Japanese conjugation, like the conjugation of verbs of many other languages, allows verbs to be morphologically modified to change their meaning or grammatical function. In Japanese, the beginning of a word (the stem) is preserved during conjugation, while the ending of the word is altered in some way to change the meaning (this is the inflectional suffix). Japanese verb conjugations are independent of person, number and gender (they do not depend on whether the subject is I, you, he, she, we, etc.); the conjugated forms can express meanings such as negation, present and past tense, volition, passive voice, causation, imperative and conditional mood, and ability. There are also special forms for conjunction with other verbs, and for combination with particles for additional meanings.
Japanese verbs have agglutinating properties: some of the conjugated forms are themselves conjugable verbs (or i-adjectives), which can result in several suffixes being strung together in a single verb form to express a combination of meanings.
A revision sheet visually summarizing the conjugations and uses described below
Conjugable words (verbs, i‑adjectives, and na‑adjectives) are traditionally considered to have six possible conjugational stems or bases (活用形, katsuyōkei; literally "conjugation forms").[1] This article lists those from the continuative base (連用形, ren'yōkei), as well as the euphonic sub-base (音便形, onbinkei).
Conjunctive
The conjunctive form or infinitive functions like an intermediate conjugation; it requires an auxiliary verb to be attached since the conjunctive form is rarely used in isolation. It can also function to link separate clauses (hence the name "conjunctive") in a similar way to the te form above; however usage of the conjunctive form as a conjunction has restrictions. The conjunctive form can function as a gerund (a verb functioning as a noun) without the need for nominalizers, although permissible use cases are limited.[2][3][4][5]
Conjunctive form example sentences
English
Japanese
Function
I'll meet the customer.
お客様に会います (okyakusama ni aimasu)
polite language
I want to win the game.
試合に勝ちたい (shiai ni kachitai)
auxiliary verb (example: desire)
I'll go to see a movie.
映画を見に行く (eiga o mi ni iku)
particle (example: purpose)
We're about to change trains. Don't forget your shopping!
まもなく列車を乗り換えるよ。 (mamonaku ressha o norikaeru yo.) 買い物を忘れるな！ (kaimono o wasureru na!)
compound words
Conjunctive: Conjugation table
The conjunctive/infinitive form uses the ren'yōkei base. It is one of the simplest conjugation patterns due to its lack of irregular conjugations. It does have an additional case for certain honorific verbs, but even those follow a consistent conjugation pattern.
In the domestic tradition of grammar, all inflected words have their own ren'yōkei (連用形), regardless of whether they can stand alone or must be followed by auxiliaries. In western analyses, "infinitives" must be able to stand on their own, and forms with auxiliaries are treated separately. Thus, such forms as ‑mashi (〜まし) and ‑deshi (〜でし) are considered ren'yōkei in the native tradition, but not infinitives in western analyses as they cannot be on their own[6] and must be followed ‑te (〜て) or ‑ta (〜た).
The conjunctive forms of the copulae and of adjectives function adverbially without additional auxiliaries just like those of verbs:
Ame de kyaku ga naku, shōbai wa agattari da (雨で客がなく、商売は上がったりだ; lit.'It being raining, customers being nonexistent, business is down', transl.Our business is down because nobody's coming because of the rain)[7]
The verb aru, the adjective nai and the particle ‑te are instrumental in expanding copulae's and adjectives' conjugation by fusing with their conjunctive forms:
Just like how da can be "split", or unfused, back to de (wa) aru, with added particles, the above fused forms can be split, as in Akaku wa atta. (赤くはあった。; lit.'Being red? It was indeed.').
The particle ‑te itself was once a conjunctive form as well, and it combined with aru to make ‑ta and ‑tarō, although the latter of which are increasingly displaced by ‑ta darō or ‑ta deshō.
Unlike verbal conjunctive forms which can combine with ‑masu(ru) to make polite forms, as in kakimasu(ru) (書きます(る); 'write'), adjectives use conclusive forms and desu instead, as in akai desu (赤いです; 'be red').
Apart from the standard ‑ku forms, adjectives also have forms ending in long vowels. They stem from a historical loss of the consonant k, which was complete in conclusive/attributive forms (akaki → akai (赤き→赤い; 'be red'). In conjunctive forms, however, such loss was complete only in western dialects; in standard Japanese, it is restricted to formations with gozaimasu(ru) to make hyper-polite expressions, as in akaku → akō gozaimasu(ru) (赤うございます(る); 'be red'), compared to regularly polite akai desu (赤いです). In cases where there are triply long vowels, such as ooku → oō (多う), the actual pronunciations may only involve doubly long vowels, as in ō gozaimasu. Cases like yowaku → yo(w?)ō (弱う) are phonetically suspect as to whether there is still a lingering w sound and whether there is a reduction to a doubly long vowel (yo(w)ō gozaimasu or yō gozaimasu (?)).[8] Some of these hyper-polite adjectives have become idioms, such as ohayaku → ohayō (gozaimasu) (おはよう(ございます); lit.'it's early', 'good morning'), omedetaku → omedetō (gozaimasu) (おめでとう(ございます); lit.'it's wonderful', 'congratulations'), arigataku → arigatō (gozaimasu) (ありがとう(ございます); lit.'it's rare', 'it's blessed; it's worthwhile; it's appreciated; thank you'). The sound changes resulting from the historical ‑u ending are usually spelt out in modern kana as shown below, although some historical spellings may still be used sometimes, such as しう instead of しゅう.[9] For beshi (可し), there was such a historical sound change as beku → beu → byō,[10][11] and byō gozaimasu (べうございます) has been attested.[12]
Like ‑ku, ‑zu can fuse with ‑aru as well to expand its own conjugation (‑zaru, ‑zareba) independent of ‑n(u), though these forms are largely confined to elevated language or cliches like mizaru kikazaru iwazaru (見猿聞か猿言わ猿; 'not seeing, not hearing, not speaking'), manekarezaru kyaku (招かれざる客; 'uninvited guest'), motazaru (持たざる; 'have-not'), irazaru (要らざる; 'uncalled-for', synonymous with iran(u) (要らん・要らぬ)[13][14]), etc.[15]
Conjunctives allow "splitting",[36] or adding particles like wa or mo between the conjunctives and a following verb/adjective to redirect focus. The following verb/adjective is aru/arimasu or nai/arimasen with copulae and adjectives, and suru/shimasu or shinai/shimasen with other verbs. There is a strong tendency to focus on negatives,[37] namely nai/arimasen and shinai/shimasen. In the following examples, the focused information is underlined in the Japanese originals, and in all-caps in the English translations to emulate spoken emphasis.
de aru / da → de wa aru, de atta / datta → de wa atta, de arimasu / desu → de wa arimasu, de arimashita / deshita → de wa arimashita
Katsura da (桂だ; transl.It's KATSURA) → Katsura de wa aru (桂ではある; transl.It IS Katsura)
de/ja nai → de wa nai, de/ja nakatta → de wa nakatta, de/ja nai desu / arimasen → de wa / ja(a) nai desu / arimasen, de/ja nakatta desu / arimasen deshita → de wa / ja(a) nakatta desu / arimasen deshita
Zura ja nai (ヅラじゃない; transl.It isn't ZURA) → Zura de wa nai (ヅラではない; transl.It's NOT Zura)
ii/yoi → yoku wa aru, yokatta → yoku wa atta, ii/yoi desu → yoku wa arimasu, yokatta desu → yoku wa arimashita
Ii (いい; transl.It's GOOD) → Yoku wa aru (よくはある; transl.It IS good)
yoku nai → yoku wa nai, yoku nakatta → yoku wa nakatta, yoku nai desu → yoku wa nai desu / arimasen, yoku nakatta desu → yoku wa nakatta desu / arimasen deshita
Yoku nai (よくない; transl.It isn't GOOD) → Yoku wa nai (よくはない; transl.It's NOT good)
iku → iki wa suru, itta → iki wa shita, ikimasu → iki wa shimasu, ikimashita → iki wa shimashita
Iku (行く; transl.I'll GO) → Iki wa suru (行きはする; transl.I WILL go)
ikanai → iki wa shinai, ikanakatta → iki wa shinakatta, ikimasen → iki wa shimasen, ikimasen deshita → iki wa shimasen deshita
Ikanai (行かない; transl.I won't GO) → Iki wa shinai (行きはしない; transl.I will NOT go)
suru → shi wa suru, shita → shi wa shita, shimasu → shi wa shimasu, shimashita → shi wa shimashita
Sore wa suru (それはする; transl.I'll DO it) → Sore o shi wa suru (それをしはする; transl.I WILL do it)
shinai → shi wa shinai, shinakatta → shi wa shinakatta, shimasen → shi wa shimasen, shimasen deshita → shi wa shimasen deshita
Sore wa shinai (それはしない; transl.I won't DO it) → Sore o shi wa shinai (それをしはしない; transl.I will NOT do it)
Accentually, if a verb is to be accented, all their forms without auxiliaries or particles are minimally accented on the second mora from last, for example, tabe (食べ; 'eat', [tábè]→[tábèwàɕìnàì]).[38] However, conjunctives are capable of being unimoraic, which means they can only be accented on the last and only mora they have. Furthermore, if an unaccented verb is followed by a particle, the particle places an accent on the verb's last mora anyway, resulting in a handful homophonous pairs such as these:[39]
Unaccented: i (居; 'exist', [ì]→[íwàɕìnàì])
Accented: i (射; 'shoot', [í]→[íwàɕìnàì]); i (鋳; 'cast', [í]→[íwàɕìnàì])
Unaccented: ki (着; 'wear', [kì]→[kíwàɕìnàì])
Accented: ki (来; 'come', [kí]→[kíwàɕìnàì])
The conjunctive form is also compatible with an extensive list of particles and auxiliaries.[40] Of these, the polite auxiliary -masu used to have s-irregular conjugation (サ変格活用, sa-hen katsuyō),[41] whose prototype is the verb suru. As shown elsewhere in this article, unlike suru which has normal eastern shapes and elevated western shapes in Tokyo Japanese, -masu retains its western shapes.[42]
You would agree that the United States should be involved in providing aid to these countries.
