The Sino-Spanish conflicts were a series of conflicts in the Spanish Philippines, between the authorities of the Spanish Empire and its ethnic ChineseSangley residents, from the 16th and 18th centuries. The conflicts led to the assassination of Spanish constables and two Spanish governor generals, massacres of Sangley Chinese residents, and Spain losing the Maluku Islands.
Colonization of the Philippines began in 1565 with the Spanish conquest of the archipelago. Spanish rule of the Philippines was constantly threatened by indigenous rebellions, including the Muslim Moro people, and external invasions from the Dutch, Chinese, Japanese, and British.
1593 murder of the Spanish governor-general
In 1593, Governor-General of the Spanish Philippines, Gómez Pérez Dasmariñas, organized an expedition from Manila to capture the fort at Terrenate, in the Maluku Islands.[1] His fleet included over 200 ships and 900 Spaniards; his flagship galley was manned by 250 hired Chinese rowers.[2] On the third day of the journey, while the governor's fleet was anchored off the coast of Luzon, the Chinese rowers, led by Pan Hewu, mutinied. Allegedly, the Spanish had whipped some of the Chinese rowers, leading to the revolt.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][excessive citations] The mutineers killed 66 Spaniards, including Pérez Dasmariñas, and another ten drowned while trying to escape; only 14 Spaniards survived the massacre.[17][18] The Chinese rowers then looted the ship and attempted to flee to China.
Pérez Dasmariñas' son Luis Pérez Dasmariñas succeeded him as governor-general.[19][20][21] The mutiny put Spain's plans to invade Mindanao on hold, as Luis Pérez Dasmariñas aborted the expedition and immediately returned to Manila to secure his position.[22] Several days later, a fleet of Chinese ships also arrived in Manila, carrying many men but little merchandise for trade. The Spanish suspected that the Chinese had heard of the departure of the Spanish fleet for the Moluccas, and had attempted to conquer the now-defenseless islands. However, finding the city as strongly as ever, they made no hostile moves and quickly returned to China; neither side mentioned the apparent motive for the fleet's journey.[23][24][25][26]
In 1603, three Chinese mandarins arrived in Manila to investigate a report of a mountain of gold in Cavite.[27] Spanish authorities suspected that these men were spying on the city and its fortifications, prompting them to increase defenses further.[28] This in turn frightened the Chinese residents of Manila, who feared that the Spaniards were about to massacre them. In response, the Sangley revolted, setting fire to buildings in Tondo and Quiapo and massacring indigenous residents of Manila.[28]
About 150 Spaniards under Luis Pérez Dasmariñas marched against the rebels to put down the rebellion. The Sangley defeated the Spaniards, killing all but four survivors.[29][30] The Sangley rebels then stormed Intramuros, the old walled city of Manila,[28] but they were repulsed and driven back to San Pablo del Monte. There, they were attacked by a large force of Spaniards and local Tagalogs, with 23,000 Sangley casualties. Many Chinese residents of Manila fled to the countryside or abroad.[31][32][27]
After the first Sangley Rebellion in 1603, conditions for the Chinese residents in Manila returned to some degree of normalcy. However, as the ethnic Chinese population continued to prosper, they incurred heavier restrictions from the Spanish. Although they were exempt from the forced labour and personal dues required of the natives, the Sangley residents had to pay a license fee of 8 pesos per year.[citation needed] They were also subject to population control, with the aim of limiting their population to 6,000, although in reality the Chinese population in 1620s and 1630s ranged from 15,000 to 21,000.[citation needed] The Chinese residents petitioned the King Philip IV of Spain for self-government, but this was rejected in 1630. The Chinese population continued to swell, reaching 33,000 to 45,000 by 1639.[citation needed] Many were employed as agricultural labourers on the estates of religious orders or forced settlement projects.
In 1639, this large rural Chinese population Sangley Rebellion (1639) again.[33] The uprising began at Calamba, where several thousand Chinese residents had been coerced to settle and forced to pay substantial rent to the Spanish. Conditions were poor, and about 300 had died by the time of the rebellion on 20 November. The rebels advanced towards Manila and made fast progress, taking the San Pedro Macati Church on the eastern outskirts of the city by 22 November. Although well-organized, the rebellion was poorly armed and could not stand up to the Spanish and local Tagalog forces, which routed them upon their arrival in the city.
Additional uprisings were reported in other areas of the country. On 26 November, the Chinese residents took control of the north bank of the Pasig River.[33] On 2 December, the Spanish began firing on the rebels from the city walls. Three days later, the Spanish ordered the execution of any Chinese resident that could be found and placed a bounty on each; in total, it is estimated that 17,000 to 22,000 Chinese residents were murdered. Around 6,000 to 7,000 Chinese residents held out on the eastern shore of Laguna de Bay for over three months, until they were surrounded and forced to surrender on 15 March 1640.[34]
In early 1662, the Southern Ming warlord Koxinga(Zheng Chenggong) defeated the Dutchcolonial outpost in Taiwan at the Siege of Fort Zeelandia and established the Kingdom of Tungning with himself as the ruler. Several weeks later, on April 24, 1662, Koxinga demanded that the Spanish authorities in Manila pay him tribute, or else he would send a fleet to the city; he sent Italian Dominican missionary Vittorio Riccio, who had been living in Fujian province, as an ambassador to the governor of the Philippines to demand the submission of the archipelago. Governor Sabiniano Manrique de Lara declined to answer Koxinga and left Riccio waiting for an answer; meanwhile, the Spanish adopted measures to put the colony in a state of defense.[35] The withdrew their forces from the Moluccas and Mindanao to reinforce Manila.[36][37] Food and supplies were gathered in Manila in preparation for a siege, and the city walls and defenses were improved, as the residents of Manila waited anxiously for the attack.[35]
