geocentric orbit
Regime Low Earth orbit
Perigee altitude 348 km (216 mi)
Apogee altitude 356 km (221 mi)
Inclination 28.51°
Period 90.60 minutes
Instruments
  • Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials
  • High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration
STS-8 patch.svg
STS-8 mission patch
STS-8 crew.jpg
From left: Brandenstein, Gardner, Truly, Thornton and Bluford.
←  STS-7
STS-9  →

STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle Challenger. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983, conducting the first night launch and night landing of the Space Shuttle program. It also carried the first African-American astronaut, Guion Bluford. The mission successfully achieved all of its planned research objectives, but was marred by the subsequent discovery that a solid-fuel rocket booster had almost malfunctioned catastrophically during the launch.

Contents

The mission's primary payload was INSAT-1B, an Indian communications and weather observation satellite, which was released by the orbiter and boosted into a geostationary orbit. The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board Challenger included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as "space sickness"). The flight furthermore served as shakedown testing for the previously launched TDRS-1 satellite, which would be required to support the subsequent STS-9 mission.

Crew

Position Astronaut
Commander Richard H. Truly
Second and last spaceflight
Pilot Daniel Brandenstein
First spaceflight
Mission Specialist 1 Guion Bluford
First spaceflight
Mission Specialist 2
Flight Engineer		 Dale Gardner
First spaceflight
Mission Specialist 3 William E. Thornton
First spaceflight

This mission had a crew of five, with three mission specialists. It was the second mission (after STS-7) to fly with a crew of five, the largest carried by a single spacecraft up to that date. [1] The crew was historically notable for the participation of Guion Bluford, who became the first African-American to fly in space. [2]

The commander, Truly, was the only veteran astronaut of the crew, having flown as the pilot on STS-2 in 1981 and for two of the Approach and Landing Tests (ALT) aboard Enterprise in 1977. Prior to this, he had worked as a capsule communicator (CAPCOM) for all three Skylab missions and the ASTP mission. [3] Brandenstein, Gardner and Bluford had all been recruited in 1978, and been training for a mission since 1979. [4] The mission had originally been planned for a crew of four, with Thornton added to the crew as a third mission specialist in December 1982, eight months after the crew was originally named. [5] As with Truly, he was an Apollo-era recruit, having joined NASA in 1967. [6] His participation on the mission included a series of tests aimed at gathering information on the physiological changes linked with Space Adaptation Syndrome, more commonly known as "space sickness"; this had become a focus of attention in NASA, as astronauts succumbed to it during Shuttle missions. [5]

The orbiter carried two Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMUs) for use in case of an emergency spacewalk; if needed, they would be used by Truly and Gardner. [7]

Crew seat assignments

Seat [8] LaunchLanding Space Shuttle seating plan.svg
Seats 1–4 are on the flight deck.
Seats 5–7 are on the mid-deck.
1Truly
2Brandenstein
3Bluford
4Gardner
5Thornton
6Unused
7Unused

Mission plan and payloads

INSAT-1B being prepared in a processing facility. Insat-1B.jpg
INSAT-1B being prepared in a processing facility.

An early plan for STS-8, released in April 1982, had scheduled it for July 1983. It was expected to be a three-day mission with four crew members, and would launch INSAT-1B, an Indian satellite, and TDRS-B, a NASA communications relay satellite. [9] However, following problems with the Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) used to deploy TDRS-A on the STS-6 mission, it was announced in May 1983 that the TDRS was not going to be flown. It was replaced in the manifest [10] by the Payload Flight Test Article. [11] After re-development of the IUS, TDRS-B was eventually re-manifested for the STS-51-L mission, and was lost along with the Space Shuttle Challenger and its crew when the launch failed in January 1986. [12]