Gasshūkoku ga korera no kuni no enjo ni sanka su beki da to yū koto ni dōi nasaru deshō (合衆国がこれらの国の援助に参加すべきだということに同意なさるでしょう)
〜過ぎる
That metal becomes brittle if it's overheated.
Sono kinzoku wa nesshi sugiru to moroku naru (その金属は熱しすぎるともろくなる)
verb-like; ichidan
doing or being something excessively; follows a verb's conjunctive, but an adjective's stem directly
Too many cooks spoil the soup.
Ryōrinin ga ōsugiru to sūpu ga mazuku naru (料理人が多すぎるとスープがまずくなる)
Her political theory is too complicated for me.
Kanojo no seiji riron wa watashi ni wa fukuzatsu sugiru (彼女の政治理論は私には複雑すぎる)
〜始める
The cherry blossoms have started to bloom.
Sakura ga saki hajimete ita (桜が咲き始めていた)
verb-like; ichidan
starting doing something
〜初める
The night began to turn to day.
Yoru ga ake someta (夜が明けそめた)
〜出す
Snow began to fall.
Yuki ga furi dashita (雪が降りだした)
verb-like; godan
〜掛ける
The banana has started to rot.
Sono banana wa kusari kakete iru (そのバナナは腐りかけている)
verb-like; ichidan
being poised to do something
〜掛かる
rotten fruit
kusari kakatta kudamono (腐りかかった果物)
verb-like; godan
〜終わる
I finished eating.
Tabe owatta (食べ終わった)
verb-like; godan
finishing doing something
〜切る
I haven't finished reading this book.
Kono hon wa mada yomi kitte inai (この本はまだ読み切っていない)
〜通す
I read it through to the very end.
Saigo made yomi tōshita (最後まで読み通した)
verb-like; godan
doing something thoroughly
〜尽くす
I said everything I wanted to say.
Iitai koto wa subete ii tsukushita (言いたいことはすべて言い尽くした)
〜合う
At some point, they fell for each other.
Itsu kashira wa futari aishi au yō ni natta (いつかしら二人は愛し合うようになった)
verb-like; godan
doing something together or to/for each other
〜立てる
The media gave it too much coverage, so it blew up further.
Masukomi ga kaki tateta no de sawagi ga ōkiku natta (マスコミが書き立てたので騒ぎが大きくなった)
verb-like; ichidan
doing something vigorously
〜捲る
He made calls right and left.
Achi kochi ni denwa o kake makutta (あちこちに電話をかけまくった)
verb-like; godan
doing something wildly
〜興じる
It's a time for drinking merrily.
Sake o nomi kyōjiru no da (酒を飲み興じるのだ)
verb-like; ichidan
enjoying doing something
〜続ける
Average temperatures have kept rising for decades here.
Koko sūjūnen heikin kion ga agari tsuzukete iru (ここ数十年平均気温が上がり続けている)
verb-like; ichidan
continuing doing something
〜付ける
This cheese smells bad to those who aren't used to eating it.
Kono chīzu wa tabe tsukenai hito ni wa kusai (このチーズは食べつけない人には臭い)
verb-like; ichidan
being used to doing something
〜慣れる
He's gotten used to running this marathon course.
Kono marason kōsu wa hashiri narete iru (このマラソンコースは走り慣れている)
verb-like; ichidan
getting used to doing something
〜得る
Among people who could write their own names, there likely existed a variety of literate types, ranging from those who could write only their own given names, through those who could adequately read documents written primarily in hiragana, to those who could comprehend the gist of even documents written primarily in kanji.
Jiko no seimei o shirushi eru hitobito no naka ni wa, jiko no namae nomi o kaki eru hito kara, hiragana shutai no bunsho de areba jūbun ni yomi eru hito, kanji shutai no bunsho de mo imi dake wa rikai shi eru hito nado ni itaru made, tayō na shikijisha ga sonzai shita to omowareru. (自己の姓名を記し得る人々のなかには、自己の名前のみを書きえる人から、平仮名主体の文書であれば充分に読みえる人、漢字主体の文書でも意味だけは理解しえる人などに至るまで、多様な識字者が存在したと思われる。[43])
verb-like; ichidan
being able to do something
〜たい
A self-proclaimed Arab magnate has said he wants to buy this building.
Jishō Arabu no daifugō ga kono biru o kaitai to itte kita (自称アラブの大富豪がこのビルを買いたいと言ってきた)
adjective-like
wanting to do something
〜たがる
The cat's making lots of noise because she wants to get out.
Neko ga soto ni detagatte urusai (猫が外に出たがってうるさい)
verb-like; godan
〜易い
It's easier to get advice from my mother than from my father.
Chichi yori haha no hō ga sōdan shi yasui (父より母のほうが相談しやすい)
adjective-like
something being easy to do
〜難い
Something hard to say can be written in a letter.
Ii nikui koto de mo tegami ni nara kakeru (言いにくいことでも手紙になら書ける)
adjective-like
something being difficult to do
Passions are hard to control.
Jōyoku wa seishi-gatai (情欲は制しがたい)
〜勝ち
Young people are prone to go to extremes.
Wakamono wa kyokutan ni hashiri-gachi da (若者は極端に走りがちだ)
noun-like
being prone to do something
She at the age when you dream a lot.
Yumemi-gachi na toshigoro na n da yo (夢見がちな年ごろなんだよ)
〜立て
a freshly bought hat
kai tate no bōshi (買いたての帽子)
noun-like
something having been freshly done
Conjunctive: Advanced usage
The conjunctive form, like the te form, connects clauses in a similar way to how "and" does in English. However, the conjunctive and te forms are not usually interchangeable, and each form fulfills specific grammatical purposes. When a pair of verbs have a strong connection in context, only the te form can bridge them. When a pair of verbs are not directly related but happen during a shared period of time, only the conjunctive form can bridge them. Furthermore, if a pair of verbs are both controllable or uncontrollable in nature, the te form must bridge them; otherwise, when a verb is controllable whilst the other verb is uncontrollable, the conjunctive form must bridge them. Finally, the te and conjunctive forms are interchangeable if additional information is included between the verbs.[3][44]
Conjunctive: Conjunctive form vs te form
Permissible
English
Japanese
Relationship between verbs
te form
I'll go to the department store and do some shopping.
デパートへ行って、買い物をする depāto e itte, kaimono o suru
closely related
te form
I'll meet my friend and ask about their holiday.
友達に会って、休みのことを尋ねる tomodachi ni atte, yasumi no koto o tazuneru
both controllable
te form
The ground shook so much in the earthquake that I couldn't stand up.
地震で地面がすごく揺れて、立てなかった jishin de jimen ga sugoku yurete, tatenakatta
both uncontrollable
Interchangeable
Can you open the fridge and get me the carrots from the lower right shelf?
冷蔵庫を開けて、右下の棚から人参を取ってくれない？ reizōko o akete, migi shita no tana kara ninjin o totte kurenai?
additional information between them
冷蔵庫を開け、右下の棚から人参を取ってくれない？ reizōko o ake, migi shita no tana kara ninjin o totte kurenai?
Conjunctive form
They were born in Japan and studied at a Japanese school.
彼らは日本で生まれ、日本の学校で勉強した karera wa nihon de umare, nihon no gakkō de benkyō shita
unrelated (birth is unrelated to studying)
Conjunctive form
It rained, so I used an umbrella.
雨が降り、傘を使った ame ga furi, kasa o tsukatta
uncontrollable + controllable
In the case where the conjunctive form is interchangeable with the te form, there is a stylistic means where the conjunctive form is preferred. This avoids 「て...て...て...」 (te...te...te...) repetition, much like how English users might avoid saying "and...and...and...". In practice however, such a strategy is more readily accustomed to writing and more difficult to control in spoken conversation (where the te form is usually elected for every verb).[3]
Another common usage is to form compound words, specifically compound nouns and compound verbs. As for compound nouns, the conjunctive form attaches as a prefix to another noun. Compound verbs are formed in the same way, except the conjunctive form attaches to the imperfective form. This pattern can be used to express mutuality if a transitive verb attaches to 〜合う (-au, to unite).[45]
The conjunctive form is also used in formal honorifics, such as お使い下さい (o tsukai kudasai, "Please use this.").
te form
The te form (て形, tekei) or the gerund[46] allows verbs to function like conjunctions. Similar to the word "and" in English, the te form connects clauses to make longer sentences. Conversely, as a sentence terminal, it functions as a casual instruction (like a gentle imperative command). Finally, the te form attaches to a myriad of auxiliary verbs for various purposes.[47][44]
te form example sentences
English
Japanese
Function
(I will eat breakfast. I will go to school.) I will eat breakfast and go to school.
朝ごはんを食べる。学校に行く。 (asagohan o taberu. gakkō ni iku.) 朝ごはんを食べて学校に行く (asagohan o tabete gakkō ni iku)
conjunction
Please eat.
食べて (tabete)
gentle instruction
I am waiting.