Tensions between the Spanish, native Filipinos, and Chinese residents ran high; many Sangley residents suspected that the Spanish planned to massacre them. On May 24, a disturbance in the Chinese settlement resulted in a Spaniard being killed in the marketplace. The Spanish fired their cannons from the walls of Intramuros at the Chinese settlement (modern-day Binondo), killing many. The Spanish razed their own churches and convents in Manila to prevent Chinese from taking shelter in them.[38] The Spanish governor ordered all non-Christian Chinese residents to leave Manila. It is uncertain how many fled, but 1300 Chinese residents were reported to have left on a single boat, while others escaped into the mountains. On June 4, the Spanish ordered all Chinese residents who had not reported to an assembly area to be killed. Juan de la Concepcion[es] says that the original intention of the Spaniards was to kill all the Sangley residents, but they allegedly only stopped because they realized it would have been inconvenient if all the Chinese tradesmen and mechanics were killed. Reportedly, 20,000 Chinese were massacred, while approximately 3,000 fled to Formosa and just 5,000 survivors remained in Manila.[39]
Riccio returned to Formosa and informed Koxinga of the massacre; the warlord was enraged and intended to invade the Spanish Philippines immediately. However, this invasion never occurred, because Koxinga died suddenyl in 1662 of malaria.[40] Koxinga's son Zheng Jing intended to continue his father's campaign to conquer the Philippines, but he was distracted by ongoing conflicts with the Dutch and never launched an invasion.[41] Instead, he demanded Spain pay him tribute and grant him extrajudicial rights over the Chinese community in Manila, forbidding the Spanish to proselytize their religion to the Chinese residents. The Spanish Philippines ended up paying this tribute to the Kingdom of Tungning.[42][43][44][45] Governor Manuel de León admitted the Spanish in the Philippines were weaker than the Chinese Tungning forces in Taiwan, saying "these provinces [the Philippines] are in no state to be complaining to the neighboring kings, with the ease with which they move to any altercation" in a letter to the Spanish Queen Mariana of Austria.[46] The English and Dutch East India companies both agreed that Zheng Jing's invasion would have been successful against the Spanish as planned, after reviewing the weak state of Spanish defenses.[47]
Effects on the Spanish-Moro conflicts
Throughout the early 1600s, the Moros raided and pillaged towns on Spanish-controlled islands, and various forts passed between Spanish and Moro control.[48] In 1663, the Spanish were on the verge of victory over the Moros. However, in the wake of Koxinga's threat and the subsequent Chinese rebellion, Spain withdrew their forces from Mindanao and the Moluccas in order to reinforce Manila. The presidios of Zamboanga in Mindanao and the Cuyo Archipelago were abandoned and the forts were demolished.[49] (The Jesuits attempted to rebuild the fort of Zamboanga in 1666 and 1672, but it was not until 1712 that the Spanish king ordered its reestablishment, and even then the project was not realized until 1718.[50])
The Moros took advantage of the Koxinga situation to attack the Spanish, particularly Spanish settlements in Mindanao and Visayan.[51][52][53][50][excessive citations]
Spain would never recover the territories of Mindanao and the Moluccas from the Moro people.[48][54][55][56][57][excessive citations] "The effects of the events cited above left Spanish prestige at a low ebb. Manila was no longer the principal commercial centre of the East and never again recovered that position. The century that followed from 1663–1762 has been described as one of obscurity for the Philippines."[58][59]
1686 rebellion plot
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The Spanish constable in the Parian ghetto was killed by Chinese on 28 May 1686. The Spanish governor was also targeted.[60][61]
1700s expulsions
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Pagan Chinese residents were expelled from Manila in 1755 and 1766, leaving only Catholic Chinese mestizo residents behind. Chinese mestizos made up a huge fraction of the Philippine population and took over the retail trade from expelled Chinese residents.[62][63]
When the Chinese residents were expelled from Manila in 1758, many of them went to Joló, where some 4,000 lived at the time of Cencelly's[clarification needed] expedition. They sided with the natives of Jolo (TausugMoros) against the Spaniards and organized an armed troop to fight them.[64][65][66][67][68][excessive citations]
On July 27, 1713, the tribunal, acting in a legislative capacity, decreed that within thirty days "all Moros, Armenians, Malabars, Chinese and other enemies of the Holy Faith" should be lodged in the Parián when visiting Manila, or when living there temporarily for purposes of visit or trade. Penalties were also prescribed for infractions.[69]
After Spanish persecution against Chinese residents in Luzon, thousands of Chinese residents fled to the Sultanate of Sulu (tributaries to the Ming Dynasty). There they assimilated into the Tausug-Sama people.[70][71][72] Many Chinese residents then fought in Sulu's war against western colonialists, such as the 5 March 1775 attack against the Balambagan British outpost led by Chinese merchant Datu Teteng.[73]
"In 1642 Generals Corcuero and Almonte made peace with Corralat, but piratical depredations by the Moros continued; Chinese rebellions embarrassed the Spaniards, who evacuated many places, and many fights were chronicled between the Moro fleets of Praus and the Spanish fleets. The priests egged on the Spanish, and the Spanish King re-established, and then abandoned, many stations in Mindoro, Basilan Mindanao and Jolo. Treaties were made and unmade. Expeditions intended to be punitive were undertaken. The Tawi-Tawi Moros nearly captured Zamboanga. Engagements were constant with varying success until 1737. King Philip V. of Spain, pestered the Sultans of Jolo and Tomantaca (Mindanao) about not being Christians, but expeditions were as frequent as baptisms."[74][75][76][77][68][78][79][excessive citations]
Anda took what precautions were available to restrain the Moro pirates, but great difficulties arose. Ali-Mudin, whom the English had restored to his sway in Joló, and his son Israel (in whose favor the father abdicated) were friendly to the Spaniards, with many of their dattos; but another faction, led by Zalicaya, the commander of the Joloan armadas, favored the English, who had established themselves in 1762 on Balambangan in the Joló archipelago, which they had induced Bantilan to grant them. The English were accused of trying to incite the Joloans against the Spaniards by intrigue and bribery.
