Properties of metals, metalloids and nonmetals

The chemical elements can be broadly divided into metals, metalloids, and nonmetals according to their shared physical and chemical properties. All elemental metals have a shiny appearance (at least when freshly polished); are good conductors of heat and electricity; form alloys with other metallic elements; and have at least one basic oxide. Metalloids are metallic-looking, often brittle solids that are either semiconductors or semimetals, and have amphoteric or weakly acidic oxides. Typical elemental nonmetals have a dull, coloured or colourless appearance; are often brittle when solid; are poor conductors of heat and electricity; and have acidic oxides. Most or some elements in each category share a range of other properties; a few elements have properties that are either anomalous given their category, or otherwise extraordinary.

Properties

Metals

Pure (99.97%+) iron chips, electrolytically refined, accompanied by a high-purity (99.9999% = 6N) 1 cm cube

Main article: Metal

Elemental metals appear lustrous (beneath any patina); form compounds (alloys) when combined with other elements; tend to lose or share electrons when they react with other substances; and each forms at least one predominantly basic oxide.

Most metals are silvery looking, high density metals which can be plastically deformed solids with good electrical and thermal conductivity, closely packed structures, low ionisation energies and electronegativities, and are found naturally in combined states.

Some metals appear coloured (Cu, Cs, Au), have low densities (e.g. Be, Al) or very high melting points (e.g. W, Nb), are liquids at or near room temperature (e.g. Hg, Ga), are brittle (e.g. Os, Bi), not easily machined (e.g. Ti, Re), or are noble (hard to oxidise, e.g. Au, Pt), or have nonmetallic structures (Mn and Ga are structurally analogous to, respectively, white P and I).

Metals comprise the large majority of the elements, and can be subdivided into several different categories. From left to right in the periodic table, these categories include the highly reactive alkali metals; the less-reactive alkaline earth metals, lanthanides, and radioactive actinides; the archetypal transition metals; and the physically and chemically weak post-transition metals. Specialized subcategories such as the refractory metals and the noble metals also exist.

Metalloids

Tellurium, described by Dmitri Mendeleev as forming a transition between metals and nonmetals

Main article: Metalloid

Metalloids are metallic-looking often brittle solids; tend to share electrons when they react with other substances; have weakly acidic or amphoteric oxides; and are usually found naturally in combined states.

Most are semiconductors or semimetals, moderate thermal conductors, and have structures that are more open than those of most metals.

Some metalloids (As, Sb) conduct electricity like metals.

The metalloids, as the smallest major category of elements, are not subdivided further.

Nonmetals

25 ml of bromine, a dark red-brown liquid at room temperature

Main article: Nonmetal (chemistry)

Nonmetallic elements often have open structures; tend to gain or share electrons when they react with other substances; and do not form distinctly basic oxides.

Many are gases at room temperature; have relatively low densities; are poor electrical and thermal conductors; have relatively high ionisation energies and electronegativities; form acidic oxides; and are found naturally in uncombined states in large amounts.

Some nonmetals (black P, S, and Se) are brittle solids at room temperature (although each of these also have malleable, pliable or ductile allotropes).

From left to right in the periodic table, the nonmetals can be divided into the reactive nonmetals and the noble gases. The reactive nonmetals near the metalloids show some incipient metallic character, such as the metallic appearance of graphite, black phosphorus, selenium and iodine. The noble gases are almost completely inert.

Comparison of properties

Overview

Number of metalloid properties that resemble metals or nonmetals v t e
(or that are relatively distinct)
		Resemble metals																																	Relatively distinct																																		Resemble nonmetals
Properties compared:	(37)	7 (19%)																			25																															(68%)																																					5 (13%)
Physical properties	(21)	5 (24%)																								14																										(67%)																																								2 (10%)
• Form & structure	(10)	2																				6																																																												2 (20%)
• Electron-related	(6)	1																	5
• Thermodynamics	(5)	2																																								3
Chemical properties	(16)	2 (13%)													11																																					(69%)																															3 (19%)
• Elemental chemistry	(6)	3																																																		3 (50%)
• Combined form chemistry	(6)	2																																	4
• Environmental chemistry	(4)	4

The characteristic properties of elemental metals and nonmetals are quite distinct, as shown in the table below. Metalloids, straddling the metal-nonmetal border, are mostly distinct from either, but in a few properties resemble one or the other, as shown in the shading of the metalloid column below and summarized in the small table at the top of this section.

