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The Sino-Spanish conflicts were a series of conflicts between the Spanish authorities of the Spanish Empire and its SangleyChinese residents in Spanish Philippines between the 16th and 18th centuries, which led to assassination Spanish constables and two Spanish governor generals, Spain losing Maluku, and massacres of Sangley Chinese residents.
Koxinga's death stopped the initial planned invasion of Spanish Philippines, but his son Zheng Jing forced Spain to pay tribute to him in Taiwan and to grant him extrajudicial rights over the Chinese community in Manila, and forbade the Spanish to proselytize their religion to the Chinese residents. Spanish Governor-General Manuel de León and Queen-Regent Mariana were unable to resist him as Zheng Jing prepared to invade himself.[1]
The Kingdom of Tungning did not threaten the Spanish Empire nor Spanish interests. King Philip IV of Spain therefore saw no reason to attack it and upset a fragile status quo that he sought to maintain.
The Spanish garrison in Manila was in terrible condition and both the English and Dutch East India companies said that if Zheng Jing had followed through with his planned invasion in 1671 after the monsoon season, he would have won.[2]
On July 27, 1713, the tribunal, acting in a legislative capacity, decreed that within thirty days "all Moros, Armenians, Malabars, Chinese and other enemies of the Holy Faith" should be lodged in the Parián when visiting Manila, or when living there temporarily for purposes of visit or trade. Penalties were also prescribed for infractions.[3]
Governor-General Gómez Pérez Dasmariñas was killed by the 250 Chinese rowers he forced to row his galley in 1593.[4]
Chinese-Spanish friction began with the Chinese rebellion of P'an Ho Wu in 1593, according to the Ming Annals.[citation needed]
After the assassination of the governor, the Chinese crew took possession of the ship and its valuables and proceeded to Annan. Lei Mao Lin (Luis Pérez Dasmariñas), son of Gomez, went to China to ask indemnity for the murder of his father, but did not get any satisfaction.[5]
Koxinga's threat forced Spain in 1633 to abandon Zamboanga and led to an escalation of fighting between Moro Muslims and Spanish in Mindanao.[6]
1593 massacre of the Spanish governor general and his crew
Pan Hewu 潘和五 led 250 Chinese rowers to slaughter Spanish governor general Gómez Pérez Dasmariñas 郎雷敝裏系朥 and the majority of his Spanish crewmen in 1593 while Dasmariñas was travelling between Moluccas and the Philippines. The Spanish had whipped some of the Chinese rowers when Pan Hewu lead his fellow rowers to revolt.[7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19] 66 Spanish were slaughtered by the Chinese and only 14 Spanish survived he massacre.[20][21]
Pan Hewu beheaded Gómez Pérez Dasmariñas and waved his head at the Spanish crew. Pan Hewu and the Chinese rowers then slaughtered the Spanish crew with their swords and other Spanish drowned while trying to escape. The Chinese then looted the cargo of the Spanish. Gomez's son Luis Pérez Dasmariñas 郎雷貓吝 asked the Ming dynasty for compensation for the lives of his father and crew and their cargo.[22][23][24]
Spain's plans to invade Moro Muslim lands in Mindanao was delayed by Dasmariñas' assassination. His son, Luis Pérez Dasmariñas, attempted to organise the invasion again but was derailed again when he lost his position as governor general.[25][26][27][28]
In 1603, three Chinese mandarins arrived in Manila to investigate a report of a mountain of gold in Cavite.[29] Spanish authorities, suspected these men of spying on the situation and fortifications of the city.[30] These fears prompted further defence precautions. These preparations in turn frightened Chinese residents in Manila, who feared the Spaniards were about to massacre them and rose in revolt. In Tondo and Quiapo they set fire to buildings and massacred indigenous resedents.[30] To put down the revolt, 130-150 Spaniards under Luis Dasmariñas marched against the rebels, but were defeated with only four survivors.[30] Chinese rebels stormed Intramuros, the old walled city,[30] but were repulsed and driven to San Pablo del Monte. There they were attacked by a large force of Spaniards and local Tagalogs, and twenty-three thousand of them perished in the fight."[31][32]
Many Chinese residents fled the country or to the countryside.[29]
After the first Sangley Rebellion in 1603, conditions for the Chinese residents in Manila returned to some degree of normalcy. However, as the ethnic Chinese population continued to prosper, they incurred heavier restrictions from the Spanish. Although they were exempt from labour and petty personal dues required of the natives, the Chinese residents had to pay a license fee of 8 pesos per year with additional extortion and harassment from sellers. They were also subject to population control in addition to the license fee, with an idealized limit of 6,000, but in reality the Chinese population in 1620s and 1630s ranged from 15,000 to 21,000. The Chinese residents petitioned the king of Spain for self-government but this was rejected in 1630. As the Chinese population continued to swell, reaching 33,000-45,000 by 1639, they entered other industries such as farming. They were laborers on their own in outlying areas, employed on estates of religious orders, or used as farm labor in forced settlement projects. This large rural Chinese population rebelled again in 1639, resulting in another massacre.[33]
The rebellion of 1639 occurred in rural Luzon where most of the rebels came from. It started at Calamba, where several thousand Chinese residents had been coerced to settle and forced to pay substantial rent to the Spanish. It was a very unhealthy place and about 300 of them had already died by the time of the rebellion on 20 November. The rebels advanced towards Manila and by 22 November, had taken the San Pedro Macati Church on the eastern outskirts of the city. The Chinatown was only briefly occupied by them. Although well-organized, the rebellion was poorly armed and could not stand up to the Spanish and local Tagalog forces, which routed them upon their arrival. However uprisings were reported in other areas as well and from 26 November to 2 December, the Chinese residents controlled the north bank of the Pasig River[33]
On 2 December, the Chinese settlement revolted and started fires. The Spanish began firing on the Chinese rebels from the city walls. On 5 December, the Spanish ordered the execution of any Chinese resident that could be found, with a reward for each Chinese head. The Chinese residents were systematically rounded up and killed ten at a time. In total some 17,000 to 22,000 Chinese residents were slaughtered. Some Chinese residents fled to the mountains but were eventually dislodged. Around 6,000-7,000 Chinese residents held out on the eastern shore of Laguna de Bay until 15 March 1640, when they were surrounded and forced to surrender[34]
Koxinga resolved to conquer the Philippines and summoned the Italian Dominican missionary Vittorio Riccio, who had been living in Fujian province, and in the spring of 1662 dispatched him as an ambassador to the governor of the Philippines to demand the submission of the archipelago.
Manila was thrown into a terrible panic by this demand; no such danger had threatened the Spanish in the Philippines since the invasion of Limahong. Koxinga of the Kingdom of Tungning had an innumerable army, and their armament, stores, and navy had been greatly augmented by the surrender of the Dutch in Taiwan. Governor Sabiniano Manrique de Lara however returned a defiant answer to Koxinga and adopted measures to put the colony in a state of defense.
The Moluccas were forsaken and never again recovered by Spaniards. The presidios of Zamboanga and Cuyo were abandoned. Spanish troops were concentrated in Manila, whose fortifications were rebuilt, and the population waited anxiously for the attack. But the blow never fell.[35]
Koxinga turned his attention to the conquest of Formosa, at the time a Dutch possession, where the local residents planned the expulsion of the Dutch with Koxinga's leadership. According to Dutch accounts, European settlers numbered about 600, with a garrison of 2,200. The Dutch artillery, stores and merchandise were valued at $8,000,000, and Koxinga's army, were about 100,000 strong. The settlement surrendered to the invaders' superior numbers, and Koxinga established himself as king of the island under the Kingdom of Tungning. Koxinga had made Riccio a mandarin and sent him as an ambassador to the governor of Spanish Philippines. He arrived in Manila in 1662 bearing Koxinga's despatches calling on the governor to pay tribute under threat of Koxinga attacking the Spanish colony if his demand was refused.
Riccio was received with great honour in Manila, and rode to Government House in the full uniform of a Chinese envoy, through lines of troops drawn up to salute him as he passed. At the same time, the Chinese residents in Manila had received letters from Formosa, and the Spanish authorities accused them of conniving at rebellion. All available forces were concentrated in the capital; and to increase the garrison, the Governor published a decree, dated 6 May 1662, ordering the demolition of the forts of Zamboanga, Yligan (Mindanao), Calamian Islands) and Ternate in the Moluccas. The only provincial fort preserved was that of Surigao (then called Caraga).