待っている (matte iru)
auxiliary verb (example: present-continuous)
There are limitations where the te form cannot be used to conjugate between pairs of verbs (such as when two verbs are unrelated) and the conjunctive form is used instead.[3](see §Conjunctive form vs te form, below)
te form: Conjugation table
The te form is created by using the onbinkei base, which is not a distinct "base", but rather the result of consonant and vowel reduction, termed onbin (音便), of the conjunctive when followed by the te/de (て・で) suffix:[46]
Sokuonbin (促音便):
kaite (買ひて; 'buy') → katte (買って; broadly eastern)
kachite (勝ちて; 'win') → katte (勝って)
karite (狩りて; 'hunt') → katte (狩って)
I-onbin (イ音便):
kashite (貸して; 'lend') → kaite (貸いて; dialectal)
kakite (書きて; 'write') → kaite (書いて)
kagite (嗅ぎて; 'smell') → kaide (嗅いで)
Hatsuonbin (撥音便):
yobite (呼びて; 'call') → yonde (呼んで)
yomite (読みて; 'read') → yonde (読んで)
shinite (死にて; 'die') → shinde (死んで)
U-onbin (ウ音便):
kaite (買ひて; 'buy') → kōte (買うて; broadly western)
yobite (呼びて; 'call') → yōde (呼うで; dialectal)
yomite (読みて; 'read') → yōde (読うで; dialectal)
Te was the conjunctive form of the ancient auxiliary tu.[48][49][50] It was used to create the perfective auxiliary by fusing with the verb aru: te + aru → ta, which triggers the exact same sound changes as shown here. This was also how the particle ‑tari was formed.[51][52] It also fused with the copular particle ni: ni + te → de.[53]
For verbs like kau (買う; 'buy'), yū (言う; 'say'), etc, there is a clear preference for sokuonbin in northern and eastern dialects, as in katte (買って), itte/yutte (言って); and for u‑onbin in western and southern dialects, as in kōte (買うて), yūte (言うて).[54][55] In standard Japanese (eastern), however, there are exceptions where u‑onbin is preferred, such as tōte (問うて; 'inquire'), tōte (訪うて; 'visit'), kōte (請うて・乞うて; 'solicit'), kōte (恋うて; 'long for'),[56][57][38]notamōte (宣うて; 'say'),[56]itōte (厭うて),[58]tamōte (給うて; 'bestow').[59][60] These distinctly elevated western forms[h] are favored as the verbs themselves are inherently elevated.[61] Non-elevated verbs are less likely to get the western treatment, for example in “Mō tokku ni doko ka e shimikonde shimattarō yo” to notamōta (「もうとっくにどこかへしみ込んでしまったろうよ」とのたもうた) where shimatta (of shimau) remains eastern even though notamōta (of notamau) is westernized.[61] Other examples with u‑onbin, such as ōta (負うた), sōta (沿うた) have been found as well,[56] and the tendency to use u‑onbin is stronger if the verb stem already contains the vowel o.[61] Some western-Japanese writers such as Orikuchi Shinobu and Oda Sakunosuke (both of whom were Osakan) wrote prose (both narration and dialog) with western forms such as yūte (言うて), ōte (会うて), mōte (舞うて), sōte (添うて), ushinōte (失うて), isogashūte (忙しゅうて), etc (see example quotations below), while others restrict western forms to only elevated verbs. Further dialectal forms include kaite for kashite (貸して), daite for dashite (出して), magiraite for magirashite (紛らして),[62]yōde for yonde (呼んで) and yonde (読んで), tōde for tonde (飛んで), nōde for nonde (飲んで),[46][63][64][65][66] etc.
The verb iku/yuku (行く) in particular has the irregular form itte (行って), rather than iite/yuite (行いて). The similarly irregular yutte, as well as the regular iite and yuite, are historically attested in both classical and modern Japanese (see examples below). Additionally, yuite was associated with western dialects, and iite and even ite were recorded in premodern Christian material.[67] It has been hypothesized that the emergence of the eastern itte, which dates from the Muromachi period,[68] and which wound up displacing the other forms (including the once western yuite), was due to a phonetic difficulty in or an aversion to saying iite with any sort of clarity, or a potential confusion with the historical iite (言ひて; 'say').[67] Nevertheless, the current paradigm bears out that itte (言って) and itte (行って) are still homophonously (consonantally, vocalically and accentually) pronounced [ìtté].[38][69] Currently, only itte is recommended,[70] as are ika‑/yuka‑, iki/yuki, iku/yuku, ike/yuke and ikō/yukō.[17][69]Itte is currently found in the vast majority of dialects, with ite being a sporadic western variant.[71] As for the i‑ and yu‑ stems, while i‑ has been dominant since the Taishō era, yu‑ dominated classical literature of the Meiji era and earlier times, and thus are more elevated.[72][70]
Te can be followed by different subsidiary verbs (補助動詞, hojo dōshi) and subsidiary adjectives (補助形容詞, hojo keiyōshi), such as iru/oru (居る・いる・おる), aru (有る・ある), kureru (呉れる・くれる), kudasaru (下さる・くださる), miru (見る・みる), oku (置く・おく), shimau (仕舞う・終う・しまう), nai (無い・ない), ii/yoi (良い・いい・よい), hoshii (欲しい・ほしい), etc, to add more meaning or nuance. The current convention is to spell these words in kana when they function as subsidiaries, although they are already frequently spelt in kana anyway due to their high frequency. Note that despite their shared etymology, ‑ta and ‑tari no longer mean the same thing as ‑te aru.
The auxiliary ‑nai de ("not and") is more common than ‑nakute after verbs, the latter of which is not used before subsidiary verbs:[48]
Asagohan o tabenai de gakkō ni kuru ko ga iru (朝ご飯を食べないで学校に来る子がいる; transl.There are children who come to school without eating breakfast)
Watashi ga ikanai de wa sumanai darō (私が行かないでは済まないだろう; transl.There'll be no end to this unless I go)
Himitsu o hanasanai de kureta (秘密を話さないでくれた; transl.He didn't tell us the secret in our favor)
Warawasenai de (kudasai) (笑わせないで(ください); transl.Stop making me laugh)
Seijika o tokubetsu atsukai ni shinai de hoshii (政治家を特別扱いにしないでほしい; transl.I don't want politicians to be given special treatment)
Kanojo wa kare to seikaku ga awanakute rikon shita (彼女は彼と性格が合わなくて離婚した; transl.She didn't get along with him, and they got divorced)
Sōhō no iibun o kikanakute wa handan o kudasenai (双方の言い分を聞かなくては判断を下せない; transl.I cannot judge without hearing from both sides)
Anata no yūshoku o tsukuranakute ii to kanojo wa watashi ni itta (あなたの夕食を作らなくていいと彼女は私に言った; She told me I needn't fix dinner for you)[7]
The negative equivalent of atte (あって) is the adjective nakute:[48][i]
Watashi wa ashi ni jishin ga nakute, minisukāto ga hakenai (私は足に自信がなくて、ミニスカートが履けない; transl.I'm not confident in my legs so I can't wear a miniskirt)
Tan naru ippanron de wa nakute, kimi jishin no iken o kikitai (単なる一般論ではなくて、君自身の意見を聞きたい; transl.I want to hear your own opinion, not the commonly held view)[7]
‑Kute wa can be colloquially reduced to ‑kutya(a) (with a palatalized ty sound rather than a fully affricated ch sound):[73]
Yaksuoku o mamotte kurenakutya(a) komaru yo (約束を守ってくれなくちゃ(あ)困るよ; transl.We'd be aggrieved if you weren't to keep your promise)
Aite ga inakutya(a) kenka wa dekinai (相手がいなくちゃ(あ)喧嘩はできない; transl.You can't squabble without someone to squabble with)[7]
After adjectives, only the auxiliary ‑nakute is used:[48]
Amari amaku nakute jōhin na aji da (あまり甘くなくて上品な味だ; transl.It has a delicate taste without being too sweet)[7]
‑N de, equivalent to ‑nai de, is used mostly by older speakers:[74]
Hoteru nan ka ni tomaran de, yasumono no heya e tomaru n desu (ホテルなんかに泊まらんで、安物の宿屋へ泊まるんです; transl.We'll stay at cheap inn instead of a hotel or the like)
Enryo sen de ii. Totte oke yo. (遠慮せんでいい。取っておけよ。; transl.You needn't be shy. Just take it.)
The te form can precede an extensive list of subsidiary[7] verbs and adjectives (補助動詞・形容詞, hojo dōshi/keiyōshi).[144] Of these subsidiaries, yaru (遣る), ageru (上げる), kureru (呉れる) and kudasaru (下さる), all of which literally mean "give", can be used to convey favors, and their imperative forms when used this way are less terse than those of other verbs.[44][144][145] These expressions are similar to "do me a favor and …" in English, but apart from "do something for somebody" (positively), they can also mean "do something to somebody" (negatively).
The current orthographic convention is to spell subsidiaries only in hiragana to distinguish them from the main verbs or adjectives they derive from. Thus, yonde miru (読んでみる) means "try reading" with miru being a subsidiary verb meaning "try", while yonde(,) miru (読んで(、)見る) means "read and see" with miru being a main verb meaning "see". Mite miru, meaning "try seeing", would be spelt 見てみる rather than 見て見る. Other subsidiaries follow the same principle, such as oite oku (置いておく; rather than 置いて置く), kite kuru (来てくる; rather than 来て来る), itte iku (行っていく; rather than 行って行く), but some verbs like shimau are almost always spelt in kana for simplicity anyway, as in shimatte shimau (しまってしまう).