The primary element of the STS-8 mission payload was INSAT-1B. It was the second in a series of multi-purpose weather and communications satellites to be operated by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO); the first, INSAT-1A, had been launched by a Delta launch vehicle in April 1982, but had to be shut down shortly afterwards due to a failure of the onboard reaction control system (RCS). The satellite was carried in the rear of the shuttle's payload bay, and was boosted into a Geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) by a Payload Assist Module (PAM-D), a small solid rocket upper stage, after its release from the orbiter. [13] The satellite, with its upper stage, massed a total of 3,377 kg (7,445 lb), with the cradle massing another 1,102 kg (2,429 lb), [14] and had cost around US$50 million. [15]

Technical diagram of the Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) Payload Flight Test Article (STS 8).png
Technical diagram of the Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA)

The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest, [9] but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest. [11] It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a 6 m (20 ft) long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of 3,855 kg (8,499 lb), which could be lifted by the "Canadarm" Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's "robot arm" – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay. [16]

The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on Columbia to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft. [17]

Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese Asahi Shimbun newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized. [18]

The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters. [19]

A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments. [20] A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested. [21] The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity. [21] A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS). [22]

The mission was also scheduled to carry out a series of tests with the TDRS-1 satellite which had been deployed by STS-6, to ensure the system was fully operational before it was used to support the Spacelab program on the upcoming STS-9 flight. [23] The orbiter furthermore carried equipment to allow for encrypted transmissions, to be tested for use in future classified missions. [24]

Support crew

Mission summary

Launch preparations

Challenger's rollout from the Orbiter Processing Facility (OPF) to the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) to be stacked for launch. Shuttle-challenger.jpg
Challenger's rollout from the Orbiter Processing Facility (OPF) to the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) to be stacked for launch.

Preparation for the mission began on June 3, 1983, with the assembly of the shuttle's solid rocket boosters (SRB) on the Mobile Launcher Platform. The boosters were stacked on June 20, 1983, and the external tank (ET) mated to the assembly on June 23, 1983. Challenger arrived at Kennedy Space Center on June 29, 1983, and was transferred to the Orbiter Processing Facility on June 30, 1983. After post-flight maintenance and preparation for the new mission, including the installation of most flight payloads, the shuttle was transferred to the Vehicle Assembly Building on July 27, 1983, and mated to the booster/tank stack. The stack was checked out on July 29 and 30, 1983, and moved to Launch Complex 39A on August 2, 1983. [25] INSAT-1B was loaded into the orbiter when on the pad; the overall processing time from Challenger arriving at KSC to being ready for launch was only sixty-two days, a record for the program at the time. [26]

The launch had originally been scheduled for on August 4, 1983, and was later rescheduled for on August 20, 1983. [27] The requirement to conduct testing with the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) required a delay of ten days for the system to be ready, during which the stack remained on the launch pad. [28] During the on-pad delay, Hurricane Barry (1983) hit the Florida coastline, making landfall just south of the Kennedy Space Center on the morning of August 25, 1983. The storm had only been identified two days earlier, and there was no time to roll Challenger back from the pad; the decision was made to secure the launch stack and ride out the storm. [29]

Launch

A lightning strike near the orbiter stack, some hours before launch. Electrical Storm - GPN-2000-001879.jpg
A lightning strike near the orbiter stack, some hours before launch.

Challenger finally launched at 06:32:00 UTC (02:32:00 EDT) on August 30, 1983, [30] after a final 17-minute delay due to thunderstorms near the launch site. [31] The launch window extended from 06:15 to 06:49. [32] The countdown to launch was called by Mark Hess, public information officer.