The troops in Manila numbered 100 cavalry and 8,000 infantry. Fortifications were raised, and redoubts were constructed in which to secrete treasury funds. When all the armament was in readiness, the Spaniards incited the Chinese residents to rebel, to afford a pretext for their massacre.[citation needed]
Two junk masters were seized, and the Chinese population was menaced; therefore they prepared for their own defence, and then opened the affray, for which the Government was secretly longing, by killing a Spaniard in the marketplace. Suddenly artillery fire opened on the Parian, and many peaceful Chinese traders hanged themselves in their terror; many were drowned in their attempt to reach the canoes and get away to sea; some few did safely arrive in Formosa Island and join Koxinga's camp, whilst others took to the mountains. Some 8,000 to 9,000 Chinese residents remained quiet, but ready. They were suddenly attacked by Spaniards and natives. The confusion was general, and the Chinese residents seemed to be gaining ground, so the governor sent Riccio and a certain Fray Joseph de Madrid to parley with them. The Chinese residents accepted the terms offered by Riccio, who returned to the governor, leaving Fray Joseph with the rebels, but when Riccio went back with a general pardon and a promise to free the two junk masters, he found that the Moro had beheaded the priest. A general carnage followed, and Juan de la Concepcion[es] says that the original intention of the Spaniards was to kill all the Chinese residents, but they desisted in view of the inconvenience that would have ensued from the lack of tradesmen and mechanics. Therefore, they made a virtue of a necessity, and graciously pardoned in the name of His Catholic Majesty all who laid down their arms.
The Molucca Islands were definitely evacuated and abandoned by the Spaniards, although as many men and as much material and money had been employed in garrisons and conveyance of subsidies there as for the whole Philippine colony up to that time.[36]
1686 rebellion plot
The Spanish constable in the Parian ghetto was killed by Chinese on 28 May 1686 and the Spanish governor was also targeted.[37][38]
1750s expulsions
When the Chinese residents were expelled from Manila in 1758, many of them went to Joló, where some 4,000 lived at the time of Cencelly's[clarification needed] expedition; they sided with the natives of Jolo (TausugMoros) against the Spaniards, and organized an armed troop to fight them.[39][40][41][42][43]
Pagan pure Han Chinese residents were expelled from Manila in 1755 and 1766, leaving only Catholic Chinese mestizo residents behind. Chinese mestizos made up a huge fraction of the Philippine population and took over the retail trade from pure Chinese residents.[44][45][excessive citations]
Effects of Koxinga's threat on Moro raids against Spanish and loss of Maluku
In 1662, Koxinga's Chinese forces raided several towns in the Philippines and demanded tribute from the Spanish colonial government, threatening to attack Manila if his demands were not met. The Spanish refused to pay the tribute and reinforced the garrisons around Manila, but the planned attack never took place due to Koxinga's sudden death in that year after expelling the Dutch on Taiwan.[46]
Koxinga's threat to invade the Philippines and expel the Spanish resulted in the Spanish failure to conquer the Islamic Moro people in Mindanao. The threat of Chinese invasion forced the Spanish to halt their conquest of the Moros and withdraw their garrisons to Manila. Koxinga's death resulted in the invasion being canceled.[47] The Spanish retreated occurred in 1663. Zamboanga and Mindanao became devoid of Spanish soldiers after the Chinese threat against Manila.[48] The Chinese threat effectively destroyed the Spanish plan to conquer and colonize the Moros in Zamboanga.[49] Governor Bobadilla was the one who conducted the evacuation. Mindanao was just about to be colonized by Christians before Koxinga's planned conquest of the Philippines destroyed the entire Spanish plan to conquer Mindanao. Iligan and Zamboanga were given up by the Spanish.[50]
Throughout 1656, 1657, 1660, and 1662, the Moros attacked and pillaged towns on Spanish-controlled islands, sailing around the area in order to raid. They defeated Spanish attempts to take the fort of Sultan Kudarat.[51] The Spanish had been on the verge of victory over the Moros, before Koxinga's threat and the subsequent Chinese rebellion against the Spanish resulted in the Spanish forces fleeing from the battle with the Moros to defend Manila against the Chinese. The Spanish Governor General Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera brought soldiers from Peru and Mexico and had defeated the Moro Sultan Kudarat and built forts in Moro territory in Zamboanga, reversing previous Moro successes. The people of Manila were celebrating the victories of the Spanish. Koxinga's threat to the Spanish led to Spanish troops in Moro land being withdrawn by Governor Sebastian Manrique de Lara. After this, the Moros essentially had a free rein to attack the Spanish.[52] Zamboanga became devoid of Spanish as they fled to Luzon to defend against the threatened invasion.[53]
The Spanish and the Moros had signed the Jolo treaty to stop hostilities decades before renewed Spanish-Moro hostilities during Koxinga's planned invasion.
Despite the Jolo treaty, the Jolo datu, Salicala, and a datu from Borneo ravaged the Visayan coast. The force of the latter was defeated by Monforte near Masbate, and Salicala returned to Jolo. Monforte destroyed several towns and 300 boats in Borneo. In 1655, trouble again broke out between Corralat (Kudarat) and the Spanish forces, the Moros sacking numerous towns in the Calamianes and one town near Zamboanga. In 1656 a fleet dispatched by De Sara, the new captain-general, burned Corralat's town and some Moro towns in Sibuguey Bay, destroying also a Dutch fleet allied with the Moros. The Moros at the same time were ravaging the coasts of Mindoro and Marinduque, and succeeded also in repulsing the attack on the fort at Corralat (this may refer to Cotabato, the homeland of Sultan Kudarat), forcing the Spaniards to return to Sabonilla and Zamboanga. In 1657 Salicala scoured the Philippine seas, capturing over 1,000 native prisoners, entering the Bay of Manila during the raid. In 1660 Moros from Jolo and Tawi-Tawi, taking advantage of an insurrection in Luzon, raided the costs of Bohol, Leyte, and Mindoro.
In 1662, a Chinese rebellion embarrassed the Spaniards, and at this time several datus from the Jolo and Tawi-Tawi islands sacked and burned a great many towns in the Visayas. Following these inroads, Bobadilla, governor of Zamboanga, was ordered to evacuate that station, which was done in January 1663.
For the next half century Moro raids on the Mindanao and Visayan settlements marked each year, and many fights were chronicled between the fleets of praus and the Spanish fleet known as the "Armada de los Pintados". The Jesuits had endeavored in 1666 and 1672 to have the fort of Zamboanga rebuilt, but it was not until 1712 that the Spanish king ordered its reestablishment, and even then the project was not realized until 1718,[54]
While Governor-General Lara was in office another Chinese invasion threatened. A Chinese chieftain named Koxinga, who had been driven forth from his own country by the Tartars, was the leader of it. When the Tartars overran China, about the middle of the seventeenth century, Koxinga and many of his followers refused to submit. They went to Formosa, drove out the Dutch people, and settled there. Later Koxinga laid a plan to take the Philippine Islands and set up his kingdom there.
Koxinga's chief adviser was an Italian friar named Riccio. This friar he had appointed a high mandarin, or nobleman. He now sent him to Manila, dressed in the garb of his office, to demand tribute from the Philippine government.
Naturally this demand caused amazement and alarm in Manila. The Spaniards were aghast at the idea of a Catholic priest demanding tribute from a Catholic country, in the name of a heathen ruler. Later the authorities at Rome called the friar to account for his conduct. At this time, however, the Spanish were at a loss how to act. They did not dare send the priest-mandarin away, nor could they give him any answer. They therefore kept him waiting in Manila while they made up their minds what to do.
As was usual, when trouble arose, the government thought that the Chinese in Manila were plotting to take the city. They felt sure that these men would be ready to help Koxinga when he came, so everything was made ready for another attack upon the Chinese in Luzon.
All government troops, both Spanish and native, were collected at Manila. So great was the fear, that three important forts were torn down, and the soldiers stationed there were brought to Luzon. Only the fort at Caraga, Mindanao, was left standing. This one they did not dare to give up; the soldiers there were all that kept the Moros from destroying the settlements on that coast.
A massacre of the Chinese by the Spanish and local Tagalogs followed during the rebellion. About 5,000 Chinese remained in Manila after the rebellion and massacre.
After peace was made, Riccio was allowed to return to Formosa, to inform Koxinga what had been done. He found the chieftain getting ready to come to Manila with an army to take the country, and Riccio told him what had happened.
Koxinga's rage was great when he heard his mandarin's story. He planned to go at once to the islands to punish this wicked cruelty to his countrymen. He fell ill, however, and died of fever before he could start. Thus Manila escaped the fate that must almost surely have fallen upon the city if the Chinese chief and his great army had reached the bay.
The foolish attack upon the Chinese took so many Spanish soldiers from the southern islands that the Moros now had free swing along the coasts of Mindanao and the Visayas.[55]
Exalted by his success against European arms, Koxinga resolved upon the conquest of the Philippines. He summoned to his service the Italian Dominican missionary, Ricci, who had been living in the province of Fukien, and in the spring of 1662 dispatched him as an ambassador to the governor of the Philippines to demand the submission of the archipelago.