Anda sent an expedition to protest to the English their occupation of this Spanish territory, and entrusted this mission to an Italian officer named Giovanni Cencelly, who was then in command of one of the infantry regiments stationed at Manila; the latter sailed from Zamboanga December 30, 1773, bearing careful instructions to avoid any hostilities with the English and maintain friendship with the Joloans. But Cencelly seems to have been quite destitute of tact or judgment, and even of loyalty to his governor; for he disobeyed his instructions and angered the Joloans, who could hardly be restrained by Ali-Mudin from massacring the Spaniards, and at the end of three weeks was obliged to return to Zamboanga. He was on bad terms with the commandant there, Raimundo Español, and refused him any account of his proceedings at Joló. He even tried to stir up sedition among the Spanish troops against Español. The English gladly availed themselves of this opportunity to strengthen their own position in Joló, stirring up the islanders against Spain and erecting new forts. Later, however, the English at Balambangan showed so much harshness and contempt for the Moro dattos (even putting one in the pillory) that the latter plotted to surprise and kill the intruders; and on March 5, 1775, did so, killing all the English being except the commandant and five others, who managed to escape to their ship in the harbor.
The Moros seized the fort, thus acquiring great quantities of military supplies, arms, money, and food, along with several vessels. Among these spoils were forty-five cannons and $24,000 in silver. Elated by this success, Tenteng, the chief mover of the enterprise, tried to secure Zamboanga the same way; but the new commandant there, Juan Bayot, was on his guard, and the Moros did not succeed. Teteng then went to Cebú, where he committed horrible ravages. Other raids of this sort were carried out, and for a long time the Spaniards were unable to check them. A letter written to the king by Anda in 1773 had asked for money to build light armed vessels, and a royal order of January 27, 1776, commanded that 50,000 pesos be sent to Filipinas for this purpose. This money was used by Anda's temporary successor, Pedro Sarrio, for the construction of a squadron of vintas, "vessels which, on account of their swiftness and exceedingly light draft, were more suitable for the pursuit of the pirates than the very heavy galleys; they were, besides, to carry pilots of the royal fleet to reconnoiter the coasts, draw plans of the ports, indicate the shoals and reefs, take soundings in the sea, etc." "The Datos at once feared the vengeance of the English, and declared Tenteng unworthy of the rights of a Joloan and an outlaw from the kingdom with all his followers. Sultan Israel wrote to the governor of Zamboanga, assuring him that neither he nor the Datos had taken part in this transgression; and he asked the governor to send him the Curia filipica and the Empresas políticas of Saavedra, in order that he might be able to answer the charges which the English would make against him. (He had studied at the college of San José in Manila.)" Tenteng repaired to Joló with his booty and the captured English vessel; "these were arguments in his favor so convincing that he was at once admitted." He surrendered to the sultan all the military supplies and $2,000 in cash, and divided the spoils with the other datos; they received him with the utmost enthusiasm, and raised the ban from his head. "Around 1803, the squadron of General Alava returned to the Peninsula, the English again took possession of the island of Balanbangan; and it appears that they made endeavors to establish themselves in Joló, and were instigating the sultan and datos to go out and plunder the Visayas, telling the Joloans that they themselves only cared to seize Manila and the Acapulko galleon.
↑ Chen, Da (1923). Chinese Migrations, with Special Reference to Labor Conditions. Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics: Miscellaneous series. Vol.340. U.S. Government Printing Office. p.100. In part the Ming Annals say: In the eighth moon of the twenty - first year of the reign of Wan Li (1593), when the chieftain Lei Pi Li Mi Lao (Don Pérez Gómez Dasmariñas) undertook a raid on the Moluccas, he employed 250 ...
United States. Bureau of Labor Statistics (1967). Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, Issue 340. Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States. Bureau of Labor Statistics. U.S. Government Printing Office. p.100. In part the Ming Annals say: In the eighth moon of the twenty - first year of (the reign of Wan Li (1593), when the chieftain Lei Pi Li Mi Lao (Don Þérez Gómez Dasmariñas) undertook a raid on the Moluccas, he employed 250 ...
Historical Conservation Society (1966). Felix, Alfonso (ed.). The Chinese in the Philippines: 1570-1770. Vol.1. Solidaridad Publishing House. p.17. Eighteen years later (1593), relations between the Spaniards and the Chinese were again strained when Governor Gomez ... of an expedition to the Moluccas when one night, after the 80 Spaniards were asleep, the Chinese mutinied.
Casino, Eric S. (1982). The Filipino Nation: The Philippines: lands and peoples, a cultural geography. Grolier International. p.98. ISBN9780717285099. 1. The Galleon Trade proper linked Manila and Mexico. 2. The China junk trade linked Manila and South China ... The number of Chinese living in Manila increased from about one hundred fifty in 1571 to around twenty thousand in 1603 ...
Caballero, Evelyn (1996). Gold from the Gods: Traditional Small-scale Miners in the Philippines. Giraffe Books. p.8. ISBN9718967249. (Laufer 1907: 260) Thirty thousand Chinese settled in Manila. However, in 1603 twenty - five thousand of them were killed due to the folly of Chang - Yi, who headed the expedition from China to search for gold in Cavite.
Crossley, John Newsome (2016). The Dasmariñases, Early Governors of the Spanish Philippines. Routledge. ISBN978-1317036456. In the interim there was a fearsome battle against the Dutchman Oliver van Noordt in Manila Bay in 1600, ... looking for a mountain of gold near Cavite. Naturally this visit made the Spaniards even more nervous that the Chinese were ...
Willis, John E. (1998). Relations with the Maritime Europeans, 1514-1662. pp.361–362.
1 2 Barrows, David P. (1905). A History of the Philippines ... American book Company. p.208. In 1646 a squadron attacked Zamboanga, and then came north to Luzon .... In 1656 the administration of the Moluccas was united with that of Mindanao, and the governor of the former, Don Francisco ... Koxinga the Chinese Adventurer.
Zaide, Gregorio F. (1939). Philippine History and Civilization. Philippine Education Company. p.178. That same year Don Francisco de Esteybar, Governor of the Moluccas, evacuated Ternate and established his headquarters at Zamboanga. Spain, however, continued to administer the Moluccas from Zamboanga until 1662 when Koxinga ...
