| Part of a series on |
| Nationalism |
|---|
Authoritarian nationalism is a political ideology that synthesizes nationalist sentiment with an authoritarian governance structure. Unlike liberal or democratic nationalism, which seek to reconcile a national identity with democratic institutions, authoritarian nationalism views political competition and civil dissent as inherent threats to the organic unity of the nation.
Authoritarian nationalism is defined as the "alloy" of nationalist impulses—organized around a specific ethnic group, nationality, or cultural identity—and the consolidation of political power into an anti-democratic platform that represses individual freedoms of thought and action. [1] This ideology typically centers on a charismatic leader, a single political party, or a small elite group, demanding absolute loyalty to a national identity that is framed as being under constant threat from internal or external enemies. [1] This framework often incorporates statism (or state nationalism), where the state acts as the primary instrument for national advancement, intervening in economic and social spheres to align domestic resources with perceived national interests. [1] [2] Within this context, national unity is prioritized above all else, frequently leading to the marginalization of minority groups perceived as obstacles to a singular national identity. [1] Fascism is cited as a prominent example of radical and authoritarian nationalism. [3]
Unlike variants based on traditional elitism, the re-emergence of authoritarian nationalism in the 21st century is frequently fueled by reactionary narratives and populist agendas that are anti-immigrant, anti-elite, and anti-intellectual. Scholarly analysis suggests that this phenomenon arises from a combination of economic factors—such as rising inequality and the perceived failures of globalization—alongside cultural anxieties regarding rapid social change. [1] While often manifesting as right-wing movements characterized by racial supremacy or religious intolerance, authoritarian nationalism also encompasses post-imperialist aspirations and state-centered ideologies observed in various global contexts, including the United States, Russia, China, India, and Turkey. [1]
Under the leadership of Chiang Kai-shek and the Kuomintang, the Republic of China adopted a form of authoritarian nationalism known as Chiangism. This ideology sought to unify the nation through the Three Principles of the People, emphasizing national sovereignty and cultural restoration. While it incorporated elements of social mobilization, it remained authoritarian conservative, relying on traditional Confucian values and military authority to counter both foreign imperialism and domestic communism. [4]
The Chinese Communist Party (CCP), which has dominated mainland China since 1949, moved away from orthodox communism through the Reform and Opening Up period of the 1980s, bringing it closer to an authoritarian nationalist regime. Modern Chinese authoritarian nationalism is rooted in historical Confucian concepts of political legitimacy, especially "Mandate of Heaven". [5]
According to Norwegian Sinologist scholar Eske J. Møllgaard, rising authoritarian nationalist tendency in Chinese politics include Liu Xiaofeng, an influential Chinese conservative who developed Leo Strauss's philosophy in a "neo-fascist direction" and championed traditional Chinese culture on that basis. [6] According to American sociologist Berch Berberoglu, current CCP general secretary Xi Jinping is widely seen as a leading popular authoritarian nationalist leader, along with Vladimir Putin of Russia, Narendra Modi of India, and Recep Tayyip Erdoğan of Turkey. [7]
Ioannis Metaxas, the dictator who ruled Greece from 1936 to 1941, is referred to as "authoritarian nationalism". Metaxism emphasized the "Third Hellenic Civilization," seeking to revive ancient Greek and Byzantine values. [8] Although the Metaxas government and its official doctrines are sometimes described as fascist, such historians as Stanley G. Payne consider it to have been a conventional authoritarian-conservative dictatorship akin to Francisco Franco's Spain or António de Oliveira Salazar's Portugal.
