Sora language

Last updated
Sora
Savara
𑃐𑃚𑃝, ସଉରା
Sora language.png
'Sora' in Sorang Sompeng
RegionIndia
Ethnicity Sora
Native speakers
409,549, 61% of ethnic population (2011 census) [1]
Austroasiatic
  • Munda
    • South
      • Sora-Gorum
        • Sora
Sora Sompeng, Odia, Latin, Telugu
Language codes
ISO 639-3 srb
Glottolog sora1254
ELP Sora
Lang Status 80-VU.svg
Sora is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger

Sora is a south Munda language of the Austroasiatic language of the Sora people, an ethnic group of eastern India, mainly in the states of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh. Sora contains very little formal literature but has an abundance of folk tales and traditions. Most of the knowledge passed down from generation to generation is transmitted orally. Like many languages in eastern India, Sora is listed as 'vulnerable to extinction' by UNESCO. [2] Sora speakers are concentrated in Odisha and Andhra Pradesh. The language is endangered according to the International Mother Language Institute (IMLI). [3]

Contents

Distribution

Speakers are concentrated mainly in Ganjam District, Gajapati District (including the central Gumma Hills region (Gumma Block), [4] and Rayagada District, and are also found in adjacent areas such as Koraput and Phulbani districts; other communities exist in northern Andhra Pradesh (Vizianagaram District, Parvatipuram Manyam District and Srikakulam District).

History

The Sora language has faced a wavelike pattern of usage—that is, the number of people who speak Sora climbed steadily for decades before crashing down. In fact, the number of people who spoke Sora went from 157 thousand in 1901 to 166 thousand in 1911. [5] In 1921, this number marginally rose to 168 thousand and kept climbing. [5] In 1931, speaker numbers jumped to 194 thousand but in 1951, a period of exponential growth occurred, with speaker numbers jumping to 256 thousand. [5] in 1961, numbers topped at 265 thousand speakers before crashing down in 1971 when speaker numbers dropped back down to 221 thousand. [5]

Culture

Sora is spoken by the Sora people, who are a part of the Adivasi, or tribal people, in India, making Sora an Adivasi language. [6] Sora is found in close proximity to Odia and Telugu speaking peoples so that many Sora people are bilingual. [6] Sora had little literature except for a few songs and folk tales which are usually transmitted orally. [6]

Phonology

On a similar note, our understanding of Sora phonology is limited at best but there are some generalizations that can be made. Most syllables are of the Consonant, Vowel, Consonant form and morphemes usually contain one to three syllables. [7] There are 18 identifiable consonants and they fall into most of the established origins of sound. Five consonants originate from the palate while only one consonant originates from the glottis. An interesting facet of Sora consonants is that they contain an inherent ɘ vowel. [8] Although vowels may be pronounced differently, there exist only six vowels in Sora. There are no diacritics and aspiration varies depending on the speaker. [8] It is likely that the influence of English, Odia, and Telugu has also affected vowel pronunciation over the course of Sora's use. [9] Pronunciations also change in prevocalic (occurring before a vowel) and non prevocalic environments. [8]

Consonants

  Bilabial Dental Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal
Stop voiceless p t c k ʔ
voiced b d ɟ ɡ
Fricative   s    
Nasal m n ɲ ŋ  
Flap   r ɽ    
Approximant   l j   

Vowels

Front Central Back
Close i ɨ u
Near-close ʊ
Mid e ə o
Open a

Morphophonology

Sora consonants and vowels can undergo a process of sound alternation at prosodic level based on stress-shifts and morphosyntactic conditioned during which the consonants and vowels assimilate to match with the sound of preceding or following stem, or the final nasal with the initial obstruent of the following word. By doing this, some suffixes will merge with its verb phonotactically and a word can have several allomorphs depending on morphological properties of morpheme initials and codas produced during a casual or rapid speech. [10]

Grammar

Overview

Sora is polysynthetic and noun-incorporating. [11] A single Sora word can convey the meaning of a whole sentence. However, while researchers consider Sora sentence-words to be single individual words, native Sora speakers perceive them as phrases and break them into sequences of iambic words with a rising contour.