↑ Daniel George Edward Hall (1981). A history of South-East Asia (4, illustrateded.). Macmillan. p.278. ISBN0-333-24163-0. Retrieved September 29, 2011. Moro depredations and enabled the Spaniards to take the offensive against the Moro base at Jolo and on Lake Lanao in northern Mindanao. Neither side, however, could win an outright victory, and when the Chinese leader Koxinga, having ousted the Dutch from Formosa in 1661, went on to threaten Manila in the following year, Zamboanga was evacuated by the Spaniards and(Original from the University of Michigan)
↑ Nasser A. Marohomsalic (2001). Aristocrats of the Malay race: a history of the bangsa Moro in the Philippines. N.A. Marohomsalic. p.58. 1 12 CONFLICT OF SUCCESSION AND RIVALRY The withdrawal of Spanish forces in Zamboanga and other outposts in Mindanao for Manila in 1663 to meet the threat of a Chinese attack by Koxinga left Mindanao all to the Moros, to the internal dissensions among the ranks of its covetous nobility who harbored every ambition to royal paramountcy(the University of Michigan)
↑ David Prescott Barrows (1905). A history of the Philippines ... Amer. Bk. Co. p.210. His son was the notorious Kue-Sing, or Koxinga, who for years resisted the armies of the Manchus, and maintained an independent power over the coasts of Fukien and Chekiang. About 1660 the forces of the Manchus became too formidable for him to longer resist them upon the mainland, and Koxinga determined upon the capture of Formosa and the transference of his kingdom to that island. For thirty-eight years this island had been dominated by the Dutch, whose fortresses commanded the channel of the Pescadores. The colony was regarded as an important one by the Dutch colonial government at Batavia. The city of Tai-wan, on the west coast, was a considerable center of trade. It was strongly protected by the fortress of Zealand, and had a garrison of twenty-two hundred Dutch soldiers. After months of fighting, Koxinga, with an overpowering force of Chinese, compelled the surrender of the Hollanders and the beautiful island passed into his power. A Threatened Invasion of the Philippines-—Exalted by his success against European arms, Koxinga resolved upon the conquest of the Philippines. He summoned to his service the Italian Dominican missionary, Ricci, who had been living in the province of Fukien, and in the spring of 1662 dispatched him as an ambassador to the governor of the Philippines to demand the submission of the archipelago. Manila was thrown into a terrible panic by this demand, and indeed no such danger had threatened the Spanish in the Philippines since the invasion of Limahong. The Chinese conqueror had an innumerable army, and his armament, stores, and navy had been greatly augmented by the surrender of the Dutch. The Spaniards, however, were united on resistance. The governor, Don Sabiano Manrique de Lara, returned a defiant answer to Koxinga, and the most radical measures were adopted to place the colony in a state of defense. All Chinese were ordered immediately to leave the Islands. Fearful of massacre, these wretched people again broke out in rebellion, and assaulted the city. Many were slain, and other bands wandered off into the mountains, where they perished at the hands of the natives. Others, escaping by frail boats, joined the Chinese colonists on Formosa. Churches and convents in the suburbs of Manila, which might afford shelter to the assailant, were razed to the ground. More than all this, the Moluccas were forsaken, never again to be recovered by Spaniards; and the presidios of Zamboanga and Cuyo, which served as a kind of bridle on the Moros of Jolo and Mindanao, were abandoned. All Spanish troops were concentrated in Manila, fortifications were rebuilt, and the population waited anxiously for the attack. But the blow never fell. Before Ricci arrived at Tai-wan, Koxinga was dead, and the peril of Chinese invasion had passed. Effects of These Events. – But the Philippines had suffered irretrievable loss. Spanish prestige was gone. Manila was no longer, as she had been at the commencement of the century, the capital of the East. Spanish sovereignty was again confined to Luzon and the Bisayas. The Chinese trade, on which rested the economic prosperity of Manila, had once again been ruined. For a hundred years the history of the Philippines is a dull monotony, quite unrelieved by any heroic activity or the presence of noble character.1(Harvard University)
↑ Charles Whitman Briggs (1913). The progressing Philippines. PHILADELPHIA: The Griffith & Rowland press. p.61. Another event of importance during the seventeenth century resulted from the overthrow of the Ming Dynasty in China by the Manchus. During the change of power and consequent disorders there, a Chinese adventurer, Koxinga, raised a pirate army in south China and drove the Dutch out of Formosa. He then sent an ambassador to Manila demanding the surrender of the Islands to him. The colony was weak and unprepared for defense, and consequently terrified. There were twenty-five thousand Chinese living in Pari-an, north of the Pasig River, in Manila. Fearful lest these Chinese cooperate in the designs of Koxinga, they were all ordered to leave the Islands. Unable to do so at once, and fearful of massacre, they arose in rebellion and assaulted the city of Manila. The result was a terrible massacre, which cost the lives of twenty-two thousand of the Chinese; the remaining three thousand built frail boats and fled to Formosa. The death of Koxinga occurred before his expedition reached the Philippines.(the University of Michigan)
↑ Borao, José Eugenio (2010). The Spanish experience in Taiwan, 1626–1642: the Baroque ending of a Renaissance endeavor. Hong Kong University Press. p.199. ISBN9789622090835. JSTORj.ctt1xcrpk.