Pahlavi Iran's Reza Shah has pushed for secularism and modernization through authoritarianism and Iranian nationalism to soften its backlash against traditional Islamic values, often compared with Turkey's Atatürk regime. [9] In an attempt to introduce reform from above while preserving traditional relations of hierarchy, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, launched the White Revolution in 1963 as a series of reforms of aggressive modernization, resulting in a great redistribution of wealth from the aristocratic landlord class to Iran's working class and explosive economic growth in subsequent decades. [10]
Many Western scholars, including John Breuilly, analyzed that the Meiji Restoration was constructed on the basis of traditional authoritarian nationalism. [11] In the mid-1930s, the authoritarian nationalistic Japanese military was divided into the Imperial Way Faction and the Control Faction, which were at odds; the more radical, anti-establishment, and ultranationalist Imperial Way Faction caused the February 26 incident but was suppressed by the conservative Control Faction and the Japanese government. However, the Japanese military (including the Control Faction) started the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific War, ended constitutional democracy, and established a para-fascist one-party system called the Imperial Rule Assistance Association in 1940. [12]
The Estado Novo regime, led by António de Oliveira Salazar, represents a classic example of European authoritarian nationalism. Salazarism was characterized by its motto "God, Fatherland, and Family," promoting a corporatist and conservative social order. Unlike the mass-mobilizing fascist regimes in Italy or Germany, Salazar’s government sought to depoliticize society and maintain the traditional influence of the Catholic Church and the landed elite.
Russia's authoritarian nationalism combines a strong centralized system with independent civilizational values for the survival and unity of the state. The three principles of "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality" during the 19th-century reign of Nicholas I emphasized loyalty to the Emperor, the moral authority of the Orthodox Church, and the unique tradition of the Russian people against Western liberalism; this was termed "Official Nationalism". This ideology has also influenced the development of Putinism in the 21st century.
During the era of Park Chung-hee, South Korea practiced a highly centralized form of authoritarian nationalism. This was most evident during the Yushin period, where the state prioritized rapid economic development (the "Miracle on the Han River") and national security over political pluralism. The regime promoted "Korean-style democracy," which justified authoritarian rule as a necessary stage for national survival and modernization against the threat of North Korea.
Following the Spanish Civil War, Francisco Franco established a regime that blended diverse nationalist elements under a single authoritarian banner. Francoism relied on the concept of National Catholicism, viewing the Spanish nation as inextricably linked to the Catholic faith. Although the regime initially utilized the fascist Falange party, it eventually shifted toward a more traditional military-clerical dictatorship that prioritized stability, order, and the preservation of Spain's historical unity.
During the "apartheid" era led by South Africa’s National Party, authoritarian nationalism was associated with white nationalism (particularly Afrikaner nationalism). Today, it is also prominent in left-wing populist or black nationalism, as seen in groups such as the Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF) and the uMkhonto weSizwe Party (MK). [13]
In the early years of the Republic of Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk implemented a form of authoritarian nationalism focused on secularism and Westernization. Kemalism sought to transform the multi-ethnic Ottoman identity into a singular, modern Turkish national identity. The state exercised significant control over political and social life to ensure the success of these reforms, viewing a strong, unified nation-state as the only protection against fragmentation and foreign intervention. [9]
[...] goals of radical and authoritarian nationalism
Many scholars fundamentally misunderstood China's system of authoritarian nationalism as a by-product of its recent socialist (see: communist) transformation, rather than stemming from one of the most important ideas in all Chinese political thought - the "Mandate of Heaven", a Confucian tradition which confers legitimacy to those who rule (Bloom et al. Citationn.d). Moreover, scholars also neglected Chinas' deeply embedded culturalism, a tradition which dominated China's approach to foreign relations for over 2000 years (Zhimin, Citation2005).
[...] It is the authoritarian-nationalist tendency that is on the rise in Chinese politics. This position is exemplified by the influential conservative Liu Xiaofeng XJ/J (b. 1956), who has developed Leo Strauss' philosophy in a neo-fascist direction and defends Chinese traditional culture on that basis (Marchal 2017).
[...] Popular authoritarian nationalist leaders such as Vladimir Putin (Russia), Xi Jinping (China), Narendra Modi (India), Rodrigo Duterte (the Philippines), and Recep Tayyip Erdoğan (Turkey) also are indicative of the powerful authoritarian current across the world.
[...] For inspiration, the leaders looked back to the authoritarian nationalism of Greek dictator Ioannis Metaxas, who ruled the country from 1936 to 1941. Metaxas advocated the rebirth of what he called Greece's 'Third Hellenic Civilisation' as a kind of corollary to Hitler's Third Reich. Colonel Georgios Papadopoulos, one of the leaders of the coup, justified the 1967 military intervention by saying that 'we had arrived at a situation of anarchism in this country of Helleno-Christian civilization.
Para-fascist 'single-party' organisation established in Japan in 1940.