Phonetically, if the verb before -te/-de is accented, the accent (if any) of the subsidiary verb can be deleted, while that of the main verb can be kept in a separate minor phrase, which begins in a low tone if possible (henceforth, high tones are marked with acutes, low tones with graves, and the accent of a phrase is the high tone immediately before a low tone). Thus:
読んでみる "try reading" would be pronounced [jóǹdèmìɾɯ̀] with only one accent and one phrase
読んで見る "read and see" would be pronounced [jóǹdè|míɾɯ̀] with two accents and two phrases[146]
Using multiple minor phrases also works with if either or both verbs are unaccented, for example:
呼んでみる "try calling" would be pronounced [jòńdémíɾɯ̀] with one phrase
呼んで見る "call and see" would be pronounced [jòńdé|míɾɯ̀] with two phrases[147]
洗ってしまった "finished washing" would be pronounced [àɾáttéɕímáttá] with one phrase
洗ってしまった "washed and put away" would be pronounced [àɾátté|ɕìmáttá] with two phrases[148]
Some of these combinations of -te/-de and a following subsidiary can be colloquially contracted. Notably, while -te/-de iru → -teru/-deru and -te/-de ita carry no accent, -tete/-dete and -teta/-deta do:[149][150]
呼んでいる "be calling" would be pronounced [jòńdéíɾɯ́] with no accent
呼んでる "be calling" would be pronounced [jòńdéɾɯ́] with no accent
呼んでいた "were calling" would be pronounced [jòńdéítá] with no accent
呼んでた "were calling" would be pronounced [jòńdétà] with an accent
呼んでない can be either a contraction of 呼んでいない "not be calling", or the negative of 呼んである "have been called":[151]
呼んでない "not be calling" would be pronounced [jòńdénɐ́í] with no accent
呼んでないか "not be calling?" would be pronounced [jòńdénɐ́ìkà] with one accent on the auxiliary adjective -nai before a particle
呼んでない "not have been called" would be pronounced [jòńdénɐ́ì] with one accent on the subsidiary adjective nai
Due to the ambiguity of てない, which could be not only the negative of -te aru, but also a contraction of -te inai and thus too informal, -te inai can be used for both for more consistency in formality:[152]
Hon o takusan oite iru→-teru (本をたくさん置いている→てる; They keep a lot of books)
Hon o takusan oite inai→-tenai (本をたくさん置いていない→てない; They don't keep a lot of books)
Hon ga takusan oite aru (本がたくさん置いてある; A lot of books are kept)
Hon ga takusan oite nai/-te inai (本がたくさん置いてない・ていない; Not a lot of books are kept)
The verb shiru (知る), whose kanji represents the Chinese word for "know", is often translated as "know", but a more accurate translation would be "learn about" or "find out about". In order to say "I know", the construction shitte( i)ru (知って(い)る) is used instead.[153] This is because shiru is imbued with active recognization, which relates to the archaic meaning of taking physical command or possession of somebody or something,[154] reflected by the spellings 治る with the kanji for the Chinese word for "rule", "govern" or "control", and 領る for "lead".[155] To "know", therefore, is to take psychological command or possession of outside information, hence shiru ("I take command of this information"), and maintain it, hence shitte iru ("I took command of this information and it's still in my knowledge"; attributively, interchangeable with shitta). While "I know" ("I take command of it and still have it") is shitte iru, "I don't know" is actually shiranai ("I don't take command of it"),[156] which is morphologically the negative of shiru, but semantically the negative of both shitte iru and shiru. On the other hand, shitte inai ("I didn't take command of it and still don't have it") would insinuate perpetuation of ignorance,[157] for example in Ningen ga naze hito o korosu no ka […] sono konponteki na riyū ni tsuite, watashitachi wa mada nani mo shitte inai, to omowareru kara de aru (人間がなぜ人を殺すか[…]その根本的な理由について、私たちはまだ何も知っていない、と思われるからである; transl.Why does a human being kill another person? […] it seems that we still remain ignorant of the basic reasons for that).[158]
Subsidiaries can be chained together, such as -te ite miru, -te oite oku, -te mite oite shimau, etc.[159]
The various meanings are not as discrete as this table suggests. There is room for interpreting one way or another, and context can help to find the most likely interpretation.[160]
negative of te iru; also negative of te aru and same as te nai below
おる・居る'exist; be'
ておる・でおる
Today there is a special offer.
Kyō wa tokubetsu oyasuku natte orimasu (今日は特別お安くなっております)
same as iru; more deferential in Tokyo Japanese; neutrally alternative to iru in some other dialects[161]
Pliny of ancient times once said. “Even a bad book is not without merit”
Inishie no Puriniusu Sensei mo notamōte orimasu. “Akusho to iedo, torie ga kaimu to yū koto wa nai” (いにしえのプリニウス先生も宣うております。 「悪書といえど，とりえが皆無ということはない」[121])
Wain mo bīru mo kakushu torisoroete gozaimasu (ワインもビールも各種取りそろえてございます)
same as aru; much more polite
置く'put'
ておく・でおく
とく・どく
Just leave them there for now.
Mada oite oite kudasai (まだ置いておいてください)
getting something done and leaving it as is
Let's just hear him out anyway.
Kare no iibun o ichiō kiite okō (彼の言い分を一応聞いておこう)
getting something done anyway
There's an exam tomorrow, we better get some reading done and get some tapes listened to.
Ashita shiken da kara, yoku hon o yondoitari, tēpu o kiitoitari shitoita hō ga ii (明日試験だから、よく本を読んどいたり、テープを聞いといたりしといた方がいい[164])
getting something done so there is some result at least
“I think it’s best to store it in the church. Nobody will think of snatching it if we leave it there. We’ll put it under the altar and not touch it until we need it.”
“Kyōkai ni shimatte oku no ga, ichiban ii to omou n da. Asoko ni oitokeba, dare mo kapparaō nan te omoi ya shinai kara ne. Saidan no shita ni oitoite, hoshiku naru made, te o tsukenai koto ni shiyō” (「教会にしまっておくのが、いちばんいいと思うんだ。あそこに置いとけば、誰も掻っぱらおうなんて思いやしないからね。祭壇の下に置いといて、ほしくなるまで、手をつけないことにしよう」[165])
getting something done in advance so something else can happen
見る'look; see'
てみる・でみる
Have a look at the newspaper.
Shinbun o mite mite (新聞を見てみて)
doing something and seeing/finding out what happens; trying doing something
Give it a shot, I bet you can do it.
Yatte minasai, kitto dekiru yo (やってみなさい、きっとできるよ)
Not knowning what's inside the box, we opened it to find out.
Nani ga haitte iru ka wakaranai no de, hako o akete mita (何が入っているか分からないので、箱を開けてみた)
As someone with parents, I don't get to have that much freedom.
Oya ga atte mireba, anmari jiyū ni wa dekinai (親があってみえれば、あんまり自由にはできない)
once something is seen, experienced or considered
Once I got to Tōkyō, I found it unbearably noisy.
Tōkyō e tsuite mitara, yakamshikute tamaranakatta (東京へ着いてみたら、やかましくてたまらなかった)
ご覧・御覧'seeing'
てごらん(なさい)・でごらん(なさい)
Try thinking it through.
Yoku kangaete goran (よく考えてごらん)
same as miru; exalts the subject
見せる'show'
てみせる・でみせる
In the latest match against Celta B, he showed off this brilliant free kick.
Chokkin no Seruta Bī-sen de wa, konna azayaka na furī kikku o misete miseta. (直近のセルタB戦では、こんな鮮やかなフリーキックを見せてみせた。[166])
As the water clears, the bottom becomes visible. ―Nothing is becoming visible at all.
Mizu ga sunde kuru to soko ga miete kimasu. ―Nan ni mo miete konai na. (水が澄んでくると底が見えてきます。―なんにも見えてこないな。)
sustaining or progressing along up until a point in time
I told of how I've lived my life
Jibun ga ika ni ikite kita ka o hanashita (自分がいかに生きてきたかを話した)
In summer, the sky starts to be lighter when it gets to be four in the morning.
Natsu ni wa asa yoji ni naru to, sora ga shirande kuru (夏には朝四時になると、空が白んでくる)
starting from then on
My stomach started hurting, so I went to the doctor.
Kyū ni onaka ga itande kita kara, isha ni itta (急におなかが痛んできたから、医者に行った)
When I left my Tokyo office, I was told that if I called from Ōiso Station, the secretary (at his house) would drive there and pick me up, so I called after half past one.
Tōkyō no ofisu o saru toki, Ōiso-eki kara denwa o sureba (jitaku no) hisho ga kuruma de mukae ni kite kuru to yū koto datta no de, ichiji han ni natte kara denwa o shita. (東京のオフィスを去るとき、大磯駅から電話をすれば（自宅の）秘書が車で迎えに来てくるということだったので、１時半になってから電話をした。[173])
“Suichūjin ga tottetta no wa…… tottetta no wa, Ron?” (「水中人が取ってったのは……取ってったのは、ロン？」[174])
Let's eat before leaving.
Tabete ikimashō (食べていきましょう)
Old soldiers don't die, they just fade away.
Rōhei wa shinazu, kiete iku nomi (老兵は死なず、消えていくのみ)
sustaining or progressing along from a point in time onward
The affair dragged on unsettled.
Shigoto wa katazuite ikanakatta (仕事は片付いていかなかった)
It will get colder from now on.
Kore kara samuku natte iku deshō (これから寒くなっていくでしょう)
starting from now on
行けない'can't go'
ていけない・でいけない
てけない・でけない
No way I could keep on living on my own.
Hitori de wa tote mo ikite ikenai (一人ではとても生きていけない)
it's impossible to keep on doing something
You can’t afford not to be strict with how much money and how many connections you get.
Okane to kone o dore dake eru ka, shibia ja nai to yattekenai wa. (お金とコネをどれだけ得るか、シビアじゃないとやってけないわ。[175])
You mustn't steal other people's ideas.
Tanin no aidea o nusunde wa ikenai (他人のアイデアを盗んではいけない)
it's prohibited to do something
he who must not be named
namae o itte wa ikenai ano hito (名前を言ってはいけないあの人)
行けません'can't go'
ていけません・でいけません
てけません・でけません
“……Mika, you’ve gotten freakier over the years, haven’t you?” “If I hadn’t, I wouldn’t be able to run a rental store”
“……Mika-chan, nennen, seikaku yugande kitenai?” “Kono kurai de nakya, rentaru-ya no kanrishoku nan ka yattekemasen” (「……ミカちゃん、年々、性格ゆがんできてない？」 「このくらいでなきゃ、レンタル屋の管理職なんかやってけません」[176])
same as ikenai; more polite
It's the library's job to answer these questions, and this must be communicated with the younger generations.
Korera ni kotaeru koto ga toshokan no shigoto deari, sore wa wakai sedai ni mo tsutaenakute wa ikemasen. (これらに答えることが図書館の仕事であり、それは若い世代にも伝えなくてはいけません。[91])
same as iru, kuru and iku; ‑te/‑de irassharu is also the same as (de) aru; exalts the subject, and unusable if the subject is not human
“No,” she said, “we won’t have any of this. If she comes in she must see you—and think if she likes there’s something wrong! But how can I open the door to her, when she dislikes me—wishes to see not me, but her son? I won’t open the door!”[al]
“Dame yo” to kanojo wa itta, “Konna koto wa yamemashō. Okaasama ga haitterashitara, anata ni ki ga tsuku ni chigai nai wa――sore ni, katte ni nani ka okashii to omoware de mo shitara! De mo dō shite watashi ga to o akete agerarete? Watashi o kiratterasshatte――watashi ja naku, musuko ni aitagatterassharu no ni. Watashi, doa wa akenai wa” (「だめよ」と彼女は言った、「こんなことはやめましょう。お姑様が入ってらしたら、あなたに気がつくにちがいないわ――それに、勝手に何かおかしいと思われでもしたら！ でもどうしてわたしが戸を開けてあげられて？ わたしを嫌ってらっしゃって――わたしじゃなく、息子に会いたがってらっしゃるのに。わたし、ドアは開けないわ」[178])
Kono sakubun wa sensei ni naoshite itadaita no desu (この作文は先生に直していただいたのです)
I asked the parents whether they might not let their son take our daughter's hand in marriage.[179][as]
Oya ni sono musuko ni uchi no musume o moratte yatte itadakenai to ka tanonda (親にその息子にうちの娘を貰ってやっていただけないとか頼んだ)
やる・遣る'give (to someone other than me/us); do'
てやる・でやる
I'll kill you!