Manila was thrown into a terrible panic by this demand, and indeed no such danger had threatened the Spanish in the Philippines since the invasion of Limahong. The Chinese conqueror had an innumerable army, and his armament, stores, and navy had been greatly augmented by the surrender of the Dutch.
After Koxinga's ultimatum, the Spanish proceeded to order all Chinese to leave the Philippines. The Chinese suspected that the Spanish planned to massacre them, so the Chinese rebelled and assaulted Manila to fight the Spanish and local Tagalogs. The Chinese either died in battle or, escaping by frail boats, joined the Chinese colonists on Formosa. The Spanish razed their own churches and convents in Manila to prevent Chinese from taking shelter in them.[56]
"During this period the raids of the Moros continued. These pirates did much damage. This led to efforts on the part of Spain to conquer these warlike people, which resulted in the conquest of Jolo and the establishment of a stronghold at Zamboanga. In 1662, Koxinga, a Chinese pirate, demanded the surrender of Manila. This danger was so great that the Spaniards concentrated all their efforts to resist the threatened invasions and abandoned some of their strongholds in the south. The Chinese in Manila were suspected of being in the plot. They assaulted Manila but many were slain and the remainder left the city. The threatened invasion never was carried out for Koxinga died. The effects of the events cited above left Spanish prestige at a low ebb. Manila was no longer the principal commercial centre of the East and never again recovered that position. The century that followed from 1663–1762 has been described as one of obscurity for the Philippines."[57][58]
"Another event of importance during the seventeenth century resulted from the overthrow of the Ming Dynasty in China by the Manchus. During the change of power and consequent disorders there, a Chinese adventurer, Koxinga, raised a pirate army in south China and drove the Dutch out of Formosa. He then sent an ambassador to Manila demanding the surrender of the Islands to him. The colony was weak and unprepared for defense, and consequently terrified. There were twenty-five thousand Chinese living in Pari-an, north of the Pasig River, in Manila. Fearful lest these Chinese cooperate in the designs of Koxinga, they were all ordered to leave the Islands. Unable to do so at once, and fearful of massacre, they arose in rebellion and assaulted the city of Manila. The result was a terrible massacre, which cost the lives of twenty-two thousand of the Chinese; the remaining three thousand built frail boats and fled to Formosa. The death of Koxinga occurred before his expedition reached the Philippines."[59]
Koxinga's threat to Spain effectively destroyed the Spanish plan to colonize and conquer Molo territory in Mindanao. It was only in 1718 when they came back to the fort which they evacuated. Mindanao was all Moro after the Spanish left.[60][61] The Sulu Sultanate was also saved due to Koxinga, the Span ish had left La Caldera Fort.[62]
In 1662, a Chinese rebellion embarrassed the Spaniards, and at this time several datus from the Jolo and Tawi-Tawi islands sacked and burned a great many towns in the Visayas. Following these inroads, Bobadilla, governor of Zamboanga, was ordered to evacuate that station, which was done in January, 1663.[63][64]
For three centuries, intermittent poor attempts were made by the Spaniards to destroy the homes of tihe Moro pirates, who, almost without exception, raided the Spanish colonies throughout the Philippine Islands, south of Luzon, and even occasionally on that island. Many reverses and some successes were met with by the Spanish expeditions against the JoJo ami Mindanao Moros. The names of some of the Spanish Captains-General who figured in these conflicts, and of the Moro chiefs, would convey no significance to those English-speaking people who have not, during the last six or seven years, participated in Moro campaigns. In 1637 Corcuero inaugurated a new conquest of Jolo and of Mindanao. His force consisted of 76b Europeans. He made a landing at Jolo. The following year, he landed at Zamboanga and proceeded past Cattobats up the Rio Grande against the Datu Corralat and the Datus of Buhayen and Basilan. The following year, Corcuero and Almonte built a fort at Sabonflla, now called Malabang, on Plana Bay. During 1639, Spanish soldiers and priests, under the warlike Recoleto friar, Augustin de San Pedro, led a party of 560 against the Lanao Moros, where Camps Vicars and Keithley now stand. In 1642, Generals Corcuero and Almonte made peace with Corralat, but piratical depredations by the Moros continued; Chinese rebellions embarrassed the Spaniards, who evacuated manv places, and many fights were chronicled between the Moro fleets of Praus and the Spanish fleets.[65]
Koxinga's son did not take up the task of invading the Philippines after Koxinga's death.[66]
Zheng Jing forces Spain to pay tribute under threat of invasion
Governor Manuel de León admitted the Spanish in the Philippines were weaker than the Chinese Tungning forces in Taiwan, saying "these provinces [the Philippines] are in no state to be complaining to the neighboring kings, with the ease with which they move to any altercation." in a letter to the Queen regent of Austria, Mariana. Manuel de León also said that Spain needed to pay tribute to the Chinese in Tungning for the safety of the Spanish Philippines.[67] The Spanish Philippines paid tribute to the Kingdom of Tungning with masts and rudders (shipbuilding materials) under threat of Zheng Jing invading them.[1][68][69][70]
The English and Dutch East India companies both said Zheng Jing would have won if he launched his invasion against the Spanish Philippines in 1671 as planned, after reviewing the weak state of Spanish defences.[2]
1770s conflicts
The Sulu kingdoms were tributaries to the Ming Dynasty and one Sulu king died in China during a tribute mission. After Spanish persecution against Chinese residents in Luzon, thousands of Chinese residents fled to Sulu, and Sulu's Sultan Israel (1773–1778) was backed by 4,000 Chinese residents against the Spanish. Chinese residents participated in events in Sulu's war against western colonialists, such as the 5 March 1775 attack against the Balambagan British outpost led by Chinese merchant Datu Teteng. In the negotiations leading up to the 19 December 1726 treaty between Spain and Sulu, Sulu's representative was the Chinese Ki Kuan. Many Chinese residents assimilated into Tausug-Sama people and Chinese surnames are found among them.[71][72][73][excessive citations] An Englishman named Brun joined the Jolo Moros under Datto Tetenz with 4,000 Chinese residents expelled from Manila by the British, and ravaged Cebu, harassing the coast.[74] "In 1642 Generals Corcuero and Almonte made peace with Corralat, but piratical depredations by the Moros continued; Chinese rebellions embarrassed the Spaniards, who evacuated many places, and many fights were chronicled between the Moro fleets of Praus and the Spanish fleets. The priests egged on the Spanish, and the Spanish King re-established, and then abandoned, many stations in Mindoro, Basilan Mindanao and Jolo. Treaties were made and unmade. Expeditions intended to be punitive were undertaken. The Tawi-Tawi Moros nearly captured Zamboanga. Engagements were constant with varying success until 1737. King Philip V. of Spain, pestered the Sultans of Jolo and Tomantaca (Mindanao) about not being Christians, but expeditions were as frequent as baptisms."[75][76][77][78][43][79][80][excessive citations]
Anda took what precautions were available to restrain the Moro pirates, but great difficulties arose. Ali-Mudin, whom the English had restored to his sway in Joló, and his son Israel (in whose favor the father abdicated) were friendly to the Spaniards, with many of their dattos; but another faction, led by Zalicaya, the commander of the Joloan armadas, favored the English, who had established themselves in 1762 on Balambangan in the Joló archipelago, which they had induced Bantilan to grant them. The English were accused of trying to incite the Joloans against the Spaniards by intrigue and bribery.
Anda sent an expedition to protest to the English their occupation of this Spanish territory, and entrusted this mission to an Italian officer named Giovanni Cencelly, who was then in command of one of the infantry regiments stationed at Manila; the latter sailed from Zamboanga December 30, 1773, bearing careful instructions to avoid any hostilities with the English and maintain friendship with the Joloans. But Cencelly seems to have been quite destitute of tact or judgment, and even of loyalty to his governor; for he disobeyed his instructions and angered the Joloans, who could hardly be restrained by Ali-Mudin from massacring the Spaniards, and at the end of three weeks was obliged to return to Zamboanga. He was on bad terms with the commandant there, Raimundo Español, and refused him any account of his proceedings at Joló. He even tried to stir up sedition among the Spanish troops against Español. The English gladly availed themselves of this opportunity to strengthen their own position in Joló, stirring up the islanders against Spain and erecting new forts. Later, however, the English at Balambangan showed so much harshness and contempt for the Moro dattos (even putting one in the pillory) that the latter plotted to surprise and kill the intruders; and on March 5, 1775, did so, killing all the English being except the commandant and five others, who managed to escape to their ship in the harbor.