For example, ǝdmǝltijdariŋdae:

ǝd

NEG

-mǝl

-DES

-tij

-give

-dar

-rice

-iŋ

-1.UND

-da

-AUX:TAM

-e

-3.ACT

ǝd -mǝl -tij -dar -iŋ -da -e

NEG -DES -give -rice -1.UND -AUX:TAM -3.ACT

'(he) does not want to give me rice'

The grammatically correct form in Sora however requires a subject:

anin

he

ǝd

NEG

-mǝl

-DES

-tij

-give

-dar

-rice

-iŋ

-1.UND

-da

-AUX:TAM

-e

-3.ACT

anin ǝd -mǝl -tij -dar -iŋ -da -e

he NEG -DES -give -rice -1.UND -AUX:TAM -3.ACT

'he does not want to give me rice'

A full sentence in Sora:

Ňen ǝdmǝljomjɛlyɔajtenay.

Ňen

1SG

ǝd

NEG

-mǝl

-want

-jom

-eat

-jɛl

-meat

-yɔ

-fish

-aj

-all

-t

-NPST

-en

-INTR

-ay

-SS

Ňen ǝd -mǝl -jom -jɛl -yɔ -aj -t -en -ay

1SG NEG -want -eat -meat -fish -all -NPST -INTR -SS

'I don't want to eat all the fish.'

Sora uses grammatical devices, including subject and object agreement, word order, and noun compounding to show case. It is seen as a predominantly nominative-accusative language and once again differs from most other languages with its lack of a passive structure. [12] However, just because Sora lacks a passive case does not mean other established forms of grammatical case are also missing. Rather, Sora has some complex grammatical cases (In Nominal morphology). [12]

In addition, Sora, like many other Munda languages, uses relator nouns to link nouns with the other parts of the sentence in order to provide a more specific meaning, called compounding. [9] These monosyllabic nouns that enhance meaning are called Semantic relator nouns and are used widely in Sora. [12] Sora also has a combining form for every noun in addition to the full form of the noun. [13] The combining form allows the noun to be attached to a verb root to create a more semantically complex word, similar to compounding in other languages. [13] Sora contains prefixes, infixes, and suffixes to form its affixation but only uses its suffixes to change the possession of nouns. [9] The combining form is the form seen when the noun is being used with a verb or another full formed noun. [13] The full form is the form seen when the noun is standing alone or functioning not in tandem with other parts of speech. [13] Some templates of Sora combinations between nouns and verbs are as follows: [13]

Verb + Combined Form

Verb + Combined Form + Combined Form

Full Form + Combined Form

Full Form + Combined Form + Combined Form

An example of a Full Form noun shortened into the Combined Form is as follows: mənra, the Full Form of man, transform into the combined form word --mər . The two—indicate that a Noun (Full or Combined) or Verb has to precede the Combined Form noun; that is the Combined Form Noun can not stand on its own. [13] Although by no means conclusive, a few general guidelines about the Combined Form is that it depends on where the combination with the verb or other noun is to take place. [13] If the combined form is to an infix, then its resulting form will be different from if it were to be combined as a prefix. Some examples of Full Form Nouns and their Combined Forms are as follows: [13]

Full Form Combined Form English Translation

ədɘ'ŋ --dɘ'ŋ honeycomb

ərɘ'ŋ --rɘ'ŋ sour

bɘ'nra'j --bɘn flour

ba'ra' --bal gun barrel

kəṛíŋ—diŋ drum

Nominal morphology

Number

Plural in nouns and verbs is marked by enclitic/suffix -ji positions just right behind noun-suffix -ɘn. Animate nouns generally can attach (not obligatorily) the plural suffix, but inanimate nouns may often not. [14]

ətɛŋ

many

kəndʊd-ən-ji

frog-NMLZ-PL

ətɛŋ kəndʊd-ən-ji

many frog-NMLZ-PL

'many frogs'

si-leŋ

hand-1PL

si-leŋ

hand-1PL

'our hand(s)'

The plural suffix is not attached after countable numerals and finite numbers but it may trigger plural-verb agreement. Numerals can form compounds with nouns; in those cases, they are nominalized and become plural marking by themselves. [15]

bagu-mər-an-ji

two-person-NMLZ-PL

bagu-mər-an-ji

two-person-NMLZ-PL

'two people'

Pronouns

singularplural
1st personnenanlen
2nd personamənambeŋ
3rd personanɪnanɪnji

Third person pronouns can be used as definite markers in noun phrases. [16] A reflexive pronoun can be formed with the reflexive enclitic =dəm. For example, anɪnji + =dəm → anɪnji=dəm 'themselves'.