Zettai ni koroshite yaru! (絶対に殺してやる！)
doing something to/for someone other than me/us
I'll handle it for you.
Boku ga umaku yatte yaru yo (僕がうまくやってやるよ)
上げる'raise; give (to someone other than me/us)'
てあげる・であげる
たげる・だげる
Let me help you put your shoes on.
Kutsu o hakasete ageyō (靴をはかせてあげよう)
I'll even pay your tuition fees.
Gakuhi mo dashitageru (学費も出したげる)
遣わす'give (to someone other than me/us)'
てつかわす・でつかわす
I forgive you.
Yurushite tsukawasu (許してつかわす)
くれる・呉れる'give (to me/us)'
てくれる・でくれる
Will you lend me the book?
Hon o kashite kurenai? (本を貸してくれない？)
doing something to/for me/us
You just embarrassed me, you know that?
Yoku mo haji o kakasete kureta na (よくも恥をかかせてくれたな)
くださる・下さる'give (to me/us)'
てくださる・でくださる
He took the trouble to come to the airport and see me.
Wazawaza kūkō made mukae ni kite kudasatta (わざわざ空港まで迎えに来てくださった)
I'd be much obliged if you would grant my request.
Watashi no negai o kiite kudasareba makoto ni arigatai n desu ga (私の願いを聞いてくだされば誠にありがたいんですが)
Anyway, please get her to leave my hospital room.[179][at]
Tonikaku, byōshitsu kara dete itte moratte kudasai (とにかく、病室から出ていってもらってください)
いい・良い・善い'be good'
ていい・でいい
Can I borrow this?
Kore karite ii desu ka (これ借りていいですか)
it's okay to do something
Can I see you tomorrow?
Ashita otaku e asobi ni itte mo ii desu ka (明日お宅へ遊びに行ってもいいですか)
よろしい・宜しい'be good'
てよろしい・でよろしい
Starting tomorrow, you won't need to come to work.
Ashita kara kaisha ni konakute yoroshii (あしたから会社に来なくてよろしい)
ほしい・欲しい'be wanted'
てほしい・でほしい
I hope my mother has a long life.
Haha ni wa nagaiki shite hoshii (母には長生きして欲しい)
it's desirable to do something
te form: Advanced usage
During speech, the speaker may terminate a sentence in the te form but slightly lengthen the vowel sound as a natural pause: てぇ (te...). Similar to when a sentence ends with "so..." in English, this serves as a social cue that can:
give the listener a moment to process;
indicate the speaker is not finished speaking;
seek permission from the listener to continue;
imply that the listener should infer the remainder of the sentence.
Another usage of the te form is, just as with English, the order of clauses may be reversed to create emphasis. However, unlike in English, the sentence will terminate on the te form (rather than between clauses).
te form: Advanced usage example sentences
English
Japanese
Function
I'll go to the pharmacy and buy medicine.
薬局へ行って薬を買う(yakkyoku e itte kusuri o kau)
typical conjunction
I'll buy medicine, by going to the pharmacy
薬を買う。薬局へ行って (kusuri o kau. yakkyoku e itte)
reversed conjunction
Perfective
The perfective form (過去形・完了形, kakokei / kanryōkei; also known as the "ta form", "past tense" and the "perfect tense") is equivalent to the English "past tense".[180]
Perfective form example sentences
English
Japanese
Function
I went to Japan.
日本に行った (nihon ni itta)
past tense
I practiced piano every day.
毎日ピアノの練習をした (mainichi piano no renshū o shita)
Perfective: Conjugation table
The perfective form is created by using the onbinkei base, followed by the ta/da (た・だ) suffix, which was historically a combination of te (as in the te forms below) and the verb aru ("exist").[51][52] Note that ‑te aru now has different uses from ‑ta, and there can even be ‑te atta (← ‑te + ari + ‑ta) as well. ‑Ta, ‑tara(ba), ‑tari, ‑tarō trigger the same sound changes as ‑te as shown above.
Note that despite their common origin, ‑ta and ‑te aru are split differently by particles.[181] Here, the particle wa is illustratively used:
kaita (書いた; transl.I wrote) → kaki wa shita (書きはした; transl.I DID write)
kaite aru (書いてある; transl.it's been written) → kaite wa aru (書いてはある; transl.it HAS been written)
The past form of the eastern negative auxiliary ‑nai, which is grammatically adjectival, is ‑nakatta (← ‑naku + atta). The western ‑n, on the other hand, has multiple variants: ‑nanda, ‑zatta (← ‑zu + atta), ‑henkatta, ‑n jatta, ‑n datta[182][au] (both from ‑n + de atta), ‑n yatta, etc. ‑Nkatta is found in both the east and the west.[183]
While ‑n is largely western, it is still used in the polite negative ‑masen in eastern dialects as well, and it also has multiple variants for past negative forms with:[184]
Politeness marked by ‑mase‑, and past negativity by plain auxiliaries: ‑masenanda, ‑masenkatta, ‑mahenkatta
Politeness marked by ‑mase‑, negativity by ‑n, and pastness by variants of the copulade atta: ‑masen jatta/datta/yatta, ‑mahen jatta/datta/yatta
Politeness marked by both ‑mase‑ and deshi‑, negativity by ‑n, and pastness by ‑ta: ‑masen deshita, ‑mahen deshita
Alternatively, politeness can be marked only with desu instead of ‑mase‑, with:
Past negativity marked by plain auxiliaries, and politeness by desu: ‑nakatta desu, ‑nkatta desu, ‑henkatta desu
Negativity marked by ‑n, pastness by variants of the copula de atta, politeness by desu: ‑n jatta/datta/yatta desu
Negativity marked by ‑n, and past politeness by the copula deshita: ‑n deshita, ‑hen deshita
Of the above, only ‑masen deshita and ‑nakatta desu are accepted in Tokyo Japanese.
The now western-only ‑nanda was used in the older Edo Japanese (the precursor of the modern Tokyo Japanese),[185] as in torananda (取らなんだ; 'did not take', equivalent to toranakatta), mairimasenanda (参りませなんだ; 'did not visit', equivalent to mairimasen deshita), shiremashinanda (知れましなんだ; 'could not know; did not become known', equivalent to shiremasen deshita),[186]de arimasenanda (でありませなんだ; 'were not', equivalent to de arimasen deshita), etc. In Tokyo Japanese, ‑nanda was displaced by ‑nakatta, while ‑masenanda was displaced by ‑masenkatta,[187]‑masen datta,[188] and ultimately ‑masen deshita.[189][190][191][192]‑Nanda and ‑masenanda can still be used in literature to convey dialectal or faux-archaic speech, even if that speech is anachronistic or made by non-Japanese characters.
The "tari form" (or "tari‑tari form", also known as the "tari‑tari‑suru form"), to describe a non‑exhaustive list of actions (similar to AやB describes a non‑exhaustive lists of objects). It uses り (ri) as the subordinate conjunction.[255][256]
The "tara form" (or "past conditional"), to describe events that will happen as a result of completing something. It uses ら (ra) as the subordinate conjunction.[257][258]
It can be used to mean "if" or "when";
It can also be used to reveal an unexpected outcome that happened in the past.
Perfective form: Grammatical compatibility example sentences
English
Japanese
Function
I read a book, watched TV, etc.
本を読んだり、テレビを見たりした (hon o yondari, terebi o mitari shita)
non‑exhaustive list of actions
If I go to Japan, I want to see Mount Fuji.
日本に行ったら、富士山が見たい (nihon ni ittara, fuji san ga mitai)
if or when
When I went to the cafe, I came across Suzuki.
カフェに行ったら、鈴木さんに会った (kafe ni ittara, Suzuki-san ni atta)
↑ When combining with ‑masu(ru) in particular, it is more common to drop the consonant r.[17] Keeping the r in this case is obsolescent and has a sarcastic, dialectal or archaic connotation.[18]
1 2 3 Functionally obsolete. Probably idiosyncratic in literature.
↑ Which "carry a certain literary prestige" in Martin's words.
↑ While ないで can also exists alone, it is actually naide (凪いで; 'subside'), not *nai de (無いで).
↑ The authenticity of this particular occurrence is rather dubious. The two other instances of 戀つて in this same edition are meant to be pronounced omotte rather than kotte. Where this edition has 戀つて (kotte), others have 慕つて (shitatte) instead.[109]
↑ Often used to disambiguate the plain imperfective, which ambiguously means "do something regularly" or "will do something once".[161]
↑ Your fly has opened. → Your fly remains opened. Aku (開く) is intransitive, as in "your fly opens", without an agent performing the act of opening. Its transitive counterpart is akeru (開ける; as in "someone opens your fly") which can be used with te aru.
↑ The window has shut. → The window remains shut. Shimaru (閉まる) is intransitive, as in "the window shuts", without an agent performing the act of shutting. Its transitive counterpart is shimeru (閉める; as in "someone shuts the window"), which can be used with te aru.
↑ Someone has stopped the car. → The car remains parked. Tomeru (停める) is transitive, as in "someone stops the car", with an agent performing the act of stopping. Its intransitive counterpart is tomaru (停まる; as in "the car stops"), which can be used with te iru.
↑ This meaning is similar to that of te iru above, but te aru is used to turn normally transitive verbs into intransitive ones with a passive subject and an implied agent.[163]
↑ Someone has shut the window. → The window remains shut. Shimeru (閉める) is transitive, as in "someone shuts the window", with an agent performing the act of shutting. Its intransitive counterpart is shimaru (閉まる; as in "the window shuts"), which can be used with te iru.