The Moros seized the fort, thus acquiring great quantities of military supplies, arms, money, and food, along with several vessels. Among these spoils were forty-five cannons and $24,000 in silver. Elated by this success, Tenteng, the chief mover of the enterprise, tried to secure Zamboanga the same way; but the new commandant there, Juan Bayot, was on his guard, and the Moros did not succeed. Teteng then went to Cebú, where he committed horrible ravages. Other raids of this sort were carried out, and for a long time the Spaniards were unable to check them. A letter written to the king by Anda in 1773 had asked for money to build light armed vessels, and a royal order of January 27, 1776, commanded that 50,000 pesos be sent to Filipinas for this purpose. This money was used by Anda's temporary successor, Pedro Sarrio, for the construction of a squadron of vintas, "vessels which, on account of their swiftness and exceedingly light draft, were more suitable for the pursuit of the pirates than the very heavy galleys; they were, besides, to carry pilots of the royal fleet to reconnoiter the coasts, draw plans of the ports, indicate the shoals and reefs, take soundings in the sea, etc." "The Datos at once feared the vengeance of the English, and declared Tenteng unworthy of the rights of a Joloan and an outlaw from the kingdom with all his followers. Sultan Israel wrote to the governor of Zamboanga, assuring him that neither he nor the Datos had taken part in this transgression; and he asked the governor to send him the Curia filipica and the Empresas políticas of Saavedra, in order that he might be able to answer the charges which the English would make against him. (He had studied at the college of San José in Manila.)" Tenteng repaired to Joló with his booty and the captured English vessel; "these were arguments in his favor so convincing that he was at once admitted." He surrendered to the sultan all the military supplies and $2,000 in cash, and divided the spoils with the other datos; they received him with the utmost enthusiasm, and raised the ban from his head. "Around 1803, the squadron of General Alava returned to the Peninsula, the English again took possession of the island of Balanbangan; and it appears that they made endeavors to establish themselves in Joló, and were instigating the sultan and datos to go out and plunder the Visayas, telling the Joloans that they themselves only cared to seize Manila and the Acapulko galleon.
Cunningham, Charles Henry (1919). The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies as Illustrated by the Audiencia of Malina (1583-1800). University of California publications in history. Vol.9. University of California Press. p.253. ISBN0722228635. ... 1713, the tribunal, acting in a legislative capacity, decreed that within thirty days "all Moros, Armenians, Malabars, Chinese and other enemies of the Holy Faith" should be lodged in the Parián when visiting Manila ...{{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
University of California, Berkeley (1919). University of California Publications in History, Volume 9. University of California Press. p.253. On July 27, 1713, the tribunal, acting in a legislative capacity, decreed that within thirty days " all Moros, Armenians, Malabars, Chinese and other enemies of the Holy Faith " should be lodged in the Parián when visiting Manila ...
University of California Publications in History. Vol.9. University of California Press. 1919. p.253. ... decreed that within thirty days " all Moros; Armenians, Malabars, Chinese and other enemies of the Holy Faith" should be lodged in the Parián when visiting Manila, or when living there temporarily for purposes of visit or trade ...
Cunningham, Charles Henry (1919). The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies ... University of California publications in history. Vol.9. University of California Press. p.253. ... the tribunal, acting in a legislative capacity, decreed that within thirty days "all Moros, Armenians, Malabars, Chinese and other enemies of the Holy Faith" should be lodged in the Parián when visiting Manila, or when ...
Quiason, Serafin D. (1966). English Country Trade with the Philippines, 1644-1765. University of the Philippines Press. p.93. ISBN0824804376. 168 The Armenians and "other enemies of the Holy Faith" while on a temporary visit or trade mission were required by law to stay at the Parian. The steady influx of the Chinese and other Asian traders into Manila compelled the ...
↑ Chen, Da (1923). Chinese Migrations, with Special Reference to Labor Conditions. Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics: Miscellaneous series. Vol.340. U.S. Government Printing Office. p.100. In part the Ming Annals say: In the eighth moon of the twenty - first year of the reign of Wan Li (1593), when the chieftain Lei Pi Li Mi Lao (Don Pérez Gómez Dasmariñas) undertook a raid on the Moluccas, he employed 250 ...
United States. Bureau of Labor Statistics (1967). Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, Issue 340. Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States. Bureau of Labor Statistics. U.S. Government Printing Office. p.100. In part the Ming Annals say: In the eighth moon of the twenty - first year of (the reign of Wan Li (1593), when the chieftain Lei Pi Li Mi Lao (Don Þérez Gómez Dasmariñas) undertook a raid on the Moluccas, he employed 250 ...
Historical Conservation Society (1966). Felix, Alfonso (ed.). The Chinese in the Philippines: 1570-1770. Vol.1. Solidaridad Publishing House. p.17. Eighteen years later (1593), relations between the Spaniards and the Chinese were again strained when Governor Gomez ... of an expedition to the Moluccas when one night, after the 80 Spaniards were asleep, the Chinese mutinied.
Casino, Eric S. (1982). The Filipino Nation: The Philippines: lands and peoples, a cultural geography. Grolier International. p.98. ISBN9780717285099. 1. The Galleon Trade proper linked Manila and Mexico. 2. The China junk trade linked Manila and South China ... The number of Chinese living in Manila increased from about one hundred fifty in 1571 to around twenty thousand in 1603 ...
Caballero, Evelyn (1996). Gold from the Gods: Traditional Small-scale Miners in the Philippines. Giraffe Books. p.8. ISBN9718967249. (Laufer 1907: 260) Thirty thousand Chinese settled in Manila. However, in 1603 twenty - five thousand of them were killed due to the folly of Chang - Yi, who headed the expedition from China to search for gold in Cavite.
Crossley, John Newsome (2016). The Dasmariñases, Early Governors of the Spanish Philippines. Routledge. ISBN978-1317036456. In the interim there was a fearsome battle against the Dutchman Oliver van Noordt in Manila Bay in 1600, ... looking for a mountain of gold near Cavite. Naturally this visit made the Spaniards even more nervous that the Chinese were ...
Willis, John E. (1998). Relations with the Maritime Europeans, 1514-1662. pp.361–362.
↑ Barrows, David P. (1905). A History of the Philippines ... American book Company. p.208. In 1646 a squadron attacked Zamboanga, and then came north to Luzon .... In 1656 the administration of the Moluccas was united with that of Mindanao, and the governor of the former, Don Francisco ... Koxinga the Chinese Adventurer.
Zaide, Gregorio F. (1939). Philippine History and Civilization. Philippine Education Company. p.178. That same year Don Francisco de Esteybar, Governor of the Moluccas, evacuated Ternate and established his headquarters at Zamboanga. Spain, however, continued to administer the Moluccas from Zamboanga until 1662 when Koxinga ...
Eberhard Crailsheim; María Dolores Elizalde, eds. (2019). The Representation of External Threats: From the Middle Ages to the Modern World. History of Warfare. BRILL. ISBN978-9004392427. In The Representation of External Threats, Eberhard Crailsheim and María Dolores Elizalde present a collection of articles that trace the phenomenon of external threats over three continents and four oceans, offering new perspectives on ...
Javellana, René B.; Tan, Jose Ma Lorenzo (1997). Fortress of Empire: Spanish Colonial Fortifications of the Philippines, 1565-1898. Bookmark. p.192. ISBN9715691994. In 1663, because of Koxinga's threat, Spaniards abandoned the forts at the Moluccas and Zamboanga. For about fifty years there was relative peace between the Spaniards and the Muslims in the Philippines and the nearby Indonesian ...
Philippine Historical Association (1963). Historical Bulletin, Volume 7, Issues 1-4. Philippine Historical Association. p.26. In 1662, a Chinese mission arrived in Manila from Formosa bearing a message from Cogsen or Koxinga, as the Spaniards ... Governor de Lara also decided to abandon the military outposts in the Moluccas, Zamboanga and Calamianes...
Rodriguez, Rufus Bautista (1999). The History of the Judicial System of the Philippines: Spanish Period, 1565-1898. Published & distributed by Rex Book Store. p.214. ISBN9712326349. In 1662, a Chinese mission arrived in Manila from Formosa bearing a message from Cogsen, or Koxinga, as the ... Governor de Lara also decided to abandon the military outposts in the Moluccas, Zamboanga and Calamianes...
↑ Chia, Lucille (2006). "The Butcher, the Baker, and the Carpenter: Chinese Sojourners in the Spanish Philippines and Their Impact on Southern Fujian (Sixteenth-Eighteenth Centuries)". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 49 (4): 509–34. doi:10.1163/156852006779048435. JSTOR25165171.
↑ Montero y Vidal's Historia de Filipinas, ii, pp. 66-70, 115-1140, 229-382.
↑ Montero y Vidal, José (1915). Blair, Emma Helen (ed.). The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898: Relating to China and the Chinese. Vol.22. A.H. Clark Company. p.44. 20 When the Chinese were expelled from Manila in 1758, many of them went to reside in Joló, where some 4,000 were found at the time of Cencelly's expedition; these took sides with the Joloans against the Spaniards, and organized an ...