Demonstratives

Demonstratives in Sora listed by Starosta (1967). [17]

ProximalDistal
'this/that'kəni/kun-ənt/kun
'like this/that'ɛʔneɛʔte
'like this way/that way'ɛʔnegɔjɛʔtegɔj
‘this/that little’dəkiynedəkiyte
‘this/that big’dəkəʔnedəkəʔte
‘here/there’teʔneteʔte
‘around here’arɛʔne-
‘at that time’-səlɛʔte

Case

Case marking in Sora is generally murky. A number of grammatical constructions that may or may not be expressed morphologically into an animate primary object argument of the verb, eg. the oblique-dative marker -dɔ[ʔɔ]ŋ- can be seen in standalone morpheme as adɔŋ. [18]

anɪnji-a-sîː

3PL-POSS:3-hand

anɪnji-a-sîː

3PL-POSS:3-hand

'their hand(s)'

Gender & Class

Grammatical gender or class is not deeply encoded in Sora morphosyntax. To signal something masculine/feminine, Sora speakers utilize indigenous compound endings =mar (male, person) and =boj (female) while also use, albeit rarely, gender suffixes borrowed from Indo-Aryan like -a and -i. [19]

Adjectives

Many Sora adjectives are nominal compounds, i.e. phrase-words, and pre-nominal with modificational function.

Adpositions

Adverbs

Adverbs are uninflected. [20] Some Sora adverbs are: tiki 'after', tikki 'afterwards', mailen 'together', dɔ 'so', əntɚpsɛlɛ 'therefore', biɲdɔ 'but', bɔibɔi 'very', annɚŋ 'during', nam 'now', aŋaːnʼaŋaːn 'sometimes', moyed 'previous', moyedʼmoyed 'recently', etc.

Verbal morphology

Sora verbal morphology makes use of prefixes, infixes, and suffixes per grammatical categories. In typical Munda synthetic structure, the verb phrase in Sora is head-final subject-object-verb SOV. However, Sora has developed an elaborate and productive noun incorporation system which appears to have originated from an earlier offshoot of proto-Munda. Its noun incorporation clearly distinguishes free form and incorporated forms of lexical nouns. In polysynthetic morphosyntax, Sora verb phrases display a strict head-first SVO template like those typically seen in non-Munda Austroasiatic languages. The most intriguing aspect of Sora syntactic noun incorporation is transitive subject incorporation, describes that the language allows transitive verb to incorporate (absorb) its transitive subject/agent with the verb stems remaining transitive and object indexing stays active even after being incorporated. [21]

sa:-bud-t-am

mangle-bear-NPST-2.OBJ

sa:-bud-t-am

mangle-bear-NPST-2.OBJ

'Bear will mangle you'

Verb serialization and clause-chaining can be realized by forming compound of verb1-verb2-nonpast. It also works with pairs of incorporated nouns.

mal-jum-pu-da:tam-t-ɘm

wish-eat-cake-AUX:mouth-NPST-2SG.OBJ

poʔŋ?

Q

mal-jum-pu-da:tam-t-ɘm poʔŋ?

wish-eat-cake-AUX:mouth-NPST-2SG.OBJ Q

'Do you wish to eat cake?'

Syntax

In Sora, the basic clausal constituent order is SOV.

anlen

1PL

aman

2SG

daʔa-n

water-NMLZ

aʔ-tiy-t-am

1PL.SUBJ-give-NPST-1>2SG.OBJ

anlen aman daʔa-n aʔ-tiy-t-am

1PL 2SG water-NMLZ 1PL.SUBJ-give-NPST-1>2SG.OBJ

'We give you water'