↑ No one has paid the coat payment. → The coat payment remains unpaid.
↑ We have assembled an assortment of wine and beer. → An assortment of wine and beer remains in stock.
↑ A recent non-past extension of the meaning above.[171]
↑ The parents might give their son a favor (moratte yatte) to marry our daughter, and we might not receive their favor (moratte yatte itadakenai) if they don't do that.
↑ She receives a favor (dete itte moratte) by you getting her to leave, and you give me a favor (dete itte moratte kudasai) by doing that.
↑ From the minutes of a town meeting in Kyushu. Itta iwan datta (言った言わんだった; lit.'said or didn't say') is equivalent to itta iwanakatta (言った言わなかった).
↑ Occurs in the proverbs 負うた子に教えられて浅瀬を渡る (ōta ko ni oshierarete asase o wataru; lit.'one crosses the shallows by learning from the child's one's carrying on the back', transl.the elder can learn from the younger)[194] and 負うた子より抱いた子 (ōta ko yori daita ko; lit.'the child carried in the arms over the child carried on the back', transl.one prioritizes one's innermost circle).[195]
References
↑ McClain (1981), pp.5–6, "Verbs: Functions of Six Bases". sfnp error: no target: CITEREFMcClain1981 (help)
↑ Makino & Tsutsui (1989), pp.589–590, "Appendix 4 Connection Forms of Important Expressions: B. Vmasu+__". sfnp error: no target: CITEREFMakino_&_Tsutsui1989 (help)
↑ Makino & Tsutsui (1995), pp.561–563, "Main Entries: Vmasu as a Noun". sfnp error: no target: CITEREFMakino_&_Tsutsui1995 (help)
↑ Kim (2017), "Polite Form and Verb Stems". sfnp error: no target: CITEREFKim2017 (help)
↑ Martin (2004), pp.406, 1027. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFMartin2004 (help)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Watanabe, Toshirō; Skrzypczak, Edmund R.; Snowden, Paul, eds. (11 July 2003). New Japanese-English Dictionary新和英大辞典 (in Japanese and English) (5thed.). Kenkyusha.
1 2 3 Sayers, Dorothy Leigh (4 March 2015). Whose Body?ピーター卿乗り出す[Lord Peter Sets Out]. ピーター・ウィムジー卿 (in Japanese). Vol.1. Translated by Osanai, Tōru. Gutenberg 21. "Work here for another two hours, my lord. Can't do with less than thirty minutes' exposure. The current's none too strong." […] "Pleased to meet you, Lord Wimsey," said Mr. Milligan. "Won't you take a seat?" […] "I'm vurry pleased to meet you, Duchess," had been that financier's opening remark, "to thank you for your exceedingly kind invitation. I assure you it's a compliment I deeply appreciate." […] "To be sure they will," said Mr. Bunter, "and very nice, too. You just come and lay down a bit, sir—they've come to take over this section."「旦那様、もう二時間ばかりここで仕事をいたしたいのでございます。現像いたしますのには、三十分では少のうございます。水の出が弱いので」 […] 「ウィムジー卿、お目にかかれて嬉しうございます」ミリガン氏はこう言ってから「お掛けになりませんか？」 […] 「お目にかかれて大変うれしうございます。公爵夫人」と、まず、実業家の開口一番。「また極めて丁重なご招待を賜って、ありがとうございました。身に余る光栄です」 […] 「勝手にさせておおきになればよろしゅうございます。あなた様はこちらへいらっしゃって、少々お休み下さい」とバンター氏はいった。
↑ Sophocles (20 May 2016). "Οἰδίπους Τύραννος" オイディプス王[King Oedipus]. ギリシア悲劇全集[The Complete Collection of Greek Tragedies] (in Japanese). Translated by Uchiyama, Keijirō. Gutenberg 21. 【コロス】 もう、ようございます。沢山ですよ。国がかかる苦難の時ゆえ、あれはあのまま済ますがようございます。[[Chorus] It is enough. Plentifully so. With our land in distress, it is enough to leave things as they are.]
↑ Hugo, Victor-Marie (25 September 1947). "Livre septième—L'affaire Champmathieu" 第七編 シャンマティユー事件[Book Seventh—The Champmathieu Affair]. Les Misérablesレ・ミゼラブル. 岩波文庫 (in Japanese). Vol.2. Translated by Toyoshima, Yoshio (5thed.). Chiyoda, Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. p.77. Dieu me donnerait sa plus belle étoile, J'aime mieux l'enfant que tu m'as donné.神樣の一番綺麗な星よりも、 戴いた子供が可愛うございます。[More precious than God’s finest star, Is the child thou hast granted me.]
↑ Suzuki, Miekichi (10 October 1948). おしの皇子[The Mute Prince]. 古事記物語[Tales from the Records of Ancient Matters]. 梟文庫 (in Japanese). Chiyoda, Tokyo: Oyama Shoten. pp.141–142. その沙本毘古王が、あるとき皇后に向つて、 「あなたは夫と兄とはどちらがかわいいか。」と聞きました。皇后は、 「それはおあにいさまの方がかわゆうございます。」とお答えになりました。すると王は、用意していた銳い短刀をそつと皇后にわたして、 「もしお前がほんとうに私をかわいいと思うなら、どうぞこの刀で、天皇がおよつていらつしやるところを刺し殺しておくれ。そして二人でいつまでも天下を治めようではないか。」と言つて、無理やりに皇后を說き伏せてしまいました。[One day, Prince Sahohiko came to the Empress and asked, “Dost thou love thy husband or thy brother?” She answered, “It is ye whom I love, my brother.” Thus, he gingerly handed her a sharp dagger that he had with him, and said, forcefully coaxing her, “If thou really lovest me, please stab the Emperor to death with this blade when he is sleeping for me. Then both of us shall rule the land ever after.”]
↑ Sarusuberi Banana (4 December 2020) [1 September 2015]. 誘惑のシークと囚われの花嫁 (in Japanese). Harlequin. アルフリーダ姫様 お声が少々大きゅうございます
↑ Dumas, Alexandre (17 April 2015). "XXII Actéon" 第五十三章 アクテオン[Chapter 53: Actaeon]. La Reine Margot王妃マルゴ[Queen Margot] (in Japanese). Vol.2. Translated by Kashima, Shigeru. Gutenberg 21. — Sire, puis-je quitter la France quand je croirai ma vie menacée?「陛下、命を脅かされたら、フランスを離れてもよろしゅうございますか？」[“Sire, may I leave France in case my life is endangered?”]
↑ Ōhinata, Masami (9 March 2023). 第211回[参] 予算委員会公聴会 2023/03/09. GRIPS: Video Retrieval System for Diet DeliberationGRIPS 国会審議映像検察システム (in Japanese). 子供たちが安心して学べる環境、本田先生が言われたこと、同じゅうございます。
↑ Sakamoto, Omizan (12 January 2024). ふりこ. 小説家になろう (in Japanese). 「海底人代表××でございます。本日皆々様のお目にかける研究は、戦争の主導者たちにとっては慄然たる毒薬も同じゅうございました。それは軍の戦意を喪失せしめ、敵兵への憎悪を失わせかねないものだったのでございます」
↑ Akutagawa, Ryūnosuke (5 July 1948). 奉敎人の死[The Death of a Christian]. 奉敎人の死[The Death of a Christian] (in Japanese). Chiyoda, Tokyo: Hosokawa Shoten. p.3. 去んぬる頃、日本長崎の「さんた・るちや」と申す「えけれしや」（寺院）に、「ろおれんぞ」と申すこの國の少年がござつた。これは或年御降誕の祭の夜、その「えけれしや」の戶口に、餓ゑ疲れてうち伏して居つたを、參詣の奉敎人衆が介抱し、それより伴天連の憐みにて、寺中に養はれる事となつたげでござるが、何故かその身の素性を問へば、故鄕は「はらいそ」（天國）父の名は「でうす」（天主）などと、何時も事もなげな笑に紛らいて、とんとまことは明した事もござない。なれど親の代から「ぜんちよ」（異敎徒）の輩であらなんだ事だけは、手くびにかけた靑玉の「こんたつ」（念珠）を見ても、知れたと申す。[Once upon a time, at an "igreja" (church) named "Santa Lúcia" in Nagasaki, Japan, there was a boy named "Lourenço". As he was lying listless from starvation at the entrance to the "igreja" on a Christmas night, a group of Christian pilgrims found and cared for him, and then, the padres took him in to the church out of pity. But for whatever reason, whenever asked about his origin, he would never tell the truth, but deflect with such glib jokes as that he came from "Paraíso" (Heaven) and his father was known as "Deus" (God). However, seeing that he had some blue "contas" (beads) around his wrist, it could be gleaned that his parents were no mere "gentios" (heathens).]
↑ 出した(PDF). 方言文法全国地図PDF版ダウンロード (in Japanese). National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics. February 2021.
↑ 貸した(PDF). 方言文法全国地図PDF版ダウンロード (in Japanese). National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics. February 2021.
↑ 飛んだ(PDF). 方言文法全国地図PDF版ダウンロード (in Japanese). National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics. February 2021.
↑ 飲んだ(PDF). 方言文法全国地図PDF版ダウンロード (in Japanese). National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics. February 2021.