↑ Wickberg, Edgar (2000). The Chinese in Philippine Life, 1850-1898. Choice reprints (illustrated, reprinted.). Ateneo University Press. p.28. ISBN9715503527. Away from Manila, the characteristic mestizo occupations were wholesaling, retailing, and landholding . 66 The reduction of the Manila Chinese population by the expulsions of 1755 and 1766 meant less economic competition ...
Tan, Samuel Kong (1994). See, Teresita Ang; Go, Bon Juan (eds.). 華人. Kaisa Para sa Kaunlaran, Chinben See Memorial Trust Fund, De La Salle University. China Studies Program. Kaisa Para sa Kaunlaran, Incorporated. p.159. ISBN9718857052. Away from Manila, the characteristic mestizo occupations were wholesaling, retailing and landholding . Besides being engaged in commerce or agriculture, or perhaps both, there were a few mestizos, both in Manila and in the ...
Tan, Samuel Kong (1994). See, Teresita Ang; Go, Bon Juan (eds.). 華人. Kaisa Para sa Kaunlaran, Chinben See Memorial Trust Fund, De La Salle University. China Studies Program. Kaisa Para sa Kaunlaran, Incorporated. p.159. ISBN9718857052. In contemporary times, their role in nation - building continues. The papers of Marcelino Foronda and Joaquin Sy underscore the importance of ChineseFilipino intermarriages in the promotion of natural bonds or links between Filipinos ...
Cariño, Theresa C., ed. (1985). Chinese in the Philippines. China studies program. De La Salle University. China Studies Program. DLSU University Press with assistance of Research Dissemination Office of De La Salle University Research Center. p.50. ISBN9711180340. In contemporary times their role in nation - building continues . Although the Chinese mestizos have exerted a tremendous influence on our history, the role they have played in the making of the Filipino nation has received little ...
Ordoñez, Elmer A., ed. (1998). The Philippine Revolution and Beyond: Papers from the International Conference on the Centennial of the 1896 Philippine Revolution. Vol.2. National Centennial Commission (Philippines), National Commission on Culture and the Arts (Philippines). Philippine Centennial Commission [and] National Commission for Culture and the Arts. p.687. ISBN9719201827. In contemporary times, their role in nation - building continues . " 12 In the last half of the 19th century, a Filipino intellectual middle class (known as the ilustrados) made up predominantly of Chinese mestizos, was formed .
↑ Borao, José Eugenio (2010). The Spanish experience in Taiwan, 1626–1642: the Baroque ending of a Renaissance endeavor. Hong Kong University Press. p.199. ISBN9789622090835. JSTORj.ctt1xcrpk.
↑ Daniel George Edward Hall (1981). A history of South-East Asia (4, illustrateded.). Macmillan. p.278. ISBN0-333-24163-0. Retrieved September 29, 2011. Moro depredations and enabled the Spaniards to take the offensive against the Moro base at Jolo and on Lake Lanao in northern Mindanao. Neither side, however, could win an outright victory, and when the Chinese leader Koxinga, having ousted the Dutch from Formosa in 1661, went on to threaten Manila in the following year, Zamboanga was evacuated by the Spaniards and(Original from the University of Michigan)
↑ Nasser A. Marohomsalic (2001). Aristocrats of the Malay race: a history of the bangsa Moro in the Philippines. N.A. Marohomsalic. p.58. 1 12 CONFLICT OF SUCCESSION AND RIVALRY The withdrawal of Spanish forces in Zamboanga and other outposts in Mindanao for Manila in 1663 to meet the threat of a Chinese attack by Koxinga left Mindanao all to the Moros, to the internal dissensions among the ranks of its covetous nobility who harbored every ambition to royal paramountcy(the University of Michigan)
↑ Nasser A. Marohomsalic (2001). Aristocrats of the Malay race: a history of the bangsa Moro in the Philippines. N.A. Marohomsalic. p.195. and the speedy colonization of Moroland. Spain abandoned Zamboanga in 1663 to reinforce Manila against the threat of Chinese Koxinga, and they returned in 1718 to occupy again the settlement. In 1720–1721, Iranun and M'ranao Moros numbering 3000 warriors led by the King of Butig stormed and laid siege to the Fort for five months but the Fort stood its defenses. A saga of their race, the event is recorded and preserved in the salsila of the M'ranaos by their lyricists, and it is sung and recited in rhapsody during important occasions.(the University of Michigan)
↑ Dansalan Research Center (1979). Dansalan quarterly, Volumes 1–4. Dansalan Research Center, Dansalan Junior College. p.180. The Christian occupation of the north coast of Mindanao was just being consolidated when, in 1662, a new threat to the whole Philippine enterprise brought the labours to a halt. Koxinga, the Chinese war-lord who had taken over Formosa, threatened Manila, and Governor Bobadilla sent out orders calling in all the Spanish forces in Mindanao, including those of Iligan and Zamboanga, to defend the capital. 38 This ... and furtive expeditions of our Jesuits," who were prevented from doing more by the "bloody piracies of the Moros(the University of Michigan)
↑ Nasser A. Marohomsalic (2001). Aristocrats of the Malay race: a history of the bangsa Moro in the Philippines. N.A. Marohomsalic. p.58. The Spaniards retaliated the following year, 1656, burning Kudarat's town and some Moro towns in Sibugay Bay and destroying a Dutch fleet allied with the Moros. Kudarat's fort stood and repulsed Spanish offensive even while the Moros were raiding the coasts of Mindoro and Marinduque. Datu Salicula scoured the Philippine seas, entering Manila Bay in 1657 and capturing over 1,000 natives. In 1660, Jolo and Tawi-Tawi Moros raided the coasts of Bohol, Leyte and Mindoro and, in 1662, sacked and burned a great many towns in the Visayas. 1 12 CONFLICT OF SUCCESSION AND RIVALRY The withdrawal of Spanish forces in Zamboanga and(the University of Michigan)
↑ José S. Arcilla (1991). Rizal and the emergence of the Philippine nation (reviseded.). Office of Research and Publications, Ateneo de Manila University. p.98. ISBN971-550-020-X. In 1635, Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera arrived as the new Governor General of the Philippines. He was a soldier, and he decided to look into the Moro problem. He personally led a military expedition to the Pulangi in 1637 and successfully took Sultan Kudarat's fort at ... In 1639, he sent troops to overrun the area around Laka Lanao, erecting a fort near Iligan, the northern entrance to the Maranao country. It was a dramatic revanche. In three short years, this veteran of the Spanish wars turned the tables on the Moros. A festive Manila accorded him a jubilant triumph on his return from the campaigns. Boys soon fell to playing Espanoles and Magindanaos, with a Corcuera, wooden sword in air, leading the charge against the defiant ranks of a Kudarat. It was from such games (at least it seems so) that the traditional moro-moro developed into an early art form in the Philippines. Such triumphs did not last. Governor Sebastian Manrique de Lara (1635–1663) recalled the Spanish garrisons in the south. What happened? In May 1662, Chen Cheng-kung (hispanized into Koxinga) delivered a dire warning to the Governor that, having captured Formosa Island, he was now ready to take the Philippines, unless the Spaniards paid the tribute he demanded. Manrique just as boastfully refused to honor the threat, but he decided to bolster the defenses of the colony. He recalled all the southern forces, leaving the outposts at Caraga and Zamboanga bereft of men. The Sulus and Magindanaos lost no time and resumed their hostile operations. As it turned out, Koxinga never made good on his threat. He died. But the garrisons were not restored. And so, emboldened, the Moros resumed their raids. They sailed the Philippine seas freely, reaching as far north as Cagayan(the University of Michigan0
↑ Middle East and Africa. Taylor & Francis. 1996. p.900. ISBN1-884964-04-4. In order to protect their share in the China trade, the Spanish came to Zamboanga in 1635. ... In 1663 Manila, the Spanish capital, was under threat from a Chinese attack, and all Spanish resources in Zamboanga were withdrawn to Luzon...With the American arrival in the Philippines in 1898, many aspects of life in Zamboanga and its neighbouring regions changed...Muslims began to be outnumbered by Christian immigrants; today the Muslim population of Mindanao and Sulu accounts for only 23 percent of the region's total.