The launch, which occurred in pre-dawn darkness, was the first American night launch since Apollo 17, [33] and was watched by several thousand spectators. The unusual launching time was due to tracking requirements for the primary payload, INSAT-1B; [1] the program would not have another night launch until STS-61-B in 1985. [34] The crew had attempted to prepare for it by training in darkened simulators so as to keep their night vision, but in practice it was discovered that the light of the solid-fuel rocket boosters made the immediate area around the launchpad virtually as bright as a day launch. [35]

The launch was the first to use a newly developed high-performance motor for the solid rocket boosters, which gave approximately 7% greater thrust. Post-flight analysis later showed there was nearly a burn-through of the rocket casing, a significant problem that later doomed the 51-L mission (see "Post-flight safety analysis" section below for more). This launch was also the second-to-last to use the original standard-mass steel casings for the boosters. These had been replaced by a thinner case, saving some 1,800 kg (4,000 lb), on STS-6 and STS-7, but because of safety concerns the next two flights used the conventional cases. [36]

Orbital operations

INSAT-1B after deployment STS008-44-611.jpg
INSAT-1B after deployment

After a successful insertion into a circular orbit at 296 km (184 mi), the first experiments began; the first two samples were run through the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, and measurements were taken for the atmospheric luminosities study. A hydraulic circulation pump failed, but this was worked around and it proved to have no impact on operations. [31]

The major event of the second day (August 31, 1983) was the successful deployment of the INSAT-1B satellite, which took place at 07:48 UTC, with Challenger then maneuvering to avoid the firing of the booster motor forty minutes later. [37] Other experimentation continued, though telemetry through TDRS was lost for around three hours, requiring manual intervention. [38] A fire alarm sounded in the morning, indicating signs of a fire in the avionics compartment, but a second alarm remained silent and it was eventually determined to be a false alarm. [39]

On the third and fourth days (September 1 and 2, 1983), work began with the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System and the payload test article, and communications testing through TDRS continued. The former was successful, but the latter lost contact on a number of occasions, due to problems at the White Sands ground station. [40] As a result, the crew had to be awakened early on September 1, 1983, in order to deal with the problem. [41] A minor cabin pressure leak on September 2, 1983, was traced to the waste management system, and quickly controlled. [40] The orbiter performed an Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS) firing on September 2, 1983, to place itself in a lower orbit, where the air density was higher and the oxygen interaction experiments would work more effectively. [42]

On the fifth day (September 3, 1983), testing of the Canadarm continued, including a number of optional "shopping list" tests, and the TDRS tests were carried out with more success. [40] A live press conference was held late in the day, the first in-flight press conference since Apollo 17. [43] On the sixth day (September 4, 1983), experiment runs were completed and the crew prepared to deorbit. Two systems failures were recorded on this last day, the most serious of which involved a synchronization failure in one of the onboard computers. [40]

While on orbit, Challenger made a number of altitude and attitude adjustments, in order to test the behavior of a Shuttle orbiter and to perform some experiments in different thermal conditions. By exposing or shading areas from the sun in an unusual way, it was possible to induce particularly warm or cold conditions and observe any resulting problems. [44]

Landing

The mission plan called for a landing at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 121:28 mission elapsed time (MET). [45] On the original plan, this would have been at 07:44 UTC on September 4, 1983, before accounting for the last-minute launch delay; [32] in the event, this was put back by one day to allow for further communications testing, and Challenger touched down at 07:40:33 UTC (00:40:33 PDT), September 5, 1983, on Runway 22 at Edwards Air Force Base, on the morning of the seventh day of the mission. [30] As with the launch, this was the first night landing of the program. The Shuttle orbiters had no on-board lights, due to the difficulty of designing landing lights to survive re-entry, [24] and so the runway was lit by high-intensity xenon arc lamps to guide the orbiter in. [32] There was no pressing operational requirement for a night landing, but there was a desire to prove it was possible. [1] Footage of the landing was shown in the 1986 film SpaceCamp .