1 2 Oda, Sakunosuke (25 April 1976). 第三章. 青春の逆説 (in Japanese). その美しい顔で誰と会うているのかと思うと、彼の眉のまわりににわかにけわしい嫉妬が集って来た。 […] 多鶴子は偶然矢野に会うたわけではなかった。[…]もはや彼にとっては、たとえ多鶴子が矢野と会うたのは仕事や人気のためだとわかったところで、なんの気休めにもならないのだ。[…]かえって、浮気心で矢野に会うていてくれる方が助かるのだった。
↑ Rabelais, François (10 June 1976) [16 October 1973]. Pɑntɑgruel. Les horribles et eſpouẽtɑbles ƒɑictʒ et proueſſes du treſrenõme Pɑntɑgruel Roy des Dipſodes, ƒilʒ du grɑnd geɑ̃t Gɑrgɑntuɑ Cõpoſeʒ nouuellement pɑr mɑiſtre Alcoƒrybɑs Nɑſier第一之書 パンタグリュエル物語[The First Book: The Tales of Pantagruel]. 岩波文庫 (in Japanese). Vol.1 (5thed.). Chiyoda, Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. pp.22, 174, 183. さすれば、時を移さず、私も諸君の健康を祝うて、必ず一杯つかまつる。 […]ガルガンチュワが到着すると、一族の者どもは、腕を開いて若君を抱きしめ、その無事安着を祝った。[…]しかし、この衣にくるまって卓子に向えば、いやさ全く欣喜雀躍、貴殿の健康、貴殿のお馬の健康をも祝うて乾杯仕りますわい。
↑ Euripides (20 May 2016). "Τρῳάδες" トロイアの女たち[The Trojan Women]. ギリシア悲劇全集[The Complete Collection of Greek Tragedies] (in Japanese). Translated by Uchiyama, Keijirō. Gutenberg 21. 晴れの衣裳のブリュギアの娘よ、 わたしの嫁ぐ人として、 決められた夫を、祝うて歌いな！[Maids of Phrygia in brilliant raiment, Sing in praise of my husband, Whom I am fated to wed!]
1 2 Sakaguchi, Ango (10 September 1990) [4 February 1988]. 源頼朝. 安吾史譚. Kawade Bunko (in Japanese) (3rded.). Shibuya, Tokyo: Kawade Shobo Shinsha. pp.153–155. ISBN4-309-40213-5. 戦争で重傷を負うていたから、[…]傾いた屋台骨の再興をはかる任務を負うた後継者を定める段となれば、[…]まだ十六の次男は行先の方向も分らぬ上に身に重傷すら負うているのだから、
↑ Miki, Etsuzō (10 March 2009). "The pragmatics of imperatives" 命令文の語用論 ── 関連性理論に寄せて ──(PDF). 熊本県立大学文学部紀要 (in Japanese) (15): 19, 22, 28, 39. われわれの判断に伴うこの構制に負うて、「呪詛的願望」はもとより、一般に命令文の表わす当為判断はさながら共同社会の成員一般が「妥当」と見なす判断であるかのような様相を呈するものとなる。[…]このような一体化に負うて、ペンを、杖を、車を「手足のごとく」操るということが可能となるのである。[…]この構制に負うて、A は目的地に達することを志向するかぎり、道順に「従う」ことを共同社会的な当為として促される所以となる。[…]これは一種の「暗示」と言えるが、そもそも自己暗示による信仰療法 （faith-healing） あるいは催眠 （hypnosis） が可能となるのもわれわれに内在化された共同社会的な「圧力」に負っている。
1 2 Dostoevsky, Fyodor Mikhailovich (4 July 2014). Бесы悪霊[Demons] (in Japanese). Vol.2. Translated by Ikeda, Kentarō. Gutenberg 21. 彼の説によると、社会の一員たる者はひとりびとりが互いに監視し合って、密告する義務を負うている。[…]もしあなたが心のなかで、《自分は自分の行為に対して責任を負うているのか、負うていないのか》という質問だけでも発することができれば、すなわちそれであなたはすでに必ず責任を負うておられる。[…]「法律的にはあなたはほとんど傷を負うてはおられませぬ。[…]」[…]偉大なヨーロッパの哲学者も、偉大な学者も、発明家も、勤労者も、殉教者も、――これらの勤労を愛し重荷を負うた人々はことごとく、わがロシアの偉大な天才にとっては、彼の家の台所にいる料理人となんら変わりはないのである。
1 2 Ishihara, Shintarō (16 June 2017). 巷の神々 (in Japanese). Vol.2. PHP Institute. ISBN978-4-569-83594-5. 大切なことは、その肉体を持って、自分がこの世のために負うている使命をどれだけ果すか、と言うことだ。[…] 角太郎にして見れば、自らにないそうした能力を、他の一人の女がそなえている、と言うことも、これ即ち、彼女の負うた因縁のしからしめるところ、つまり、彼女が生れる前から負うた使命であって、自らの使命は、その彼女を育て、彼女を使って、自らの布教を行う、と言うことだったに違いない。
↑ Tanizaki, Jun'ichirō (20 June 1970) [10 May 1969]. 十五. 細雪[Light Snow] (in Japanese). Vol.1 (2nded.). Shinjuku, Tokyo: Obunsha. p.111. 井谷を送り出してから、貞之助が二階の部屋へ上がって行くと、幸子は臥たまゝ浴用タオルで顔を覆うて吸入をかけていたが、 「井谷さんまた縁談を持って来やはったんやて？」 と、かけ終えるとタオルで目鼻を拭いながら言った。
↑ Aeschylus; Sophocles; Euripides (20 May 2016). ギリシア悲劇全集[The Complete Collection of Greek Tragedies] (in Japanese). Translated by Uchiyama, Keijirō. Gutenberg 21. 土煙りを立て、鼻嵐吹き立てる軍馬の唾液は、野を白泡で覆うております。[…]頭を覆うていた金髪から舐め尽す焔の恐ろしい奔流が溢れ出る、[…] 乳母よ、頭を再び覆うておくれ、 いうたことが恥づかしいから。 […] 【ヒッポリュトス】 もう力が尽きました、私はもう死んだものです、父上！ どうぞ速く私の顔を着物で覆うて下さい。 […] 【使者】 そして寝床を調え、死体を覆うておやりなさいました。 […] 【エレクトラ】 さあ、母であって母でない女！ 外套で覆うてあげる。[The horses are snorting and stirring up clouds of dust, their spit has covered the plain in white foam. […] A horrific stream of engulfing fire gushed forth from the gold crown on her head, […] O nurse, please cover my head again, for I am ashamed of what I have said. […] [Hippolytus] I have no strength left, I am gone, father! Please cover my face with my raiment, quickly. […] [Messenger] And he laid out their biers and wrapped them up. […] [Electra] She who was a mother, who is not to be! There, I shall cover her with a robe.]
1 2 Sweeney, J. Mark (1 May 2025). パネルディスカッション(PDF). National Diet Library Monthly Bulletin国立国会図書館月報 (in Japanese) (769). National Diet Library: 12. そして、16歳未満の人々がＬＯＣを利用する機会は非常に制限されていました。本当に未来を変えたいのであれば、それは若い世代と始めなければいけません。図書館はなぜ必要なのでしょうか。人々は、いい情報とは何か、それは信頼できる情報なのか、と問うています。これらに答えることが図書館の仕事であり、それは若い世代にも伝えなくてはいけません。
↑ Shiragami, Ken'ichi (April 1959). 発生学における形態問題* ――発生段階表の作成のめぐって――. 生物科学 (in Japanese). 11 (1). Iwanami Shoten: 23. J. M. Oppenhimer[sic] (1955)* が“正常な”発生環境とは何であるかを問っているのはこの意味からも重要である．
↑ 制御工学. Current Bibliography on Science and Technology科学技術文献速報 (in Japanese). 15 (22). Japan Information Center of Science and Technology: 24. 25 February 1973. これらのすべての面で果して流体素子の将来安定して占めるべき地位は明らかにされているかを問っている。
↑ Momoshiro, Nekoo (15 August 2019). 第三章 棘のない花が傷つけるのは. 大公殿下は幼なじみ妻に「愛している」を伝えたい (in Japanese). 泣いても乞うても夫に愛してもらえない主人公が舞台上で切なく歌い上げるのを、レオナはどんな顔をして見ていいのか分からない。
↑ Matsumura, Shigeki (5 September 2019). 呉昌碩と日本人士 (in Japanese). Institute of Human Culture Studies, Otsuma Women's University. p.235, 380–381, 428. ISBN978-4-907136-18-5. これは、まさしく呉昌碩を画家と捉え、画の教えを請うている詩である。[…] 日年は、その後も呉昌碩を訪ねて、教えを請うている。[…] また、日年は、呉昌碩に自刻の印影を送り、批評を請うていた。[…]晴雲は、吉慶里の呉昌碩宅を訪ね、画の品評を請うていたと思われる。
↑ Hashimoto, Seiji (31 March 1978). 家制度と村落社会 ――四国山地における隠居制山村の場合――. 村落の歴史地理. 歴史地理学紀要. Vol.20. Association of Historical Geographers in Japan. p.288. 手間替えなどには「家」の扶役的部分を請っているオモが出るのが建前のようにいわれてるが、
↑ Ikki, Shigeru (15 April 2009). りんごニュース (in Japanese). No.2778. 亡くなるまでの三十八年間教えを請っている。
↑ Yoshihara, Yūichi (2024). 諦めと救いの構造 ――能『清経』の世界観をめぐる倫理思想的考察――(PDF) (doctoral thesis) (in Japanese). Kokushikan University Library and Information Commons. p.44. したがって、妻が恋うている対象は清経本人ではなく、むしろ彼女の〈現世〉の方であるといえる。
↑ Natsume, Sōseki (10 February 1937). 二. 吾輩は猫である[I Am a Cat]. 漱石全集 (in Japanese). Vol.1. Sōseki Zenshū Kankōkai. p.31. 來ると自分を戀つて居る女が有りさうな、
↑ Natsume, Sōseki (1 January 1918). 二. 吾輩は猫である[I Am a Cat]. 漱石全集 (in Japanese). Vol.1. Sōseki Zenshū Kankōkai. p.26. 來ると自分を慕つて居る女が有りさうな、
↑ Aeschylus (20 May 2016). "Ἱκέτιδες" 嘆願の女たち[The Suppliants]. ギリシア悲劇全集[The Complete Collection of Greek Tragedies] (in Japanese). Translated by Uchiyama, Keijirō. Gutenberg 21. 【コロス】 ペラズゴス人の王様、人間の不幸は色とりどりでございます。けっして同じ羽根の難儀をご覧になることはないでございましょう。と申しますのは、この意外な脱走は、実はその昔この土地から出た同族の者が、婚姻を厭うて逃げだし、アルゴスへ船を寄せることになったのだとは、誰が思ったことでしょう？[[Chorus] King of the Pelasgians, men's woes are of many shades. Never shall ye see their troubles like the selfsame feathers. Who would have said that this unforeseen flight would indeed bring a kindred race, having fled this land in hate of wedlock long ago, back aboard to Argos?]