↑ A pronouncing gazetteer and geographical dictionary of the Philippine Islands, United States of America, with maps, charts and illustrations: Also the law of the civil government in the Philippine Islands passed by Congress and approved by the President July 1, 1902, with a complete index. Prepared in the Bureau of insular affairs, War department ... (September 30, 1902) [By De Benneville Randolph Keim]. Washington, D.C.: Govt. Print. Off. 1902. pp.177, 178, 179. 1603. A conflagration destroyed a third part of Manila. Uprising of 20,000 Chinese. Spaniards, nativ. and Japanese unite and completely overcome the Chinese. 160f>. Fortunate expedition to the Moluccas. First mission of Recoleta monks arrived. Uprisliu; the Japanese; were conquered and prohibited from living in future together in one ward. Dutch corsair, Rlancariio, defeated and captured by I>on Pedro de Heredia..ISt Moro pirates numbering 15,000 lay waste the Visayan Islands, and sacked the capital of Tayabas, Luzon. 1S5. Foundation of the fort of Zamboanga, Mindanao, to hold in check the piracy of the Moros..S Uprising of the Chinese at Calamba. Laguna. Their forays against San Pedro Macate.Taytay, and Antipolo and ultimate defeat and submission. College of San Juan de Letran founded under the Dominicans. Don Francisco de A tienza conquered the Moros of Lanao and took possession of the celebrated lake bearing this name. Victories of Don Pedro de Almonte over the Moros in Mindanao and Sulu...'Uprising in the provinces of Pampanga and Pangasinan, Luzon, quelled without bloodshed, "tt Chinese pirate Koseng demanded the submission of the archipelago, with serious threats. Upris, tag of the Chinese in the suburbs of Manila and their subsequent submission. Koseng died.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)(the University of California)
1 2 Nasser A. Marohomsalic (2001). Aristocrats of the Malay race: a history of the bangsa Moro in the Philippines. N.A. Marohomsalic. p.58. The Spaniards retaliated the following year, 1656, burning Kudarat's town and some Moro towns in Sibugay Bay and destroying a Dutch fleet allied with the Moros. Kudarat's fort stood and repulsed Spanish offensive even while the Moros were raiding the coasts of Mindoro and Marinduque. Datu Salicula scoured the Philippine seas, entering Manila Bay in 1657 and capturing over 1,000 natives. In 1660, Jolo and Tawi-Tawi Moros raided the coasts of Bohol, Leyte and Mindoro and, in 1662, sacked and burned a great many towns in the Visayas. 1 12 CONFLICT OF SUCCESSION AND RIVALRY The withdrawal of Spanish forces in Zamboanga
↑ Joo-Jock Lim; Vani Shanmugaratnam (1984). Joo-Jock Lim; Vani Shanmugaratnam (eds.). Armed separatism in Southeast Asia. Regional Strategic Studies Programme, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p.171. ISBN9971-902-51-6. which culminated in the construction Fort Pillar in Zamboanga (La Caldera); 4. The efforts to subjugate Mindanao and Sulu from 1635 to 1663 when the Spanish garrison at the La Caldera was abandoned on account of Koxinga's threat in Luzon(the University of California)
1 2 United States. War Dept (1903). Annual reports of the secretary of war, Volume 3. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. p.381. spite the Jolo treaty, the Jolo dato, Salicala, and a dato from Borneo ravaged the Visayan coast. The force of the latter was defeated by Monforte near Masbate, and Salicala returned to Jolo. Monforte destroyed several towns and 300 boats in Borneo. In 1655 trouble again broke out between Corralat and the Spanish forces, the Moros sacking numerous towns in the Calamianes and one town near Zamboanga. In 1656 a fleet dispatched by De Sara, the new captaingeneral, burned Corralat's town and some Moro towns in Sibuguey Bay, destroying also a Dutch fleet allied with the Moros. The Moros at the same time were ravaging the coasts of Mindoro and Marinduque, and succeeded also in repulsing the attack on the fort at Corralat, forcing the Spaniards to return to Sabonilla and Zamboanga. In 1657 Salicala scoured the Philippine seas, capturing over 1,000 native prisoners, entering the Bay of Manila during the raid. In 1660 Moros from Jolo and Tawi-Tawi, takmg advantage of an insurrection in Luzon, raided the costs of Bohol, Leyte, and Mindoro. In 1662 a Chinese rebellion embarrassed the Spaniards, and at this time several datos from the Jolo and Tawi-Tawi islands sacked and burned a great many towns in the Visayas. Following these inroads, Bobadilla, governor of Zamboanga, was ordered to evacuate that station, which was done in January, 1663. For the next half century Moro raids on the Mindanao and Visayan settlements marked each year, and many fights were chronicled between the fleets of praus and the Spanish fleet known as the "Armada de los Pintados", (Harvard University)
↑ Adeline Knapp (1902). The story of the Philippines for use in the schools of the Philippine Islands. The world and its people. Vol.11. Silver, Burdett and Co. p.84. While Governor-General Lara was in office another Chinese invasion threatened. A Mongol chieftain named Koxinga, who had been driven forth from his own country by the Tartars, was the leader of it. When the Tartars overran China, about the middle of the seventeenth century, Koxinga and many of his followers refused to submit. They went to Formosa, drove out the Dutch people, and settled there. Later Koxinga laid a plan to take the Philippine Islands and set up his kingdom there. Koxinga's chief adviser was an Italian friar named Riccio. This friar he had appointed a high mandarin, or nobleman. He now sent him to Manila, dressed in the garb of his office, to demand tribute from the Philippine government. Naturally this demand caused amaze and alarm in Manila. The Spaniards were aghast at the idea of a Catholic priest demanding tribute from a Catholic country, in the name of a heathen ruler. Later the authorities at Rome called the friar to account for his conduct. At this time, however, the Spanish were at a loss how to act. They did not dare send the priest-mandarin away, nor could they give him any answer. They therefore kept him waiting in Manila while they made up their minds what to do. As was usual, when trouble arose, the government thought that the Chinese in Manila were plotting to take the city. They felt sure that these men would be ready to help Koxinga when he came, so everything was made ready for another attack upon the Chinese in Luzon. All government troops, both Spanish and native, were collected at Manila. So great was the fear, that three important forts were torn down, and the soldiers stationed there were brought to Luzon. Only the fort at Caraga, Mindanao, was left standing. This one they did not dare to give up; the soldiers there were all that kept the Moros from destroying the settlements on that coast. When the Chinese saw the Spaniards making ready for war, they knew from past experience that it meant trouble for them. As usual, therefore, they began the trouble themselves. They attacked the Spanish, and the latter at once began fighting the Chinese wherever they found