Authors differ in where they divide metals from nonmetals and in whether they recognize an intermediate metalloid category. Some authors count metalloids as nonmetals with weakly nonmetallic properties. ^{[n 1]} Others count some of the metalloids as post-transition metals. ^{[n 2]}

Details

Physical and chemical properties [n 3] v t e
	Metals [8]	Metalloids	Nonmetals [8]
Form and structure
Colour	nearly all are shiny and grey-white Cu, Cs, Au: shiny and golden [9]	shiny and grey-white [10]	most are colourless or dull red, yellow, green, or intermediate shades [11] C, P, Se, I: shiny and grey-white
Reflectivity	intermediate to typically high [12] [13]	intermediate [14] [15]	zero or low (mostly) [16] to intermediate [17]
Form	almost all solid Rb, Cs, Fr, Ga, Hg: liquid at/near stp [18] [19] [n 4]	all solid [10]	most are gases [21] C, P, S, Se, I: solid; Br: liquid
Density	generally high, with some exceptions such as the alkali metals [22]	lower than nearby metals but higher than nearby nonmetals [23]	often low
Deformability (as a solid)	most are ductile and malleable some are brittle (Cr, Mn, Ga, Ru, W, Os, Bi) [24] [n 5]	often brittle [27]	often brittle some (C, P, S, Se) have non-brittle forms [n 6]
Poisson's ratio [n 7]	low to high [n 8]	low to intermediate [n 9]	low to intermediate [n 10]
Crystalline structure at freezing point [47]	most are hexagonal or cubic Ga, U, Np: orthorhombic; In, Sn, Pa: tetragonal; Sm, Hg, Bi: rhombohedral; Pu: monoclinic	B, As, Sb: rhombohedral Si, Ge: cubic Te: hexagonal	H, He, C, N, Se: hexagonal O, F, Ne, P, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn: cubic S, Cl, Br, I: orthorhombic
Packing & coordination number	close-packed crystal structures [48] high coordination numbers	relatively open crystal structures [49] medium coordination numbers [50]	open structures [51] low coordination numbers
Atomic radius (calculated) [52]	intermediate to very large 112–298 pm, average 187	small to intermediate: B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te 87–123 pm, average 115.5 pm	very small to intermediate 31–120 pm, average 76.4 pm
Allotropes [53] [n 11]	around half form allotropes one (Sn) has a metalloid-like allotrope (grey Sn, which forms below 13.2 °C [54] )	all or nearly all form allotropes some (e.g. red B, yellow As) are more nonmetallic in nature	some form allotropes some (e.g. graphitic C, black P, grey Se) are more metalloidal or metallic in nature
Electron-related
Periodic table block	s, p, d, f [55]	p [56]	s, p [56]
Outer s and p electrons	few in number (1–3) except 0 (Pd); 4 (Sn, Pb, Fl); 5 (Bi); 6 (Po)	medium number (3–7)	high number (4–8) except 1 (H); 2 (He)
Electron bands: (valence, conduction)	nearly all have substantial band overlap Bi: has slight band overlap (semimetal)	most have narrow band gap (semiconductors) As, Sb are semimetals	most have wide band gap (insulators) C (graphite): a semimetal P (black), Se, I: semiconductors
Electron behaviour	"free" electrons (facilitating electrical and thermal conductivity)	valence electrons less freely delocalized; considerable covalent bonding present [57] have Goldhammer-Herzfeld criterion [n 12] ratios straddling unity [61] [62]	no, few, or directionally confined "free" electrons (generally hampering electrical and thermal conductivity)
Electrical conductivity	good to high [n 13]	intermediate [64] to good [n 14]	poor to good [n 15]
... as a liquid [70]	falls gradually as temperature rises [n 16]	most behave like metals [61] [72]	increases as temperature rises
Thermodynamics
Thermal conductivity	medium to high [73]	mostly intermediate; [27] [74] Si is high	almost negligible [75] to very high [76]