Vocabulary

Compared to other Munda languages such as Kharia whose vocabulary is reported as having 40 percent of words borrowed from Indo-Aryan, Sora has very few, if not negligible, number of foreign loan words. Sora also has zero foreign phonemes. [22] (Donegan & Stampe, 2004) Sora borrows words from surrounding languages like Telugu and Oriya. [13] An example of a word borrowed from Oriya is kɘ'ra'ñja' which is a tree name. [13] From Telugu mu'nu', which means black gram, is borrowed. [13] Moreover, within the Munda family itself most words appear to be mutually intelligible owing to minor differences in pronunciations and phonology. Kharia and Korku, two other Munda languages, share mutually intelligible words with Sora. [12] For example, the number 11 in Kharia is ghol moŋ, in Korku it is gel ḑo miya, and in Sora it is gelmuy. [12] Each 11 in each language looks and sounds remarkably similar to the other 11's. This phenomenon is not just contained in numbers but rather a great deal of vocabulary is mutually intelligible among the Munda languages. Within the Austroasiatic language family more knowledge about Sora vocabulary can be found. The Mon-Khmer language family which encompasses the languages primarily spoken in Southeast Asia has lexical cognates with the Munda family. [9] That means that some words found in Sora are of direct proto-Austroasiatic origin and share similarities with other derived Austroasiatic language families. [9] Words that relate to the body, family, home, field, as well as pronouns, demonstratives, and numerals are the ones with the most cognates. [9]

Numerals

The Sora numeral system uses a base 12, which only a few other languages in the world do. Ekari, for example, uses a base 60 system. [23] For example, 39 in Sora arithmetic would be thought of as (1 * 20) + 12 + 7. Here are the first 12 numerals in the Sora language : [23]

English: one two three four five six seven eight nine ten eleven twelve

Sora: aboy bago yagi unji monloy tudru gulji thamji tinji gelji gelmuy migel

Similar to how English uses the suffix from the numeral ten after twelve (such as thirteen, fourteen, etc.), Sora also uses a suffix assignment to numerals after 12 and before 20. Thirteen in Sora is expressed as migelboy (12+1), fourteen as migelbagu (12+2), etc. [23] Between numerals 20 and 99, Sora adds the suffix kuri to the first constituent of the numeral. For example, 31 is expressed as bokuri gelmuy and 90 as unjikuri gelji. [23]

The Sora number system was featured in a puzzle by Lera Boroditsky, found in the More Resources section associated with her "TED talk".

Writing systems

The Sora language is written using multiple systems. The Sora Sompeng script was developed in 1936 by Mangei Gomango as a native writing system created for the Sora language.

Sora is also written in the Latin script, in the Odia alphabet in Odisha, and in the Telugu script in Andhra Pradesh. [8]

Sample text

The following text is from Psalm 23 of the KJV-derived Sora Bible.

Gamangtunga-na

rich.god-EMPH

gupa:mar-nen

shepherd:HUM-1SG

nen-ate

1SG-?

er-asu-ige.

NEG-be.ill-AUX:TAM

Anin

3SG

doʔoŋ-ɲen

OBL-1SG

ledengab-leŋ-ən

tender.green.grass-LOC-NMLZ

ab-tabmu-t-in;

CAUS-lay.down-NPST-1SG.OBJ

Anin

3SG

lagadnana

peaceful

daʔa-n

water-NMLZ

ademadem-ban

along-ALL

doʔoŋ-nen

OBL-1SG

uruŋ-t-iɲ.

convey-NPST-1SG.OBJ

Gamangtunga-na gupa:mar-nen nen-ate er-asu-ige. Anin doʔoŋ-ɲen ledengab-leŋ-ən ab-tabmu-t-in; Anin lagadnana daʔa-n ademadem-ban doʔoŋ-nen uruŋ-t-iɲ.

rich.god-EMPH shepherd:HUM-1SG 1SG-? NEG-be.ill-AUX:TAM 3SG OBL-1SG tender.green.grass-LOC-NMLZ CAUS-lay.down-NPST-1SG.OBJ 3SG peaceful water-NMLZ along-ALL OBL-1SG convey-NPST-1SG.OBJ

'The LORD is my shepherd; I shall not want (be ill). He maketh me to lie down in green pastures; He leadeth me beside the still waters.'

Media coverage

Sora was one of the subjects of Ironbound Films' 2008 American documentary film The Linguists , in which two linguists attempted to document several moribund languages.[ citation needed ]

Further reading

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Munda languages</span> Austroasiatic languages spoken in the Indian subcontinent

The Munda languages are a group of closely related languages spoken by about nine million people in India, Bangladesh and Nepal. Historically, they have been called the Kolarian languages. They constitute a branch of the Austroasiatic language family, which means they are more distantly related to languages such as the Mon and Khmer languages, to Vietnamese, as well as to minority languages in Thailand and Laos and the minority Mangic languages of South China. Bhumij, Ho, Mundari, and Santali are notable Munda languages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Santali language</span> Munda language of South Asia

Santali is a Munda language spoken natively by the Santal people of South Asia. It is the most widely-spoken language of the Munda subfamily of the Austroasiatic languages, related to Ho and Mundari, spoken mainly in the Indian states of Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Mizoram, Odisha, Tripura and West Bengal. It is a recognised regional language of India as per the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution. It is spoken by around 7.6 million people in India, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal, making it the third most-spoken Austroasiatic language after Vietnamese and Khmer.