them. This time the Spanish meant to kill every Chinaman in the country. They hunted out all who hid, and cut them down. Not one whom they caught was spared. Not one of all in the islands would have been spared if the country could have gotten along without them. Someone remembered, however, before it was too late, that if all the Chinese were killed there would be no one left to carry on the small trades of the country. Because bootmakers and tailors and small shopkeepers were needed, therefore about 5,000 Chinamen were spared, and these were permitted to remain in Manila. After peace was made, Riccio was allowed to go back to Formosa, to tell Koxinga what had been done. He found the chieftain getting ready to come to Manila with an army to take the country, and Riccio told him what had happened. Koxinga's rage was great when he heard his mandarin's story. He planned to go at once to the islands to punish this wicked cruelty to his countrymen. He fell ill, however, and died of fever before he could start. Thus Manila escaped the fate that must almost surely have fallen upon the city if the Chinese chief and his great army had reached the bay. The foolish attack upon the Chinese took so many Spanish soldiers from the southern islands that the Moros now had free swing along the coasts of Mindanao and the Visayas. Other troubles came up in Manila, and soon evil and sorrow were as active and as real as though the islands had never been cleansed by book and ceremony. Not even these can stay the results of cruelty and evil in men's lives.(Harvard University)
↑ José S. Arcilla (1991). Rizal and the emergence of the Philippine nation (reviseded.). Office of Research and Publications, Ateneo de Manila University. p.98. ISBN971-550-020-X. In 1635, Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera arrived as the new Governor General of the Philippines. He was a soldier, and he decided to look into the Moro problem. He personally led a military expedition to the Pulangi in 1637 and successfully took Sultan Kudarat's fort at ... In 1639, he sent troops to overrun the area around Laka Lanao, erecting a fort near Iligan, the northern entrance to the Maranao country. It was a dramatic revanche. In three short years, this veteran of the Spanish wars turned the tables on the Moros. A festive Manila accorded him a jubilant triumph on his return from the campaigns. Boys soon fell to playing Espanoles and Magindanaos, with a Corcuera, wooden sword in air, leading the charge against the defiant ranks of a Kudarat. It was from such games (at least it seems so) that the traditional moro-moro developed into an early art form in the Philippines. Such triumphs did not last. Governor Sebastian Manrique de Lara (1635–1663) recalled the Spanish garrisons in the south. What happened? In May 1662, Chen Cheng-kung (hispanized into Koxinga) delivered a dire warning to the Governor that, having captured Formosa Island, he was now ready to take the Philippines, unless the Spaniards paid the tribute he demanded. Manrique just as boastfully refused to honor the threat, but he decided to bolster the defenses of the colony. He recalled all the southern forces, leaving the outposts at Caraga and Zamboanga bereft of men. The Sulus and Magindanaos lost no time and resumed their hostile operations. As it turned out, Koxinga never made good on his threat. He died. But the garrisons were not restored. And so, emboldened, the Moros resumed their raids. They sailed the Philippine seas freely, reaching as far north as Cagayan(the University of Michigan0
↑ Dansalan Research Center (1979). Dansalan quarterly, Volumes 1–4. Dansalan Research Center, Dansalan Junior College. p.180. The Christian occupation of the north coast of Mindanao was just being consolidated when, in 1662, a new threat to the whole Philippine enterprise brought the labours to a halt. Koxinga, the Chinese war-lord who had taken over Formosa, threatened Manila, and Governor Bobadilla sent out orders calling in all the Spanish forces in Mindanao, including those of Iligan and Zamboanga, to defend the capital. 38 This ... and furtive expeditions of our Jesuits," who were prevented from doing more by the "bloody piracies of the Moros(the University of Michigan)
↑ Middle East and Africa. Taylor & Francis. 1996. p.900. ISBN1-884964-04-4. In order to protect their share in the China trade, the Spanish came to Zamboanga in 1635. ... In 1663 Manila, the Spanish capital, was under threat from a Chinese attack, and all Spanish resources in Zamboanga were withdrawn to Luzon...With the American arrival in the Philippines in 1898, many aspects of life in Zamboanga and its neighbouring regions changed...Muslims began to be outnumbered by Christian immigrants; today the Muslim population of Mindanao and Sulu accounts for only 23 percent of the region's total.
↑ Nasser A. Marohomsalic (2001). Aristocrats of the Malay race: a history of the bangsa Moro in the Philippines. N.A. Marohomsalic. p.195. In 1597, Spain built a fort at La Caldera (now Recodo, Zamboanga City) and abandoned it later. They reoccupied the city in 1635 and built therein the Nuestra Senor del Pilar Fort with support flotilla to check Moro sorties to Visayas and Luzon and effect speedy colonization of Moroland. Spain abandoned Zamboanga in 1663 to reinforce Manila against the threat of Chinese Koxinga, and they returned in 1718 to occupy again the settlement. In 1720–1721, Iranun and M'ranao Moros numbering 3000 warriors led by the King of Butig stormed and laid siege to the Fort for five months but the Fort stood its defenses. A saga of their race, the event is recorded and preserved in the salsila of the M'ranaos by their lyricists, and it is sung and recited in rhapsody during important occasions.(the University of Michigan)
↑ Nasser A. Marohomsalic (2001). Aristocrats of the Malay race: a history of the bangsa Moro in the Philippines. N.A. Marohomsalic. p.58. The Spaniards retaliated the following year, 1656, burning Kudarat's town and some Moro towns in Sibugay Bay and destroying a Dutch fleet allied with the Moros. Kudarat's fort stood and repulsed Spanish offensive even while the Moros were raiding the coasts of Mindoro and Marinduque. Datu Salicula scoured the Philippine seas, entering Manila Bay in 1657 and capturing over 1000 natives. In 1660, Jolo and Tawi-Tawi Moros raided the coasts of Bohol, Leyte and Mindoro and, in 1662, sacked and burned a great many towns in the Visayas. 1 12 CONFLICT OF SUCCESSION AND RIVALRY The withdrawal of Spanish forces in Zamboanga and other outposts in Mindanao for Manila in 1 663 to meet the threat of a Chinese attack by Koxinga left Mindanao all to the Moros, to the internal dissensions among the ranks of its covetous nobility who harbored every ambition to royal paramountcy.(the University of Michigan)