↑ Annual reports of the war department for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1903. Volume III. Reports of department and division commanders. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govt. Print. Off. 1903. p.381. ---- Despite the Jolo treaty, the Jolo dato, Salicala, and a dato from Borneo ravaged the Visayan coast. The force of the latter was defeated by Monforte near Masbate, and Salicala returned to Jolo. Monforte destroyed several towns and 300 boats in Borneo. In 1655 trouble again broke out between Corralat and the Spanish forces, the Moros sacking numerous towns in the Calamianes and one town near Zamboanga. In 1656 a fleet dispatched by De Sara, the new captain-general, burned Corralat's town and some Moro towns in Sibuguey Bay, destroying also a Dutch fleet allied with the Moros. The Moros at the same time were ravaging the coasts of Mindoro and Marinduque, and succeeded also in repulsing the attack on the fort at Corralat, forcing the Spaniards to return to Sabonilla and Zamboanga. In 1657 Salicala scoured the Philippine seas, capturing over 1,000 native prisoners, entering the Bay of Manila during the raid. In 1660 Moros from Jolo and Tawi-Tawi, taking advantage of an insurrection in Luzon, raided the costs of Bohol, Leyte, and Mindoro. In 1662 a Chinese rebellion embarrassed the Spaniards, and at this time several datos from the Jolo and Tawi-Tawi islands sacked and burned a great many towns in the Visayas. Following these inroads, Bobadilla, governor of Zamboanga, was ordered to evacuate that station, which was done in January, 1663. For the next half century Moro raids on the Mindanao and Visayan settlements marked each year, and many fights were chronicled between the fleets of praus and the Spanish fleet known as the "Armada de los Pintados," The Jesuits had endeavoured in 1666 and 1672 to have the fort of Zamboanga rebuilt, but it was not until 1712 that the Spanish King ordered its reestablishment, and even then the project was not realised until 1718, in which year the present fort, with four bastions, was built and the city walls protected. The place was defended by 61 pieces of artillery. The reestablishment of the Zamboanga station caused great discontent among the Moros. It was besieged for two months in 1720 and 1721 by 5,000 Moros under the dato of Butig. The resistance, directed by the governor, Amorrea, was successful, and the siege abandoned, the Moros turning their efforts to raids on Mindoro and the Calamianes, where great damage was done.(Princeton University)
↑ Adeline Knapp (1902). The story of the Philippines for use in the schools of the Philippine Islands. The world and its people. Vol.11. Silver, Burdett and Co. p.84. While Governor-General Lara was in office another Chinese invasion threatened. A Mongol chieftain named Koxinga, who had been driven forth from his own country by the Tartars, was the leader of it. When the Tartars overran China, about the middle of the seventeenth century, Koxinga and many of his followers refused to submit. They went to Formosa, drove out the Dutch people, and settled there. Later Koxinga laid a plan to take the Philippine Islands and set up his kingdom there. Koxinga's chief adviser was an Italian friar named Riccio. This friar he had appointed a high mandarin, or nobleman. He now sent him to Manila, dressed in the garb of his office, to demand tribute from the Philippine government. Naturally this demand caused amaze and alarm in Manila. The Spaniards were aghast at the idea of a Catholic priest demanding tribute from a Catholic country, in the name of a heathen ruler. Later the authorities at Rome called the friar to account for his conduct. At this time, however, the Spanish were at a loss how to act. They did not dare send the priest-mandarin away, nor could they give him any answer. They therefore kept him waiting in Manila while they made up their minds what to do. As was usual, when trouble arose, the government thought that the Chinese in Manila were plotting to take the city. They felt sure that these men would be ready to help Koxinga when he came, so everything was made ready for another attack upon the Chinese in Luzon. All government troops, both Spanish and native, were collected at Manila. So great was the fear, that three important forts were torn down, and the soldiers stationed there were brought to Luzon. Only the fort at Caraga, Mindanao, was left standing. This one they did not dare to give up; the soldiers there were all that kept the Moros from destroying the settlements on that coast. When the Chinese saw the Spaniards making ready for war, they knew from past experience that it meant trouble for them. As usual, therefore, they began the trouble themselves. They attacked the Spanish, and the latter at once began fighting the Chinese wherever they found them. This time the Spanish meant to kill every Chinaman in the country. They hunted out all who hid, and cut them down. Not one whom they caught was spared. Not one of all in the islands would have been spared if the country could have gotten along without them. Someone remembered, however, before it was too late, that if all the Chinese were killed there would be no one left to carry on the small trades of the country. Because bootmakers and tailors and small shopkeepers were needed, therefore about 5,000 Chinamen were spared, and these were permitted to remain in Manila. After peace was made, Riccio was allowed to go back to Formosa, to tell Koxinga what had been done. He found the chieftain getting ready to come to Manila with an army to take the country, and Riccio told him what had happened. Koxinga's rage was great when he heard his mandarin's story. He planned to go at once to the islands to punish this wicked cruelty to his countrymen. He fell ill, however, and died of fever before he could start. Thus Manila escaped the fate that must almost surely have fallen upon the city if the Chinese chief and his great army had reached the bay. The foolish attack upon the Chinese took so many Spanish soldiers from the southern islands that the Moros now had free swing along the coasts of Mindanao and the Visayas. Other troubles came up in Manila, and soon evil and sorrow were as active and as real as though the islands had never been cleansed by book and ceremony. Not even these can stay the results of cruelty and evil in men's lives.(Harvard University)
↑ David Prescott Barrows (1905). A history of the Philippines ... Amer. Bk. Co. p.210. His son was the notorious Kue-Sing, or Koxinga, who for years resisted the armies of the Manchus, and maintained an independent power over the coasts of Fukien and Chekiang. About 1660 the forces of the Manchus became too formidable for him to longer resist them upon the mainland, and Koxinga determined upon the capture of Formosa and the transference of his kingdom to that island. For thirty-eight years this island had been dominated by the Dutch, whose fortresses commanded the channel of the Pescadores. The colony was regarded as an important one by the Dutch colonial government at Batavia. The city of Tai-wan, on the west coast, was a considerable center of trade. It was strongly protected by the fortress of Zealand, and had a garrison of twenty-two hundred Dutch soldiers. After months of fighting, Koxinga, with an overpowering force of Chinese, compelled the surrender of the Hollanders and the beautiful island passed into his power. A Threatened Invasion of the Philippines-—Exalted by his success against European arms, Koxinga resolved upon the conquest of the Philippines. He summoned to his service the Italian Dominican missionary, Ricci, who had been living in the province of Fukien, and in the spring of 1662 dispatched him as an ambassador to the governor of the Philippines to demand the submission of the archipelago. Manila was thrown into a terrible panic by this demand, and indeed no such danger had threatened the Spanish in the Philippines since the invasion of Limahong. The Chinese conqueror had an innumerable army, and his armament, stores, and navy had been greatly augmented by the surrender of the Dutch. The Spaniards, however, were united on resistance. The governor, Don Sabiano Manrique de Lara, returned a defiant answer to Koxinga, and the most radical measures were adopted to place the colony in a state of defense. All Chinese were ordered immediately to leave the Islands. Fearful of massacre, these wretched people again broke out in rebellion, and assaulted the city. Many were slain, and other bands wandered off into the mountains, where they perished at the hands of the natives. Others, escaping by frail boats, joined the Chinese colonists on Formosa. Churches and convents in the suburbs of Manila, which might afford shelter to the assailant, were razed to the ground. More than all this, the Moluccas were forsaken, never again to be recovered by Spaniards; and the presidios of Zamboanga and Cuyo, which served as a kind of bridle on the Moros of Jolo and Mindanao, were abandoned. All Spanish troops were concentrated in Manila, fortifications were rebuilt, and the population waited anxiously for the attack. But the blow never fell. Before Ricci arrived at Tai-wan, Koxinga was dead, and the peril of Chinese invasion had passed. Effects of These Events. – But the Philippines had suffered irretrievable loss. Spanish prestige was gone. Manila was no longer, as she had been at the commencement of the century, the capital of the East. Spanish sovereignty was again confined to Luzon and the Bisayas. The Chinese trade, on which rested the economic prosperity of Manila, had once again been ruined. For a hundred years the history of the Philippines is a dull monotony, quite unrelieved by any heroic activity or the presence of noble character.1(Harvard University)