Temperature coefficient of resistance [n 17]	nearly all positive (Pu is negative) [77]	negative (B, Si, Ge, Te) [78] or positive (As, Sb) [79]	nearly all negative (C, as graphite, is positive in the direction of its planes) [80] [81]
Melting point	mostly high	mostly high	mostly low
Melting behaviour	volume generally expands [82]	some contract, unlike (most) [83] metals [84]	volume generally expands [82]
Enthalpy of fusion	low to high	intermediate to very high	very low to low (except C: very high)
Elemental chemistry
Overall behaviour	metallic	nonmetallic [85]	nonmetallic
Ion formation	tend to form cations	some tendency to form anions in water [6] solution chemistry dominated by formation and reactions of oxyanions [86] [87]	tend to form anions
Bonds	seldom form covalent compounds	form salts as well as covalent compounds [88]	form many covalent compounds
Oxidation number	nearly always positive	positive or negative [89]	positive or negative
Ionization energy	relatively low	intermediate [90] [91]	high
Electronegativity	usually low	close to 2, [92] i.e., 1.9–2.2 [93] [n 18]	high
Combined form chemistry
With metals	form alloys	can form alloys [88] [96] [97]	form ionic or interstitial compounds
With carbon	carbides and organometallic compounds	same as metals	carbon-nonmetal (e.g. CO2, CS2) [n 19] or organic (e.g. CH4, C6H12O6) compounds
With hydrogen (hydrides)	ionic, with alkali metals, alkaline earth metals metallic, with transition metals covalent, with post-transition metals	covalent, volatile hydrides [98]	covalent, gaseous or liquid hydrides
With oxygen (oxides)	nearly all solid (Mn2O7 is a liquid) very few glass formers [99] lower oxides: ionic and basic higher oxides: more covalent, acidic	solid glass formers (B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te) [100] polymeric in structure; [101] tend to be amphoteric or weakly acidic [10] [102]	solid, liquid or gaseous few glass formers (P, S, Se) [103] covalent, acidic
With sulfur (sulfates)	do form [n 20] [n 21]	most form [n 22]	some form [n 23]
With halogens (halides, esp.  chlorides) (see also [124] )	typically ionic, involatile generally insoluble in organic solvents mostly water-soluble (not hydrolysed) more covalent, volatile, and susceptible to hydrolysis [n 24] and organic solvents with higher halogens and weaker metals [125] [126]	covalent, volatile [127] usually dissolve in organic solvents [128] partly or completely hydrolysed [129] some reversibly hydrolysed [129]	covalent, volatile usually dissolve in organic solvents generally completely or extensively hydrolyzed not always susceptible to hydrolysis if parent nonmetal at maximum covalency for period e.g. CF4, SF6 (then nil reaction) [130]
Environmental chemistry
Molar composition of Earth's ecosphere [n 25]	about 14%, mostly Al, Na, Mg, Ca, Fe, K	about 17%, mostly Si	about 69%, mostly O, H
Primary form on Earth	most occur in combined states, as carbonates, silicates, phosphates, oxides, sulfides, or halides some (e.g. Au, Cu, Ag, Pt) occur in free or uncombined states [134]	all occur in combined states, as borates, silicates, sulfides, or tellurides	elemental C, N, O, S, noble gases are plentiful H, [n 26] F [n 27] , Se occur primarily in compounds P, Cl, Br, I occur only in compounds, as phosphates, oxides, selenides or halides
Required by mammals	large amounts needed: Na, Mg, K, Ca trace amounts needed of some others	trace amounts needed: B, Si, As	large amounts needed: H, C, N, O, P, S, Cl trace amounts needed: Se, Br, I, possibly F only noble gases not needed
Composition of the human body, by weight	about 1.5% Ca traces of most others through 92 U	trace amounts of B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te	about 97% O, C, H, N, P others detectable except noble gases