↑ The Encyclopedia Americana: a library of universal knowledge, Volume 21. ALBANY, NEW YORK: Encyclopedia Americana Corp. 1919. p.752. The conflict between the Dutch and Spanish for possession of the East ended in the loss to Spain of most of the possessions to the south in the hands of the Dutch, although efforts of the latter to gain possession of the Philippines were without success. In 1640 Portugal freed herself from Spain and Spain lost the remainder of her possessions to the south. During this period the raids of the Moros continued. These pirates did much damage. This led to efforts on the part of Spain to conquer these warlike people, which resulted in the conquest of Jolo and the establishment of a stronghold at Zamboanga. In 1662 Koxinga, a Chinese pirate, demanded the surrender of Manila. This danger was so great that the Spaniards concentrated all their efforts to resist the threatened invasions and abandoned some of their strongholds in the south. The Chinese in Manila were suspected of ibeing in the plot. They assaulted Manila but many were slain and the remainder left the city. The threatened invasion never was carried out for Koxinga died. The effects of the events cited above left Spanish prestige at a low ebb. Manila was no longer the principal commercial centre of the East and never again recovered that position. The century that followed from 1663 to 1762 has been described as one of obscurity for the Philippines. It was filled with conflicts between the civil and Church authorities. Corruption and violence went unrebuked. Efforts made by Spain to correct the abuses were for the most part without success. One of the courageous governors was killed by Church authorities. Commerce between South America and the Philippines was forbidden and that with Mexico greatly restricted for the benefit of the merchants of Spain. This economic policy nearly paralyzed trade. Moro piracy again became active. In 1762 the British captured Manila, but made no attempt to extend their conquest. By the Treaty of Paris in 1763, the Philippines were restored to Spain.(Harvard University)
↑ The Encyclopedia Americana. ALBANY, NEW YORK: The Encyclopedia Americana Corporation. 1919. p.752. The conflict between the Dutch and Spanish for possession of the East ended in the loss to Spain of most of the possessions to the south in the hands of the Dutch, although efforts of the latter to gain possession of the Philippines were without success. In 1640 Portugal freed herself from Spain and Spain lost the remainder of her possessions to the south. During this period the raids of the Moros continued. These pirates did much damage. This led to efforts on the part of Spain to conquer these warlike people, which resulted in the conquest of Jolo and the establishment of a stronghold at Zamboanga. In 1662 Koxinga, a Chinese pirate, demanded the surrender of Manila. This danger was so great that the Spaniards concentrated all their efforts to resist the threatened invasions and abandoned some of their strongholds in the south. The Chinese in Manila were suspected of being in the plot. They assaulted Manila but many were slain and the remainder left the city. The threatened invasion never was carried out for Koxinga died. The effects of the events cited above left Spanish prestige at a low ebb. Manila was no longer the principal commercial centre of the East never again recovered that position. The century that followed from 1663 to 1762 has been described as one of obscurity for the Philippines. It was filled with conflicts between the civil and Church authorities. Corruption and violence went unrebuked. Efforts made by Spain to correct the abuses were for the most part without success. One of the courageous governors was killed by Church authorities. Commerce between South America and the Philippines was forbidden and that with Mexico greatly restricted for the benefit of the merchants of Spain. This economic policy nearly paralyzed trade. Moro piracy again became active. In 1762 the British captured Manila, but made no attempt to extend their conquest. By the Treaty of Paris in 1763, the Philippines were restored to Spain.(Harvard University)
↑ Chia, Lucille (2006). "The Butcher, the Baker, and the Carpenter: Chinese Sojourners in the Spanish Philippines and Their Impact on Southern Fujian (Sixteenth-Eighteenth Centuries)". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 49 (4): 509–34. doi:10.1163/156852006779048435. JSTOR25165171.
↑ Wickberg, Edgar (2000). The Chinese in Philippine Life, 1850-1898. Choice reprints (illustrated, reprinted.). Ateneo University Press. p.28. ISBN9715503527. Away from Manila, the characteristic mestizo occupations were wholesaling, retailing, and landholding . 66 The reduction of the Manila Chinese population by the expulsions of 1755 and 1766 meant less economic competition ...
Tan, Samuel Kong (1994). See, Teresita Ang; Go, Bon Juan (eds.). 華人. Kaisa Para sa Kaunlaran, Chinben See Memorial Trust Fund, De La Salle University. China Studies Program. Kaisa Para sa Kaunlaran, Incorporated. p.159. ISBN9718857052. Away from Manila, the characteristic mestizo occupations were wholesaling, retailing and landholding . Besides being engaged in commerce or agriculture, or perhaps both, there were a few mestizos, both in Manila and in the ...
Tan, Samuel Kong (1994). See, Teresita Ang; Go, Bon Juan (eds.). 華人. Kaisa Para sa Kaunlaran, Chinben See Memorial Trust Fund, De La Salle University. China Studies Program. Kaisa Para sa Kaunlaran, Incorporated. p.159. ISBN9718857052. In contemporary times, their role in nation - building continues. The papers of Marcelino Foronda and Joaquin Sy underscore the importance of ChineseFilipino intermarriages in the promotion of natural bonds or links between Filipinos ...
Cariño, Theresa C., ed. (1985). Chinese in the Philippines. China studies program. De La Salle University. China Studies Program. DLSU University Press with assistance of Research Dissemination Office of De La Salle University Research Center. p.50. ISBN9711180340. In contemporary times their role in nation - building continues . Although the Chinese mestizos have exerted a tremendous influence on our history, the role they have played in the making of the Filipino nation has received little ...
Ordoñez, Elmer A., ed. (1998). The Philippine Revolution and Beyond: Papers from the International Conference on the Centennial of the 1896 Philippine Revolution. Vol.2. National Centennial Commission (Philippines), National Commission on Culture and the Arts (Philippines). Philippine Centennial Commission [and] National Commission for Culture and the Arts. p.687. ISBN9719201827. In contemporary times, their role in nation - building continues . " 12 In the last half of the 19th century, a Filipino intellectual middle class (known as the ilustrados) made up predominantly of Chinese mestizos, was formed .
↑ Montero y Vidal's Historia de Filipinas, ii, pp. 66-70, 115-1140, 229-382.
↑ Montero y Vidal, José (1915). Blair, Emma Helen (ed.). The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898: Relating to China and the Chinese. Vol.22. A.H. Clark Company. p.44. 20 When the Chinese were expelled from Manila in 1758, many of them went to reside in Joló, where some 4,000 were found at the time of Cencelly's expedition; these took sides with the Joloans against the Spaniards, and organized an ...