Post-flight safety analysis

The launch was carried out with no obvious anomalies, but on September 27, 1983, during post-flight inspection of the solid rocket boosters, severe corrosion was discovered in the left-hand booster. The three-8 cm (3.1 in)-thick resin lining protecting the rocket nozzle, which was designed to erode about half its thickness during firing, was found to have burned down to as little as 0.5 cm (0.20 in) in places. By some estimations, this left around 14 seconds of firing time before the nozzle would have ruptured, a situation which would have resulted in loss of control and the probable break-up of the spacecraft. It was later determined that this fault was due to the particular batch of resin used on this set of boosters. [33] The burn-through problem was treated as a small mishap by the media, and did not receive significant interest until after the Challenger disaster in 1986; [33] the only major contemporary public criticism came from NASA's Soviet counterparts. [46] As a result of this incident, the flight of STS-9 was delayed for a month while the nozzles of its boosters were changed. [47]

Post-flight inspection of the thermal protection system tiles found seven major debris impacts and forty-nine minor impacts, of which three and twenty-six respectively were on the orbiter's underside. [48] This was the lowest incidence of major tile damage until at least STS-74, [49] and compares very favorably with the program average of twenty-three major impacts to the underside. [50] It was the first Shuttle flight with no significant problems reported for the thermal protection system. [51] Three windows were removed from the orbiter due to pitting and hazing. [52]

A total of thirty-three in-flight anomalies were eventually reported. [53] As well as the issues above, STS-8's more minor problems ranged from faulty thermostats [54] to an unusually high amount of dust in the cabin. [55]

Scientific results

Guion Bluford exercising on a mid-deck treadmill while in orbit. Bluford on Treadmill - GPN-2000-001078.jpg
Guion Bluford exercising on a mid-deck treadmill while in orbit.

Overall, the crew successfully completed all fifty-four of the planned mission test objectives. [56] While the INSAT deployment was a success, the satellite had problems unfolding its solar array once in geostationary orbit, and was not fully operational until the middle of September 1983. Once functional, however, it provided satisfactory service for seven years, returning 36,000 images of Earth and broadcasting television to thousands of remote Indian villages. [37] The Payload Flight Test Article evaluation found that the Canadarm remote manipulator system was capable of moving bulky masses with some accuracy, to a precision of 5 cm (2.0 in) and 1° of alignment. [57]

The TDRS-1 program was overall less successful, with the satellite suffering several computer failures and an overall loss of telemetry for several hours. In all, the orbiter was able to use the satellite for 65 of the planned 89 orbits, and could make successful use of the connection on about forty. [57] The Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System equipment functioned as planned, processing several hundred times more material than would have been possible on Earth, [58] and the Asahi Shimbun crystal experiment, flown for the second time, was able to produce snow crystals after the canister was redesigned. [57]

Thornton's research into space adaptation sickness noted that the STS-8 astronauts had escaped severe cases, with none suffering loss of motor control; [59] Gardner suffered a "mild case", but was still able to manage effectively, [60] while Brandenstein – who had suffered from induced motion sickness during training operations – was entirely unaffected. [15] The symptoms were found to abate within three days of launch. [59]

Wake-up calls

NASA began a tradition of playing music to astronauts during Project Gemini, and first used music to wake up a flight crew during Apollo 15. Each track is specially chosen, often by the astronauts' families, and usually has a special meaning to an individual member of the crew, or is applicable to their daily activities. [61] [62]

Flight daySongArtist/ComposerPlayed for
Day 2"Georgia Tech Fight Song" Richard H. Truly
Day 3"Illinois Fight Song" Dale Gardner
Day 4"Penn State Fight Song" Guion Bluford
Day 5"University of North Carolina Fight Song" William E. Thornton
Day 6"Tala Sawari" Ravi Shankar INSAT
Day 7"Semper Fidelis" John Philip Sousa

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">STS-51-F</span> 1985 American crewed spaceflight

STS-51-F was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle Challenger. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on July 29, 1985, and landed eight days later on August 6, 1985.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">STS-9</span> 1983 American crewed spaceflight and first flight with Spacelab

STS-9 was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle Columbia. Launched on November 28, 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">STS-2</span> 1981 American crewed spaceflight

STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter Columbia. The mission, crewed by Joe H. Engle and Richard H. Truly, launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981. STS-2 marked the first time that a crewed, reusable orbital vehicle returned to space. This mission tested the Shuttle Imaging Radar (SIR) as part of the OSTA-1 payload, along with a wide range of other experiments including the Shuttle robotic arm, commonly known as Canadarm. Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP). One of the feats accomplished was various tests on the Orbital Maneuvring System (OMS) including starting and restarting the engines while in orbit and various adjustments to its orbit. The OMS tests also helped adjust the Shuttle's orbit for use of the radar. During the mission, President Reagan called the crew of STS-2 from Mission Control Center in Houston.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">STS-6</span> 1983 American crewed spaceflight and maiden flight of Space Shuttle Challenger

STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space ShuttleChallenger. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, the mission deployed the first Tracking and Data Relay Satellite, TDRS-1, into orbit, before landing at Edwards Air Force Base on April 9, 1983. STS-6 was the first Space Shuttle mission during which a Extravehicular activity was conducted, and hence was the first in which the Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) was used.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">STS-7</span> 1983 American crewed spaceflight

STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle Challenger. During the mission, Challenger deployed several satellites into orbit. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983. STS-7 carried Sally Ride, America's first female astronaut.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">STS-32</span> 1990 American crewed spaceflight to retrieve the Long Duration Exposure Facility

STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space ShuttleColumbia. Launched on January 9, 1990, it marked the first use of the Launch Complex 39A of Kennedy Space Center since 1986; it also marked the first use of Mobile Launcher Platform-3 (MLP-3) in the Space Shuttle program. STS-32 was, at the time, the longest shuttle mission yet conducted, with a duration of nearly 11 days. Before STS-32, the only mission of the same duration had been STS-9 in 1983. On January 20, 1990, STS-32 executed the third night landing of the shuttle program. STS-32 was also the first Shuttle mission of the 1990s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">STS-41-D</span> 1984 American crewed spaceflight and maiden flight of Space Shuttle Discovery

STS-41-D was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle Discovery. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 30, 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 5, 1984. Three commercial communications satellites were deployed into orbit during the six-day mission, and a number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype extendable solar array that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">STS-51-D</span> 1985 American crewed spaceflight to deploy communications satellites

STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle Discovery. The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on April 12, 1985, was delayed by 55 minutes, after a boat strayed into the restricted Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) recovery zone. STS-51-D was the third shuttle mission to be extended.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">STS-51-B</span> 1985 American crewed spaceflight

STS-51-B was the 17th flight of the NASA Space Shuttle program and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle Challenger. The launch of Challenger on April 29, 1985, was delayed by 2 minutes and 18 seconds, due to a launch processing failure. Challenger was initially rolled out to the pad to launch on the STS-51-E mission. The shuttle was rolled back when a timing issue emerged with the TDRS-B satellite. When STS-51-E was canceled, Challenger was remanifested with the STS-51-B payloads. The shuttle landed successfully on May 6, 1985, after a week-long mission.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">STS-51-G</span> 1985 American crewed spaceflight to deploy communications satellites

STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle Discovery. The seven-day mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on June 17, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on June 24, 1985. Sultan bin Salman Al Saud from Saudi Arabia was on board as a payload specialist; Al Saud became the first Arab, the first Muslim, and the first member of a royal family to fly into space. It was also the first Space Shuttle mission which flew without at least one astronaut from the pre-Shuttle era among its crew.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">STS-61-B</span> 1985 American crewed spaceflight

STS-61-B was the 23rd NASA Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle Atlantis. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on November 26, 1985. During STS-61-B, the shuttle crew deployed three communications satellites, and tested techniques of constructing structures in orbit. Atlantis landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on December 3, 1985, after 6 days, 21 hours, 4 minutes, and 49 seconds in orbit.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">STS-26</span> 1988 American crewed spaceflight to deploy TDRS-3, and "Return to Flight" after STS-51-L

STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on September 29, 1988, and landed four days later on October 3, 1988. STS-26 was declared the "Return to Flight" mission, being the first mission after the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster of January 28, 1986. It was the first mission since STS-9 to use the original Space Transportation System (STS) numbering system, the first to have all its crew members wear pressure suits for launch and landing since STS-4, and the first mission with bailout capacity since STS-4. STS-26 was also the first U.S. space mission with an all-veteran crew since Apollo 11, with all of its crew members having flown at least one prior mission.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">STS-29</span> 1989 American crewed spaceflight to deploy TDRS-4

STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, during which Space Shuttle Discovery inserted a Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS) into Earth orbit. It was the third shuttle mission following the Challenger disaster in 1986, and launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on March 13, 1989. STS-29R was the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall; its planned predecessor, STS-28, was delayed until August 1989.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">STS-28</span> 1989 American crewed spaceflight for the Department of Defense

STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle Columbia. The mission launched on August 8, 1989, and traveled 3,400,000 km (2,100,000 mi) during 81 orbits of the Earth, before landing on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on August 13, 1989. STS-28 was also Columbia's first flight since January 1986, when it had flown STS-61-C, the mission directly preceding the Challenger disaster of STS-51-L. The mission details of STS-28 are classified, but the payload is widely believed to have been the first SDS-2 relay communications satellite. The altitude of the mission was between 295 km (183 mi) and 307 km (191 mi).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">STS-37</span> 1991 American crewed spaceflight to deploy the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory

STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle Atlantis, was a six-day mission with the primary objective of launching the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (CGRO), the second of the Great Observatories program which included the visible-spectrum Hubble Space Telescope (HST), the Chandra X-ray Observatory (CXO) and the infrared Spitzer Space Telescope. The mission also featured two spacewalks, the first since 1985.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">STS-39</span> 1991 American crewed spaceflight for the Department of Defense

STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle Discovery, and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall. The primary purpose of the mission was to conduct a variety of payload experiments for the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">STS-43</span> 1991 American crewed spaceflight to deploy TDRS-5

STS-43, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle Atlantis, was a nine-day mission whose primary goal was launching the TDRS-E satellite (TDRS-5). The flight also tested an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station and conducted a variety of medical and materials science investigations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">STS-48</span> 1991 American crewed spaceflight to deploy the Upper Atmospheric Research Satellite

STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on September 12, 1991, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space ShuttleDiscovery. The primary payload was the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS). The mission landed on September 18 at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22. The mission was completed in 81 revolutions of the Earth and traveled 3,530,369 km (2,193,670 mi). The 5 astronauts carried out a number of experiments and deployed several satellites. The total launch mass was 108,890 kg (240,060 lb) and the landing mass was 87,440 kg (192,770 lb).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">STS-51-L</span> Failed 1986 American crewed spaceflight

STS-51-L was the disastrous 25th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the final flight of Space Shuttle Challenger.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">TDRS-B</span> Destroyed American communications satellite