The Nafsan language, also known as South Efate or Erakor, is a Southern Oceanic language spoken on the island of Efate in central Vanuatu. As of 2005, there are approximately 6,000 speakers who live in coastal villages from Pango to Eton. The language's grammar has been studied by Nick Thieberger, who has produced a book of stories and a dictionary of the language.

Manam is a Kairiru–Manam language spoken mainly on the volcanic Manam Island, northeast of New Guinea.

Kanoê or Kapishana is a nearly extinct language isolate of Rondônia, Brazil. The Kapishana people now speak Portuguese or other indigenous languages from intermarriage.

Tamambo, or Malo, is an Oceanic language spoken by 4,000 people on Malo and nearby islands in Vanuatu. It is one of the most conservative Southern Oceanic languages.

Araki is a nearly extinct language spoken in the small island of Araki, south of Espiritu Santo Island in Vanuatu. Araki is gradually being replaced by Tangoa, a language from a neighbouring island.

Ughele is an Oceanic language spoken by about 1200 people on Rendova Island, located in the Western Province of the Solomon Islands.

The Gtaʼ language, also known as Gta Asa, Didei or Didayi, is an Austroasiatic language spoken by the Didayi people of southernmost Odisha in India. It is notable for its sesquisyllabic phonology and vigesimal numeral system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hup language</span> Naduhup language of Colombia and Brazil

The Hup language is one of the four Naduhup languages. It is spoken by the Hupda indigenous Amazonian peoples who live on the border between Colombia and the Brazilian state of Amazonas. There are approximately 1500 speakers of the Hup language. As of 2005, according to the linguist Epps, Hup is not seriously endangered – although the actual number of speakers is few, all Hupda children learn Hup as their first language.

The Fwe language, also known as Chifwe, is a Bantu language spoken by the Fwe people in Namibia and Zambia. It is closely related to the Subia language, Chisubia, and is one of several Bantu languages that feature click consonants.

Uyghur is a Turkic language spoken mostly in the west of China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yolmo language</span> Sino-Tibetan language of Nepal

Yolmo (Hyolmo) or Helambu Sherpa, is a Tibeto-Burman language of the Hyolmo people of Nepal. Yolmo is spoken predominantly in the Helambu and Melamchi valleys in northern Nuwakot District and northwestern Sindhupalchowk District. Dialects are also spoken by smaller populations in Lamjung District and Ilam District and also in Ramecchap District. It is very similar to Kyirong Tibetan and less similar to Standard Tibetan and Sherpa. There are approximately 10,000 Yolmo speakers, although some dialects have larger populations than others.

Luna is a Bantu language of eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Assigned by Guthrie to a group called Songe (L.20), it is presumably one of the Luban languages established by Ahmed (1995), like most of the other Songe languages, though it was not specifically addressed. Ruhlen (1987) agrees in placing it with the Luban languages.

Tamashek or Tamasheq is a variety of Tuareg, a Berber macro-language widely spoken by nomadic tribes across North Africa in Algeria, Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso. Tamasheq is one of the three main varieties of Tuareg, the others being Tamajaq and Tamahaq.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vamale language</span> Austronesian language spoken in New Caledonia

Vamale (Pamale) is a Kanak language of northern New Caledonia. The Hmwaeke dialect, spoken in Tiéta, is fusing with Haveke and nearly extinct. Vamale is nowadays spoken in Tiendanite, We Hava, Téganpaïk and Tiouandé. It was spoken in the Pamale valley and its tributaries Vawe and Usa until the colonial war of 1917, when its speakers were displaced.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Toʼabaita language</span> Malaita language of the Solomon Islands

Toʼabaita, also known as Toqabaqita, Toʼambaita, Malu and Maluʼu, is a language spoken by the people living at the north-western tip of Malaita Island, of South Eastern Solomon Islands. Toʼabaita is an Austronesian language.

Lengo or informally known as "Doku" is an Oceanic language spoken on the island of Guadalcanal. It belongs to the Southeast Solomonic language family.