Cunningham, Charles Henry (1919). The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies as Illustrated by the Audiencia of Malina (1583-1800). University of California publications in history. Vol.9. University of California Press. p.253. ISBN0722228635. ... 1713, the tribunal, acting in a legislative capacity, decreed that within thirty days "all Moros, Armenians, Malabars, Chinese and other enemies of the Holy Faith" should be lodged in the Parián when visiting Manila ...{{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
University of California, Berkeley (1919). University of California Publications in History, Volume 9. University of California Press. p.253. On July 27, 1713, the tribunal, acting in a legislative capacity, decreed that within thirty days " all Moros, Armenians, Malabars, Chinese and other enemies of the Holy Faith " should be lodged in the Parián when visiting Manila ...
University of California Publications in History. Vol.9. University of California Press. 1919. p.253. ... decreed that within thirty days " all Moros; Armenians, Malabars, Chinese and other enemies of the Holy Faith" should be lodged in the Parián when visiting Manila, or when living there temporarily for purposes of visit or trade ...
Cunningham, Charles Henry (1919). The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies ... University of California publications in history. Vol.9. University of California Press. p.253. ... the tribunal, acting in a legislative capacity, decreed that within thirty days "all Moros, Armenians, Malabars, Chinese and other enemies of the Holy Faith" should be lodged in the Parián when visiting Manila, or when ...
Quiason, Serafin D. (1966). English Country Trade with the Philippines, 1644-1765. University of the Philippines Press. p.93. ISBN0824804376. 168 The Armenians and "other enemies of the Holy Faith" while on a temporary visit or trade mission were required by law to stay at the Parian. The steady influx of the Chinese and other Asian traders into Manila compelled the ...
↑ See, Teresita Ang; Go, Bon Juan, eds. (1994). 華人. Kaisa Para sa Kaunlaran, Incorporated. p.129. ISBN9718857052. thousands of Chinese welcomed their exile from Luzon to Sulu following a series of violent crackdowns on the "Chinese rebels" as a result of Spanish anti-Chinese policy. In the late 18th century, about 4,000 Chinese, according to Montero y Vidal, supported Sultan Israel of Sulu (1773-1778) against Spanish rule... Ki Kuan served as the sole negotiator of Sultan Israel in the conclusion of the treaty of peace and commerce with the Spaniards on December 19, 1726. Datu Teteng, a Chinese businessman who rose from the ranks, led the Tausug attack on the British settlement at Balambagan on March 5, 1775 and brought to the Sultanate spoils from the settlement. The event was significant because it frustrated further colonial efforts... many of the Chinese who moved into Sulu were so fully absorbed by the native culture that only their family names have remained as reminders of their historic ties with China.
Publications, Volume 4. 1905. p.179. Ki Kuan was sent to Manila to arrange for peace and returned with two Spanish commissioners, who made a treaty with the sultan ...
↑ Zaide, Gregorio F. (1939). Philippine History and Civilization. Philippine Education Company. p.234. In their inability to suppress Moro piracy, the Spanish authorities negotiated treaties with the Moros. In 1725...the Chinese Ki Kuan was sent by the Jolo sultan to Manila as his ambassador...
Marcos, Ferdinand Edralin (1977). Tadhana: The formation of the national community (1565-1896). Vol. 2, Part 2 of Tadhana: The History of the Filipino People. Marcos. p.400. ...with Ki Kuan the sultan succeeded in arranging a conference with the Spaniards... Three days later, a treaty was concluded providing for the establishment of trade between Jolo and Manila ...
↑ Zaide, Gregorio F. (1949). The Philippines Since Pre-Spanish Times. R. P. Garcia. p.376. Unable to suppress the Moros, the Spanish authorities negotiated treaties with them. In 1725 the Chinese Ki Kuan arrived at Manila as the ambassador of the sultan of Jolo... ^Angeles, F. Delor (1964). Mindanao: the Story of an Island: A Preliminary Study. San Pedro Press. p.43. In 1725 the sultan of Sulu sent a Chinese, Ki Kuan, to Manila to arrange a treaty of peace and commerce with the Spanish ... ^ Philippine Social Sciences and Humanities Review, Volume 32, Issues 1-2. College of Liberal Arts, University of the Philippines. 1968. p.11. ... the Sultan sent a Chinese, Ki Kuan, to negotiate a treaty with Manila and an agreement was signed on December 19, 1726 ...
↑ The Spirit of '76, Volumes 9-12. Spirit of '76 Publishing Company. 1902. p.20. The Spanish Governor, Pedro Sarrio, made no head-way against the warlike Moros, Sultan Israel of Jolo was poisoned by his cousin, Ali Modin, in the old-fashioned way, and paralysis of commercial relations on traffic between Luzon followed for ten years. The Moros burned several towns, and in 1789 the new Captain-General, Marguina, informed the king that constant war with the Moros "was an evil without remedy." Between that time and 1805, when the Spanish Government made a treaty with the Sultan of Jolo, the Moros captured Spanish ships, sacrificing the crews, ravaged sea-coast towns hundreds of miles northward, despite privateering and the efforts of the Spanish vessels built in the shipyards of San Blas and Cavite. Until 1849 a proper historical sequences of events of Moro campaigns should mention successful raids upon Spanish, British and Dutch vessels by Moro vintas. These piratical boats were in constant conflict with towns extending along lines as long as from Maine to Florida. Treaties were made and unmade. Datto Ipoypo, "the last of the Visayas," each years carried off into slavery, more than 500 persons. In April, 1843, a convention between the Sultan of Basilan and the French emissary was made. France paid 100,000 pesos for Basilan. Vice Admieral Cecille begun, with three French vessels, operations against Datto Usak. A Spanish force under Bocalan went to Zamboanga: the French raised the blockade. The Davao country was ceded to the Spaniards by the Sultan of Mindanao and Jose Oyanguren took the fort of Hiio. The Moros killed Commander Rodriguez of the Spanish Navy, and the islands of the Samales group, in 1845, were the centre of piracy in the Archipelago. With the construction, in 1848, of English steam-built gonbats "El Cano," "Ma-gallanes" and "Reina de Castilla," the Moros egun to recognizes that their praos, wind-impelled vesels, paddle propelled, were at a disadvantage.
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Kingdom of Tungning 
Sulu Sultanate 
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Gómez Pérez Dasmariñas † 