TDRS-B was an American communications satellite, of first generation, which was to have formed part of the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System. It was destroyed in 1986 when the Space ShuttleChallenger disintegrated 73 seconds after launch.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Jenkins, p. 271
  2. ↑ Jenkins, p. 271. An African-American test pilot, Robert Henry Lawrence Jr., had been selected for the U.S. Air Force Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) program in 1967, but was killed in a flying accident a few months later. The Manned Orbiting Laboratory program was canceled in June 1969, and most of its surviving astronauts transferred to NASA. Outside the United States, Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez was a Cuban Air Force officer who flew on the Soyuz 38 mission in 1980 as part of the Soviet Interkosmos program, and became the first person of African descent in space.
  3. ↑ STS-8 Press Kit 1983, p. 47.
  4. ↑ Press kit, pp. 48–50 PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  5. 1 2 Evans, p. 76
  6. ↑ Press kit, p. 51 PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  7. ↑ STS-8 Press Information 1983, p. 61.
  8. ↑ "STS-8". Spacefacts. Retrieved July 29, 2024.
  9. 1 2 McCormack, Dick; Hess, Mark (April 14, 1982). "Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46" (PDF) (Press release). NASA. hdl:2060/19820014425. Archived from the original on April 12, 2022.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  10. ↑ The term "manifest" is used by NASA to indicate both the overall program schedule and the individual payloads and experiments planned for a single flight. PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  11. 1 2 STS-8 Press Information 1983, p. i.
  12. ↑ Jenkins, p. 287
  13. ↑ Press kit, p. 34 PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  14. ↑ Press kit, p. 31 PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  15. 1 2 Evans, p. 83
  16. ↑ Press kit, p. 32 PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  17. ↑ Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated "Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials" (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101) PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  18. ↑ Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348). PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  19. ↑ Press kit, p. 37 PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  20. ↑ Press kit, p. 38 PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  21. 1 2 Press kit, p. 39 PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  22. ↑ STS-9 Press Information, p. 60. This was formally designated as "Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities". PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  23. ↑ Press kit, p. 42 PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  24. 1 2 Major NASA satellite missions, p. 34 PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  25. ↑ Press kit, p. 11; Shuttle flight data, p. 1-270 PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  26. ↑ Evans, p. 75
  27. ↑ Jenkins, p. 266. Some sources give an originally planned date of August 14, 1983.
  28. ↑ Shuttle flight data, p. 1-330 PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  29. ↑ "Shuttle nestled away from the storm". Spokane Chronicle. August 25, 1983. Retrieved July 7, 2009.
  30. 1 2 Jenkins, p. 266
  31. 1 2 STS-9 Press Information, p. 84 PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  32. 1 2 3 Press kit, p. 5 PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  33. 1 2 3 Shayler, p. 136
  34. ↑ Jenkins, p. 275
  35. ↑ Evans, p. 80
  36. ↑ Jenkins, p. 425
  37. 1 2 Evans, p. 85
  38. ↑ STS-9 press information, pp. 84–85
  39. ↑ Rosenthal, Harry F. (September 1, 1983). "Shuttle launches satellite despite 'fire'". Associated Press. Retrieved July 31, 2009.
  40. 1 2 3 4 STS-9 press information, p. 85 PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  41. ↑ Benedict, Howard (September 1, 1983). "Challenger tests its robot arm successfully". Associated Press. Retrieved July 31, 2009.
  42. ↑ Benedict, Howard (September 2, 1983). "Challenger crew conducts various scientific experiments". Associated Press. Retrieved July 31, 2009.
  43. ↑ Benedict, Howard (September 3, 1983). "Challenger just humming along". Associated Press. Retrieved July 31, 2009.
  44. ↑ Evans, p. 90
  45. ↑ Press kit, p. 14 PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  46. ↑ Shayler, p. 166
  47. ↑ Shuttle flight data, p. 1-331
  48. ↑ Shuttle flight data, p. 1-220. "Major" is defined as a divot over one2.5 cm (0.98 in) in diameter.
  49. ↑ Shuttle flight data, pp. 1–220 to 1–222 PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  50. ↑ Columbia Accident Investigation Board Report, vol. I, p. 122
  51. ↑ Shuttle flight data, p. 1-227 PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  52. ↑ Shuttle flight data, p. 1-232 PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  53. ↑ Shuttle flight data, p. 2-3 PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  54. ↑ Shuttle flight data, p. 2-24
  55. ↑ Evans, p. 91
  56. ↑ STS-9 press information, p. 84 PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  57. 1 2 3 Evans, p. 88
  58. ↑ Evans, p. 86
  59. 1 2 Evans, p. 78
  60. ↑ Evans, p. 77
  61. ↑ Fries, Colin (June 25, 2007). "Chronology of Wakeup Calls" (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 20, 2023. Retrieved August 13, 2007.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  62. ↑ "40 Years Ago: STS-8, the First African American in Space, and the First Space Shuttle Night Launch and Landing – NASA". September 1, 2023. Retrieved February 15, 2024.

Bibliography

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.