↑ The Encyclopedia Americana: a library of universal knowledge, Volume 21. ALBANY, NEW YORK: Encyclopedia Americana Corp. 1919. p.752. The conflict between the Dutch and Spanish for possession of the East ended in the loss to Spain of most of the possessions to the south in the hands of the Dutch, although efforts of the latter to gain possession of the Philippines were without success. In 1640 Portugal freed herself from Spain and Spain lost the remainder of her possessions to the south. During this period the raids of the Moros continued. These pirates did much damage. This led to efforts on the part of Spain to conquer these warlike people, which resulted in the conquest of Jolo and the establishment of a stronghold at Zamboanga. In 1662 Koxinga, a Chinese pirate, demanded the surrender of Manila. This danger was so great that the Spaniards concentrated all their efforts to resist the threatened invasions and abandoned some of their strongholds in the south. The Chinese in Manila were suspected of ibeing in the plot. They assaulted Manila but many were slain and the remainder left the city. The threatened invasion never was carried out for Koxinga died. The effects of the events cited above left Spanish prestige at a low ebb. Manila was no longer the principal commercial centre of the East and never again recovered that position. The century that followed from 1663 to 1762 has been described as one of obscurity for the Philippines. It was filled with conflicts between the civil and Church authorities. Corruption and violence went unrebuked. Efforts made by Spain to correct the abuses were for the most part without success. One of the courageous governors was killed by Church authorities. Commerce between South America and the Philippines was forbidden and that with Mexico greatly restricted for the benefit of the merchants of Spain. This economic policy nearly paralyzed trade. Moro piracy again became active. In 1762 the British captured Manila, but made no attempt to extend their conquest. By the Treaty of Paris in 1763, the Philippines were restored to Spain.(Harvard University)
↑ The Encyclopedia Americana. ALBANY, NEW YORK: The Encyclopedia Americana Corporation. 1919. p.752. The conflict between the Dutch and Spanish for possession of the East ended in the loss to Spain of most of the possessions to the south in the hands of the Dutch, although efforts of the latter to gain possession of the Philippines were without success. In 1640 Portugal freed herself from Spain and Spain lost the remainder of her possessions to the south. During this period the raids of the Moros continued. These pirates did much damage. This led to efforts on the part of Spain to conquer these warlike people, which resulted in the conquest of Jolo and the establishment of a stronghold at Zamboanga. In 1662 Koxinga, a Chinese pirate, demanded the surrender of Manila. This danger was so great that the Spaniards concentrated all their efforts to resist the threatened invasions and abandoned some of their strongholds in the south. The Chinese in Manila were suspected of being in the plot. They assaulted Manila but many were slain and the remainder left the city. The threatened invasion never was carried out for Koxinga died. The effects of the events cited above left Spanish prestige at a low ebb. Manila was no longer the principal commercial centre of the East never again recovered that position. The century that followed from 1663 to 1762 has been described as one of obscurity for the Philippines. It was filled with conflicts between the civil and Church authorities. Corruption and violence went unrebuked. Efforts made by Spain to correct the abuses were for the most part without success. One of the courageous governors was killed by Church authorities. Commerce between South America and the Philippines was forbidden and that with Mexico greatly restricted for the benefit of the merchants of Spain. This economic policy nearly paralyzed trade. Moro piracy again became active. In 1762 the British captured Manila, but made no attempt to extend their conquest. By the Treaty of Paris in 1763, the Philippines were restored to Spain.(Harvard University)
↑ Charles Whitman Briggs (1913). The progressing Philippines. PHILADELPHIA: The Griffith & Rowland press. p.61. Another event of importance during the seventeenth century resulted from the overthrow of the Ming Dynasty in China by the Manchus. During the change of power and consequent disorders there, a Chinese adventurer, Koxinga, raised a pirate army in south China and drove the Dutch out of Formosa. He then sent an ambassador to Manila demanding the surrender of the Islands to him. The colony was weak and unprepared for defense, and consequently terrified. There were twenty-five thousand Chinese living in Pari-an, north of the Pasig River, in Manila. Fearful lest these Chinese cooperate in the designs of Koxinga, they were all ordered to leave the Islands. Unable to do so at once, and fearful of massacre, they arose in rebellion and assaulted the city of Manila. The result was a terrible massacre, which cost the lives of twenty-two thousand of the Chinese; the remaining three thousand built frail boats and fled to Formosa. The death of Koxinga occurred before his expedition reached the Philippines.(the University of Michigan)
↑ Nasser A. Marohomsalic (2001). Aristocrats of the Malay race: a history of the bangsa Moro in the Philippines. N.A. Marohomsalic. p.195. In 1597, Spain built a fort at La Caldera (now Recodo, Zamboanga City) and abandoned it later. They reoccupied the city in 1635 and built therein the Nuestra Senor del Pilar Fort with support flotilla to check Moro sorties to Visayas and Luzon and effect speedy colonization of Moroland. Spain abandoned Zamboanga in 1663 to reinforce Manila against the threat of Chinese Koxinga, and they returned in 1718 to occupy again the settlement. In 1720–1721, Iranun and M'ranao Moros numbering 3000 warriors led by the King of Butig stormed and laid siege to the Fort for five months but the Fort stood its defenses. A saga of their race, the event is recorded and preserved in the salsila of the M'ranaos by their lyricists, and it is sung and recited in rhapsody during important occasions.(the University of Michigan)
↑ Nasser A. Marohomsalic (2001). Aristocrats of the Malay race: a history of the bangsa Moro in the Philippines. N.A. Marohomsalic. p.58. The Spaniards retaliated the following year, 1656, burning Kudarat's town and some Moro towns in Sibugay Bay and destroying a Dutch fleet allied with the Moros. Kudarat's fort stood and repulsed Spanish offensive even while the Moros were raiding the coasts of Mindoro and Marinduque. Datu Salicula scoured the Philippine seas, entering Manila Bay in 1657 and capturing over 1000 natives. In 1660, Jolo and Tawi-Tawi Moros raided the coasts of Bohol, Leyte and Mindoro and, in 1662, sacked and burned a great many towns in the Visayas. 1 12 CONFLICT OF SUCCESSION AND RIVALRY The withdrawal of Spanish forces in Zamboanga and other outposts in Mindanao for Manila in 1 663 to meet the threat of a Chinese attack by Koxinga left Mindanao all to the Moros, to the internal dissensions among the ranks of its covetous nobility who harbored every ambition to royal paramountcy.(the University of Michigan)
↑ Joo-Jock Lim; Vani Shanmugaratnam (1984). Joo-Jock Lim; Vani Shanmugaratnam (eds.). Armed separatism in Southeast Asia. Regional Strategic Studies Programme, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p.171. ISBN9971-902-51-6. which culminated in the construction Fort Pillar in Zamboanga (La Caldera); 4. The efforts to subjugate Mindanao and Sulu from 1635 to 1663 when the Spanish garrison at the La Caldera was abandoned on account of Koxinga's threat in Luzon(the University of California)
↑ United States. War Dept (1903). Annual reports of the secretary of war, Volume 3. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. p.381. spite the Jolo treaty, the Jolo dato, Salicala, and a dato from Borneo ravaged the Visayan coast. The force of the latter was defeated by Monforte near Masbate, and Salicala returned to Jolo. Monforte destroyed several towns and 300 boats in Borneo. In 1655 trouble again broke out between Corralat and the Spanish forces, the Moros sacking numerous towns in the Calamianes and one town near Zamboanga. In 1656 a fleet dispatched by De Sara, the new captaingeneral, burned Corralat's town and some Moro towns in Sibuguey Bay, destroying also a Dutch fleet allied with the Moros. The Moros at the same time were ravaging the coasts of Mindoro and Marinduque, and succeeded also in repulsing the attack on the fort at Corralat, forcing the Spaniards to return to Sabonilla and Zamboanga. In 1657 Salicala scoured the Philippine seas, capturing over 1,000 native prisoners, entering the Bay of Manila during the raid. In 1660 Moros from Jolo and Tawi-Tawi, takmg advantage of an insurrection in Luzon, raided the costs of Bohol, Leyte, and Mindoro. In 1662 a Chinese rebellion embarrassed the Spaniards, and at this time several datos from the Jolo and Tawi-Tawi islands sacked and burned a great many towns in the Visayas. Following these inroads, Bobadilla, governor of Zamboanga, was ordered to evacuate that station, which was done in January, 1663. For the next half century Moro raids on the Mindanao and Visayan settlements marked each year, and many fights were chronicled between the fleets of praus and the Spanish fleet known as the "Armada de los Pintados", (Harvard University)