Proto-Munda is the reconstructed proto-language of the Munda languages of South Asia. It has been reconstructed by Sidwell & Rau (2015). According to Sidwell, the Proto-Munda language split from Proto- Austroasiatic in Indochina and arrived on the coast of Odisha around 4000 – 3500 years ago.

Turkmen grammar is the grammar of the Turkmen language, whose dialectal variants are spoken in Turkmenistan, Iran, Afghanistan, Russia, China, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and others. Turkmen grammar, as described in this article, is the grammar of standard Turkmen as spoken and written by Turkmen people in Turkmenistan.

References

  1. ↑ "Statement 1: Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues - 2011". www.censusindia.gov.in. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved 2018-07-07.
  2. ↑ "Sora". UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in danger. UNESCO . Retrieved 2018-03-18.
  3. ↑ দেশোয়ারা, মিন্টু (21 February 2022). "হারিয়ে যাচ্ছে সৌরা ভাষা". The Daily Star Bangla. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
  4. ↑ Anderson, Gregory D.S (ed). 2008. The Munda languages. Routledge Language Family Series 3.New York: Routledge. ISBN   0-415-32890-X.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Mahapatra, B.P. (1991). "Munda Languages in Census". Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute. 51/52: 329–336. JSTOR   42930411.
  6. 1 2 3 Chatterji, Suniti Kumar (1971). "'Adivasi' Literatures of India: The Uncultivated 'Adivasi' Languages". Indian Literature. 14 (3): 5–42. JSTOR   23329913.
  7. ↑ Stampe, David L. (1965). "Recent Work in Munda Linguistics I". International Journal of American Linguistics. 31 (4): 332–341. doi:10.1086/464864. JSTOR   1264042. S2CID   224807949.
  8. 1 2 3 4 Sora Sompeng. (n.d.). Retrieved April 15, 2017, from http://scriptsource.org/cms/scripts/page.php?item_id=script_detail&key=Sora
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Donegan, Patricia; Stampe, David (2002). South-East Asian Features in the Munda Languages: Evidence for the Analytic-to-Synthetic Drift of Munda. Proceedings of the Twenty-Eighth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society: Special Session on Tibeto-Burman and Southeast Asian Linguistics. pp. 111–120.
  10. ↑ Anderson, Gregory D. S.; Harrison, K. David (2008). "Sora". The Munda Languages. New York: Routledge. pp. 299–380. ISBN   0-415-32890-X.
  11. ↑ Horo, Luke; Anderson, Gregory D. S. (2021). "Prosody and Morphosyntax in Sora: A Preliminary Study". Living Tongues Institute for Endangered Languages: 51–55. doi:10.21437/TAI.2021-11.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 Starosta, Stanley (1976). "Case Forms and Case Relations in Sora". In Jenner, Philip N.; Thompson, Laurence C.; Starosta, Stanley (eds.). Austroasiatic Studies, Part 2. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. University Press of Hawaii. pp. 1069–1107. ISBN   978-0-8248-0280-6. JSTOR   20019195. OCLC   6015240755.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Zide, Arlene R. K. (1976). Nominal Combining Forms in Sora and Gorum. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 1259–1294. JSTOR   20019202.
  14. ↑ Anderson & Harrison (2008:308)
  15. ↑ Anderson & Harrison (2008:319)
  16. ↑ Anderson & Harrison (2008:316)
  17. ↑ Anderson & Harrison (2008:317)
  18. ↑ Anderson & Harrison (2008:309–311)
  19. ↑ Anderson & Harrison (2008:315)
  20. ↑ Anderson & Harrison (2008:326)
  21. ↑ Anderson, Gregory D. S. (2017). "Polysynthesis in Sora (Munda) with Special Reference to Noun Incorporation". In Fortescue, Michael; Mithun, Marianne; Evans, Nicholas (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Polysynthesis. Oxford University Press. pp. 930–947. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199683208.013.50.
  22. ↑ Donegan, Patricia; Stampe, David (2004). "Rhythm and the Synthetic Drift of Munda". In Singh, Rajendra (ed.). The Yearbook of South Asian Languages and Linguistics. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 3–36.
  23. 1 2 3 4 Mohan, Shailendra (2012). "Numeral Expressions in Kharia Korku, and Sora: A Comparative Account". Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute. 72/73: 367–374. JSTOR   43610713.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.