Notes

1. For example:
   • Brinkley ^[2] writes that boron has weakly nonmetallic properties.
   • Glinka ^[3] describes silicon as a weak nonmetal.
   • Eby et al. ^[4] discuss the weak chemical behaviour of the elements close to the metal-nonmetal borderline.
   • Booth and Bloom ^[5] say "A period represents a stepwise change from elements strongly metallic to weakly metallic to weakly nonmetallic to strongly nonmetallic, and then, at the end, to an abrupt cessation of almost all chemical properties ...".
   • Cox ^[6] notes "nonmetallic elements close to the metallic borderline (Si, Ge, As, Sb, Se, Te) show less tendency to anionic behaviour and are sometimes called metalloids."
2. See, for example, Huheey, Keiter & Keiter ^[7] who classify Ge and Sb as post-transition metals.
3. At standard pressure and temperature, for the elements in their most thermodynamically stable forms, unless otherwise noted
4. Copernicium is reported to be the only metal known to be a gas at room temperature. ^[20]
5. Whether polonium is ductile or brittle is unclear. It is predicted to be ductile based on its calculated elastic constants. ^[25] It has a simple cubic crystalline structure. Such a structure has few slip systems and "leads to very low ductility and hence low fracture resistance". ^[26]
6. Carbon as exfoliated (expanded) graphite, ^[28] and as metre-long carbon nanotube wire; ^[29] phosphorus as white phosphorus (soft as wax, pliable and can be cut with a knife, at room temperature); ^[30] sulfur as plastic sulfur; ^[31] and selenium as selenium wires. ^[32]
7. For polycrystalline forms of the elements unless otherwise noted. Determining Poisson's ratio accurately is a difficult proposition and there could be considerable uncertainty in some reported values. ^[33]
8. Beryllium has the lowest known value (0.0476) among elemental metals; indium and thallium each have the highest known value (0.46). Around one third show a value ≥ 0.33. ^[34]
9. Boron 0.13; ^[35] silicon 0.22; ^[36] germanium 0.278; ^[37] amorphous arsenic 0.27; ^[38] antimony 0.25; ^[39] tellurium ~0.2. ^[40]
10. Graphitic carbon 0.25; ^[41] [diamond 0.0718]; ^[42] black phosphorus 0.30; ^[43] sulfur 0.287; ^[44] amorphous selenium 0.32; ^[45] amorphous iodine ~0. ^[46]
11. At atmospheric pressure, for elements with known structures
12. The Goldhammer-Herzfeld criterion is a ratio that compares the force holding an individual atom's valence electrons in place with the forces, acting on the same electrons, arising from interactions between the atoms in the solid or liquid element. When the interatomic forces are greater than or equal to the atomic force, valence electron itinerancy is indicated. Metallic behaviour is then predicted. ^[58] Otherwise nonmetallic behaviour is anticipated. The Goldhammer-Herzfeld criterion is based on classical arguments. ^[59] It nevertheless offers a relatively simple first order rationalization for the occurrence of metallic character among the elements. ^[60]
13. Metals have electrical conductivity values of from 6.9 × 10³ S•cm⁻¹ for manganese to 6.3 × 10⁵ for silver. ^[63]
14. Metalloids have electrical conductivity values of from 1.5 × 10⁻⁶ S•cm⁻¹ for boron to 3.9 × 10⁴ for arsenic. ^[65] If selenium is included as a metalloid the applicable conductivity range would start from ~10⁻⁹ to 10⁻¹² S•cm⁻¹. ^{[66] [67] [68]}
15. Nonmetals have electrical conductivity values of from ~10⁻¹⁸ S•cm⁻¹ for the elemental gases to 3 × 10⁴ in graphite. ^[69]
16. Mott and Davis ^[71] note however that 'liquid europium has a negative temperature coefficient of resistance' i.e. that conductivity increases with rising temperature
17. At or near room temperature
18. Chedd ^[94] defines metalloids as having electronegativity values of 1.8 to 2.2 (Allred-Rochow scale). He included boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium, polonium and astatine in this category. In reviewing Chedd's work, Adler ^[95] described this choice as arbitrary, given other elements have electronegativities in this range, including copper, silver, phosphorus, mercury, and bismuth. He went on to suggest defining a metalloid simply as, 'a semiconductor or semimetal' and 'to have included the interesting materials bismuth and selenium in the book'.
19. Phosphorus is known to form a carbide in thin films.
20. See, for example, the sulfates of the transition metals, ^[104] the lanthanides ^[105] and the actinides. ^[106]
21. Sulfates of osmium have not been characterized with any great degree of certainty. ^[107]
22. Common metalloids: Boron is reported to be capable of forming an oxysulfate (BO)₂SO₄, ^[108] a bisulfate B(HSO₄)₃ ^[109] and a sulfate B₂(SO₄)₃. ^[110] The existence of a sulfate has been disputed. ^[111] In light of the existence of silicon phosphate, a silicon sulfate might also exist. ^[112] Germanium forms an unstable sulfate Ge(SO₄)₂ (d 200 °C). ^[113] Arsenic forms oxide sulfates As₂O(SO₄)₂ (= As₂O₃.2SO₃) ^[114] and As₂(SO₄)₃ (= As₂O₃.3SO₃). ^[115] Antimony forms a sulfate Sb₂(SO₄)₃ and an oxysulfate (SbO)₂SO₄. ^[116] Tellurium forms an oxide sulfate Te₂O₃(SO)₄. ^[117] Less common: Polonium forms a sulfate Po(SO₄)₂. ^[118] It has been suggested that the astatine cation forms a weak complex with sulfate ions in acidic solutions. ^[119]
23. Hydrogen forms hydrogen sulfate H₂SO₄. Carbon forms (a blue) graphite hydrogen sulfate C⁺
    ₂₄HSO^–
    ₄ • 2.4H₂SO₄. ^[120] Nitrogen forms nitrosyl hydrogen sulfate (NO)HSO₄ and nitronium (or nitryl) hydrogen sulfate (NO₂)HSO₄. ^[121] There are indications of a basic sulfate of selenium SeO₂.SO₃ or SeO(SO₄). ^[122] Iodine forms a polymeric yellow sulfate (IO)₂SO₄. ^[123]
24. layer-lattice types often reversibly so
25. Based on a table of the elemental composition of the biosphere, and lithosphere (crust, atmosphere, and seawater) in Georgievskii, ^[131] and the masses of the crust and hydrosphere give in Lide and Frederikse. ^[132] The mass of the biosphere is negligible, having a mass of about one billionth that of the lithosphere.^{[ citation needed ]} "The oceans constitute about 98 percent of the hydrosphere, and thus the average composition of the hydrosphere is, for all practical purposes, that of seawater." ^[133]
26. Hydrogen gas is produced by some bacteria and algae and is a natural component of flatus. It can be found in the Earth's atmosphere at a concentration of 1 part per million by volume.
27. Fluorine can be found in its elemental form, as an occlusion in the mineral antozonite ^[135]