↑ United States. War Dept (1903). Annual reports ...., Volume 3. WASHINGTON: Government Printing Office. p.381. Despite the Jolo treaty, the Jolo dato, Salicala. and a dato from Borneo ravaged the Visayan coast. The force of the latter was defeated by Monforte near Masbate, and Salicala returned to Jolo. Monforte destroyed several towns and 300 boats in Borneo. In 1655 trouble again broke out between Corralat and the Spanish forces, the Moros sacking numerous towns in the Calamianes and one town near Zamboanga. In 1656 a fleet dispatched by De Sara, the new captaingeneral, burned Corralat's town and some Moro towns in Sibugney Bay, destroying also a Dutch fleet allied with the Moros. The Moros at the same time were ravaging the coasts of Mindoro and Marindnque, and succeeded also in repulsing the attack on the fort at Corralat, forcing the Spaniards to return to Sabonilla and Zamboanga. In 1657 Salicala scoured the Philippine seas, capturing over 1,000 native prisoners, entering the Bay of Manila during the raid. In 1660 Moros from Jolo and Tawi-Tawi, taking advantage of an insurrection in Luzon, raided the costs of Bohol, Leyte, and Mindoro. In 1662 a Chinese rebellion embarrassed the Spaniards, and at this time several datos from the Jolo and Tawi-Tawi islands sacked and burned a great many towns in the Visayas. Following these iuroads, Bobadilla, governor of Zamboanga, was ordered to evacuate that station, which was done in January, 1663. For the next half century Moro raids on the Mindanao and Visayan settlements marked each year, and many fights were chronicled between the fleets of praus and the Spanish fleet known as the "Armada de los Pintados," (the University of Michigan)
↑ The Spirit of '76: devoted to the principles, incidents, and men of '76 and colonial times, Volumes 10–12. Spirit of '76 Publishing Co. 1903. p.19. For three centuries, intermittent poor attempts were made by the Spaniards to destroy the homes of tihe Moro pirates, who. almost without exception, raided the Spanish colonies throughout the Philippine Islands, south of Luzon, and even occasionally on that island. Many reverses and some successes were met with by the Spanish expeditions against the JoJo ami Mindanao Moros. The names of some of the Spanish Captains-General who figured in these conflicts, and of the Moro chiefs, would convey no significance to those English-speaking people who have not, during the last six or seven years, participated in Moro campaigns. In 1637 Corcuero inaugurated a new conquest of Jolo and of Mindanao. His force consisted of 76b Europeans. He made a landing at Jolo. The following year, he landed at Zamboanga and proceeded past Cattobats up the Rio Grande against the Datto Corralat and the Da*tos of Buhayen and Basilan. The following year, Corcuero and Almonte built a fort at Sabonflla, now called Malabang, on Plana Bay. Purine 1639, Spanish soldiers and priests, under the warlike Recoleto friar, Augustin de San Pedro, led a party of 560 against the Lanao Moros, where Camps Vicars and Keithley now stand. In 1642. Generals Corcuero and Almonte made peace with Corralat, but piratical depredations by the Moros continued; Chinese rebellions embarrassed the Spaniards, who evacuated many places, and many fights were chronicled between the Moro fleets of Praus and the Spanish fleets. The priests egged on the Spanish, and the Spanish King re-established, and then abandoned, many stations in Mindoro, Basilon, Mindanao ami Jolo. Treaties were made and unmade. Expeditions intended to be punitive were undertaken. The Tawi-Tavvi Moros nearly captured Zamboanga. Engagements were constant with varying success until 1737. King Philip V. of Spain, pestered the Sultans of Jolo and Tomantaca (Mindanao) about not being Christians, but expeditions were as frequent as baptisms.(the New York Public Library)
↑ A pronouncing gazetteer and geographical dictionary of the Philippine Islands, United States of America, with maps, charts and illustrations: Also the law of the civil government in the Philippine Islands passed by Congress and approved by the President July 1, 1902, with a complete index. Prepared in the Bureau of insular affairs, War department ... (September 30, 1902) [By De Benneville Randolph Keim]. Washington, D.C.: Govt. Print. Off. 1902. pp.177, 178, 179. 1603. A conflagration destroyed a third part of Manila. Uprising of 20,000 Chinese. Spaniards, nativ. and Japanese unite and completely overcome the Chinese. 160f>. Fortunate expedition to the Moluccas. First mission of Recoleta monks arrived. Uprisliu; the Japanese; were conquered and prohibited from living in future together in one ward. Dutch corsair, Rlancariio, defeated and captured by I>on Pedro de Heredia..ISt Moro pirates numbering 15,000 lay waste the Visayan Islands, and sacked the capital of Tayabas, Luzon. 1S5. Foundation of the fort of Zamboanga, Mindanao, to hold in check the piracy of the Moros..S Uprising of the Chinese at Calamba. Laguna. Their forays against San Pedro Macate.Taytay, and Antipolo and ultimate defeat and submission. College of San Juan de Letran founded under the Dominicans. Don Francisco de A tienza conquered the Moros of Lanao and took possession of the celebrated lake bearing this name. Victories of Don Pedro de Almonte over the Moros in Mindanao and Sulu...'Uprising in the provinces of Pampanga and Pangasinan, Luzon, quelled without bloodshed, "tt Chinese pirate Koseng demanded the submission of the archipelago, with serious threats. Upris, tag of the Chinese in the suburbs of Manila and their subsequent submission. Koseng died.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)(the University of California)
↑ See, Teresita Ang; Go, Bon Juan, eds. (1994). 華人. Kaisa Para sa Kaunlaran, Incorporated. p.129. ISBN9718857052. thousands of Chinese welcomed their exile from Luzon to Sulu following a series of violent crackdowns on the "Chinese rebels" as a result of Spanish anti-Chinese policy. In the late 18th century, about 4,000 Chinese, according to Montero y Vidal, supported Sultan Israel of Sulu (1773-1778) against Spanish rule... Ki Kuan served as the sole negotiator of Sultan Israel in the conclusion of the treaty of peace and commerce with the Spaniards on December 19, 1726. Datu Teteng, a Chinese businessman who rose from the ranks, led the Tausug attack on the British settlement at Balambagan on March 5, 1775 and brought to the Sultanate spoils from the settlement. The event was significant because it frustrated further colonial efforts... many of the Chinese who moved into Sulu were so fully absorbed by the native culture that only their family names have remained as reminders of their historic ties with China.
Publications, Volume 4. 1905. p.179. Ki Kuan was sent to Manila to arrange for peace and returned with two Spanish commissioners, who made a treaty with the sultan ...
↑ Zaide, Gregorio F. (1939). Philippine History and Civilization. Philippine Education Company. p.234. In their inability to suppress Moro piracy, the Spanish authorities negotiated treaties with the Moros. In 1725...the Chinese Ki Kuan was sent by the Jolo sultan to Manila as his ambassador...
Marcos, Ferdinand Edralin (1977). Tadhana: The formation of the national community (1565-1896). Vol. 2, Part 2 of Tadhana: The History of the Filipino People. Marcos. p.400. ...with Ki Kuan the sultan succeeded in arranging a conference with the Spaniards... Three days later, a treaty was concluded providing for the establishment of trade between Jolo and Manila ...
↑ Zaide, Gregorio F. (1949). The Philippines Since Pre-Spanish Times. R. P. Garcia. p.376. Unable to suppress the Moros, the Spanish authorities negotiated treaties with them. In 1725 the Chinese Ki Kuan arrived at Manila as the ambassador of the sultan of Jolo... ^Angeles, F. Delor (1964). Mindanao: the Story of an Island: A Preliminary Study. San Pedro Press. p.43. In 1725 the sultan of Sulu sent a Chinese, Ki Kuan, to Manila to arrange a treaty of peace and commerce with the Spanish ... ^ Philippine Social Sciences and Humanities Review, Volume 32, Issues 1-2. College of Liberal Arts, University of the Philippines. 1968. p.11. ... the Sultan sent a Chinese, Ki Kuan, to negotiate a treaty with Manila and an agreement was signed on December 19, 1726 ...
↑ The Spirit of '76, Volumes 9-12. Spirit of '76 Publishing Company. 1902. p.20. The Spanish Governor, Pedro Sarrio, made no head-way against the warlike Moros, Sultan Israel of Jolo was poisoned by his cousin, Ali Modin, in the old-fashioned way, and paralysis of commercial relations on traffic between Luzon followed for ten years. The Moros burned several towns, and in 1789 the new Captain-General, Marguina, informed the king that constant war with the Moros "was an evil without remedy." Between that time and 1805, when the Spanish Government made a treaty with the Sultan of Jolo, the Moros captured Spanish ships, sacrificing the crews, ravaged sea-coast towns hundreds of miles northward, despite privateering and the efforts of the Spanish vessels built in the shipyards of San Blas and Cavite. Until 1849 a proper historical sequences of events of Moro campaigns should mention successful raids upon Spanish, British and Dutch vessels by Moro vintas. These piratical boats were in constant conflict with towns extending along lines as long as from Maine to Florida. Treaties were made and unmade. Datto Ipoypo, "the last of the Visayas," each years carried off into slavery, more than 500 persons. In April, 1843, a convention between the Sultan of Basilan and the French emissary was made. France paid 100,000 pesos for Basilan. Vice Admieral Cecille begun, with three French vessels, operations against Datto Usak. A Spanish force under Bocalan went to Zamboanga: the French raised the blockade. The Davao country was ceded to the Spaniards by the Sultan of Mindanao and Jose Oyanguren took the fort of Hiio. The Moros killed Commander Rodriguez of the Spanish Navy, and the islands of the Samales group, in 1845, were the centre of piracy in the Archipelago. With the construction, in 1848, of English steam-built gonbats "El Cano," "Ma-gallanes" and "Reina de Castilla," the Moros egun to recognizes that their praos, wind-impelled vesels, paddle propelled, were at a disadvantage.
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Kingdom of Tungning 
Sulu Sultanate 
Maguindanao Sultanate 
Gómez Pérez Dasmariñas † 