Citations

1. Mendeléeff 1897, p. 274
2. Brinkley 1945, p. 378
3. Glinka 1965, p. 88
4. Eby et al. 1943, p. 404
5. Booth & Bloom 1972, p. 426
6. Cox 2004, p. 27
7. Huheey, Keiter & Keiter 1993, p. 28
8. Kneen, Rogers & Simpson, 1972, p. 263. Columns 2 (metals) and 4 (nonmetals) are sourced from this reference unless otherwise indicated.
9. Russell & Lee 2005, p. 147
10. Rochow 1966, p. 4
11. Pottenger & Bowes 1976, p. 138
12. Askeland, Fulay & Wright 2011, p. 806
13. Born & Wolf 1999, p. 746
14. Lagrenaudie 1953
15. Rochow 1966, pp. 23, 25
16. Burakowski & Wierzchoń 1999, p. 336
17. Olechna & Knox 1965, pp. A991‒92
18. Stoker 2010, p. 62
19. Chang 2002, p. 304. Chang speculates that the melting point of francium would be about 23 °C.
20. New Scientist 1975; Soverna 2004; Eichler, Aksenov & Belozeroz et al. 2007; Austen 2012
21. Hunt 2000, p. 256
22. Sisler 1973, p. 89
23. Hérold 2006, pp. 149–150
24. Russell & Lee 2005
25. Legit, Friák & Šob 2010, p. 214118-18
26. Manson & Halford 2006, pp. 378, 410
27. McQuarrie & Rock 1987, p. 85
28. Chung 1987; Godfrin & Lauter 1995
29. Cambridge Enterprise 2013
30. Faraday 1853, p. 42; Holderness & Berry 1979, p. 255
31. Partington 1944, p. 405
32. Regnault 1853, p. 208
33. Christensen 2012, p. 14
34. Gschneidner 1964, pp. 292‒93.
35. Qin et al. 2012, p. 258
36. Hopcroft, Nix & Kenny 2010, p. 236
37. Greaves et al. 2011, p. 826
38. Brassington et al. 1980
39. Martienssen & Warlimont 2005, p. 100
40. Witczak 2000, p. 823
41. Marlowe 1970, p. 6;Slyh 1955, p. 146
42. Klein & Cardinale 1992, pp. 184‒85
43. Appalakondaiah et al. 2012, pp. 035105‒6
44. Sundara Rao 1950; Sundara Rao 1954; Ravindran 1998, pp. 4897‒98
45. Lindegaard & Dahle 1966, p. 264
46. Leith 1966, pp. 38‒39
47. Donohoe 1982; Russell & Lee 2005
48. Gupta et al. 2005, p. 502
49. Walker, Newman & Enache 2013, p. 25
50. Wiberg 2001, p. 143
51. Batsanov & Batsanov 2012, p. 275
52. Clementi & Raimondi 1963; Clementi, Raimondi & Reinhardt 1967
53. Addison 1964; Donohoe 1982
54. Vernon 2013, p. 1704
55. Parish 1977, pp. 34, 48, 112, 142, 156, 178
56. Emsley 2001, p. 12
57. Russell 1981, p. 628
58. Herzfeld 1927; Edwards 2000, pp. 100–103
59. Edwards 1999, p. 416
60. Edwards & Sienko 1983, p. 695
61. Edwards & Sienko 1983, p. 691
62. Edwards et al. 2010
63. Desai, James & Ho 1984, p. 1160; Matula 1979, p. 1260
64. Choppin & Johnsen 1972, p. 351
65. Schaefer 1968, p. 76; Carapella 1968, p. 30
66. Glazov, Chizhevskaya & Glagoleva 1969 p. 86
67. Kozyrev 1959, p. 104
68. Chizhikov & Shchastlivyi 1968, p. 25
69. Bogoroditskii & Pasynkov 1967, p. 77; Jenkins & Kawamura 1976, p. 88
70. Rao & Ganguly 1986
71. Mott & Davis 2012, p. 177
72. Antia 1998
73. Cverna 2002, p.1
74. Cordes & Scaheffer 1973, p. 79
75. Hill & Holman 2000, p. 42
76. Tilley 2004, p. 487
77. Russell & Lee 2005, p. 466
78. Orton 2004, pp. 11–12
79. Zhigal'skii & Jones 2003, p. 66: 'Bismuth, antimony, arsenic and graphite are considered to be semimetals ... In bulk semimetals ... the resistivity will increase with temperature ... to give a positive temperature coefficient of resistivity ...'
80. Jauncey 1948, p. 500: 'Nonmetals mostly have negative temperature coefficients. For instance, carbon ... [has a] resistance [that] decreases with a rise in temperature. However, recent experiments on very pure graphite, which is a form of carbon, have shown that pure carbon in this form behaves similarly to metals in regard to its resistance.'
81. Reynolds 1969, pp. 91–92
82. Wilson 1966, p. 260
83. Wittenberg 1972, p. 4526
84. Habashi 2003, p. 73
85. Bailar et al. 1989, p. 742
86. Hiller & Herber 1960, inside front cover; p. 225
87. Beveridge et al. 1997, p. 185
88. Young & Sessine 2000, p. 849
89. Bailar et al. 1989, p. 417
90. Metcalfe, Williams & Castka 1966, p. 72
91. Chang 1994, p. 311
92. Pauling 1988, p. 183
93. Mann et al. 2000, p. 2783
94. Chedd 1969, pp. 24–25
95. Adler 1969, pp. 18–19
96. Hultgren 1966, p. 648
97. Bassett et al. 1966, p. 602
98. Rochow 1966, p. 34
99. Martienssen & Warlimont 2005, p. 257
100. Sidorov 1960
101. Brasted 1974, p. 814
102. Atkins 2006 et al., pp. 8, 122–23
103. Rao 2002, p. 22
104. Wickleder, Pley & Büchner 2006; Betke & Wickleder 2011
105. Cotton 1994, p. 3606
106. Keogh 2005, p. 16
107. Raub & Griffith 1980, p. 167
108. Nemodruk & Karalova 1969, p. 48
109. Sneed 1954, p. 472; Gillespie & Robinson 1959, p. 407
110. Zuckerman & Hagen 1991, p. 303
111. Sanderson 1967, p. 178
112. Iler 1979, p. 190
113. Sanderson 1960, p. 162; Greenwood & Earnshaw 2002, p. 387
114. Mercier & Douglade 1982
115. Douglade & Mercier 1982
116. Wiberg 2001, p. 764
117. Wickleder 2007, p. 350
118. Bagnall 1966, pp. 140−41
119. Berei & Vasáros 1985, pp. 221, 229
120. Wiberg 2001, p. 795
121. Lidin 1996, pp. 266, 270; Brescia et al. 1975, p. 453
122. Greenwood & Earnshaw 2002, p. 786
123. Furuseth et al. 1974
124. Holtzclaw, Robinson & Odom 1991, pp. 706–07; Keenan, Kleinfelter & Wood 1980, pp. 693–95
125. Kneen, Rogers & Simpson 1972, p. 278
126. Heslop & Robinson 1963, p. 417
127. Rochow 1966, pp. 28–29
128. Bagnall 1966, pp. 108, 120; Lidin 1996, passim
129. Smith 1921, p. 295; Sidgwick 1950, pp. 605, 608; Dunstan 1968, pp. 408, 438
130. Dunstan 1968, pp. 312, 408
131. Georgievskii 1982, p. 58
132. Lide & Frederikse 1998, p. 14–6
133. Hem 1985, p. 7
134. Perkins 1998, p. 350
135. Sanderson 2012

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