1 2 Hayase, Miya (22 April 2022). 白金の杖の魔女と滅竜騎士の溺愛. LUNA文庫 (in Japanese). Tenkaisha. それはただ、近しい知人が汚されるのを厭うただけではなくて。 […] 面倒を厭うて隠ぺいする方が楽だと考えても不思議ではないのだ。
1 2 Nakamura, Akihiko (1 May 2013). 第一話 天忍穂耳尊の孝行. 会津論語 武士道の教科書『日新館童子訓』を読む. PHP文庫 (in Japanese). PHP Institute. ISBN978-4-569-67982-2. 天忍穂耳尊は、天照大神の皇太子であらせられた。天照大神が老齢となりたまいてのち、天子の位を尊に譲り、日向の国高千穂峯のもとに新たに都をたて天下を統治なさろうとして尊に三種の神器（神璽と剣と鏡）を授けたもうたところ、尊は丁重に請いたもうて位を皇孫瓊々杵尊に譲り、尊自身は旧都大和国天高市大宮にとどまりたまいて大神につかえ、心をこめて孝行を尽くさせたもうた。
1 2 Kitahara, Aiko (8 November 2017). 第七章 変わらぬもの. 化土記 (in Japanese). PHP Institute. ISBN978-4-569-76787-1. 神は、浦次をこの地へ導き給うて、子供らにかこまれ、村の人達から頼りにされる幸せをあたえ給うた。これ以上を望んでは、罰が当ると思う。罰が当ると思うが、浦次はその幸せを喜んでくれる人が、時折、無性に欲しくなる。
↑ Hekirurien (15 December 1921). 源義經. 偉人の幼年時代 (in Japanese). Vol.2. Kyōbashi, Tokyo: Daitōkaku. pp.59–60. 『いや〱御坊、たヾそれだけのことではこゝまでわざ〱來やしない、本當か御坊は六韜兵法といふ文、天上より給つて祕藏してゐられるさうな、その文は勝手に個人の者にしてはならない、御坊が持つてゐたとて讀むこと出來なければ、敎傳ふことも出來ない、理が否でも私にそれを見せて下さい、一日の中に讀んで、御坊にも敎て返しませう。』
↑ 慈眼視衆生. 平常禪 (in Japanese). Tokyo: 大本山妙心寺布敎師會. 15 February 1927. p.235. 大無量壽經に以㆓如來無蓋大悲㆒衿㆓哀三界㆒出㆓興世㆒所以光㆓闡道㆐敎㆒救㆓群㆐萠㆒以㆓惠眞㆐實利㆒爲欲と仰せ給つて居ります。
↑ Matogawa, Yasunori (May 1996). 春の珍事 ―ある日の対外協力室(PDF). ISASニュース (in Japanese) (182). Sagamihara, Kanagawa: Institute of Space and Astronautical Science: 8. ISSN0285-2861. 「せっかく友達が話に来ているんだから，丁寧に接待してあげなきゃ駄目ですよ」と言ったら，「あなた，いいこと言うね。参った参った」とのたもうて「今回はもういいから，またかけますよ」と言ったきりプツンと切れてしまった。
↑ Musäus, Johann Karl August (20 September 2007). Melechsalaメレクザーラ(PDF). ドイツ人の民話 (in Japanese). Translated by Suzuki, Mitsuru. Kokushokankokai. p.7. しかし厳しい往時はそのように洗練されてはいなかった。「持っている物を見せなさい」と関白亭主はのたもうて、びくびくしている相手から乱暴に前垂れをひったくった。
1 2 Itō, Ken (20 September 1926). 第一章 神話時代. 変態人情史. 変態十二史 (in Japanese). Vol.4. 文藝資料硏究會. p.2. それは扨て、天神は伊邪奈岐、伊邪奈美の「二神を召しこの漂へる國を修り固めよ」と宣給つて、天の瓊矛を渡し給ふた。
1 2 Yanai, Takumi (6 January 2013). ゲート 自衛隊 彼の地にて、斯く戦えり. アルファライト文庫 (in Japanese). Vol.1. AlphaPolis. などと、メモを開きながら読み始めるのをさえぎって、嘉納はみそ汁をすすりながら「悪いけど、それは中止だぜ」と独特のしわがれ声で宣った。[…]だが「大丈夫、冬の同人誌即売会まで保てばいいんだから」などと宣っている。[…]ロゥリィは、儀式的に周囲を見回して「世間様なんて、どこにも居ないわぁ」と宣った。[…]伊丹から入手経路等について説明を受けた警衛長は、顔を逸らすと『見なかった』『聞かなかった』と宣った。
↑ Tsuchiya, Harufumi (2013). ベルギー・IRMM 旅行記(PDF). 核データニュース (in Japanese) (104). Atomic Energy Society of Japan: 98. 後の話ですが、IRMM 近くのホテルに一緒に泊まっていたイギリス人は、「ベルギー人の運転はクレージーだ」と、のたまっていました。
↑ Queen, Ellery (17 April 2015). "7: Dissertation on Morals, Murderers, and Maids" 七章 仁義と殺人と婦人について. The Spanish Cape Mysteryスペイン岬の裸死事件 (in Japanese). Translated by Ishikawa, Toshi. Gutenberg 21. Moley gulped, jammed a cheroot into his mouth, and struck a match. He was striving to steady himself. "All right. You won't talk about that. But you had a fight with him, didn't you?" She was silent. "He called you a dirty name, didn't he?" A sickness came into her eyes, but she merely compressed her lips. "Well, how long did this go on, Mrs. Godfrey? How long were you with him?"モリーはつばをのみ、たばこをくわえて、マッチをすった。自分を落ちつかせようと懸命だった。「よろしい。そのことは言わんでよろしい。だが、マルコとあらそったでしょう」夫人は黙っていた。「マルコはあなたを、罵ったでしょう」夫人は不快の色を目に浮かべたが、唇をかみしめただけだった。「じゃあ、どのくらい、いたんですか、奥さん。どのくらい一緒にいたんですか」
↑ Uehara, Kōsuke (24 August 1984), 第百一回国会衆議院内閣委員会議録第十号(PDF) (in Japanese), p.795, 余り余計なこと言わぬで簡単に答えてくださいよ。
↑ Satō, Sadao (September 1950). 熱型最大需用表示器について. Journal of the Japan Electric Association電氣協會雜誌 (in Japanese) (324). Japan Electric Association: 24. まだこういう席でお話するほどデーターがとれておりませぬで、甚だデーターが足りなくて、非常にその点貧弱な內容になりますが、御諒承を願いしたいと思います。
↑ Mogami, Takayoshi (10 January 1937). 鄕土硏究の途 (in Japanese). Narita, Chiba: 新更會刊行部. p.4. 第一に「鄕土硏究と民族學」と書いてありますが、私、先月中細かい目次を作る餘裕がありませぬでして、こんな風にしたのであります。
1 2 Makino & Tsutsui (1989), p.593, "Appendix 4 Connection Forms of Important Expressions: F. Vte+__". sfnp error: no target: CITEREFMakino_&_Tsutsui1989 (help)
↑ Banno et al. (2020a), p.151, "Lesson 6, Grammar 2: 〜てください". sfnp error: no target: CITEREFBanno_et_al.2020a (help)
↑ Shioda, Takehiro (1 February 2022). 「本を置いていない」と「本が置いていない」どちらがよい？. NHK BunkenNHK文研 (in Japanese). NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute. Archived from the original on 16 October 2025.
↑ Grimm, Jacob Ludwig Karl; Grimm, Wilhelm Carl (19 December 2012). "Katze und Maus in Gesellschaft" いっしょに暮らした猫とねずみ[Cat and Mouse in Partnership]. Grimms Märchenグリム童話[Grimms' Fairy Tales] (in Japanese). Vol.1. Translated by Tsukagoshi, Satoshi. Gutenberg 21. „Ich weiß keinen Ort, wo es besser aufgehoben wäre, als die Kirche, da getraut sich niemand etwas wegzunehmen. Wir stellen es unter den Altar und rühren es nicht eher an, bis wir es nötig haben."「教会にしまっておくのが、いちばんいいと思うんだ。あそこに置いとけば、誰も掻っぱらおうなんて思いやしないからね。祭壇の下に置いといて、ほしくなるまで、手をつけないことにしよう」
↑ Bradbury, Ray Douglas (20 October 2017). "Tomorrow's Child" 明日の子供. I Sing the Body Electric!ブラッドベリは歌う (in Japanese). Translated by Nakamura, Yasuo. Gutenberg 21.
↑ Rowling, Joanne (1 November 2002). "Chapter Twenty-Six: The Second Task" 第26章 第二の課題. Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fireハリー・ポッターと炎のゴブレット (in Japanese). Vol.2. Translated by Matsuoka, Yūko. Shinjuku, Tokyo: Say-zan-sha. pp.205–206. ISBN4-915512-47-9. 'What's a Wheezy?' 'Your Wheezy, sir, your Wheezy - Wheezy who is giving Dobby his jumper!' Dobby plucked at the shrunken maroon sweater he was now wearing over his shorts. 'What?' Harry gasped. 'They've got … they've got Ron?'「ウィージーってなんだい？」 「あなたさまのウィージーでございます。ウィージー――ドビーにセーターをくださったウィージーでございます！」 ドビーはショートパンツの上に着ている縮んだ栗色のセーターを摘んでみせた。 「なんだって？」 ハリーは息を呑んだ。 「水中人が取ってったのは……取ってったのは、ロン？」
↑ Asahi, Yurine (1 September 2021). 第八章. 私たち義兄妹でしたが、再会した今、両片想いをこじらせてます (in Japanese). Tenkaisha. 「ジェンダーとかダイバーシティとか言ってるけどね、日本はまだまだ二十代の小娘には冷たいの。生意気だって見下してくるヤツ、枕営業だろうって迫ってくるヤツ、妬んで邪魔してくるヤツ、卑怯な連中がうじゃうじゃいるのよ。結果を出す、これしかないけど、結果を出してもなかなか認めようとしない。お金とコネをどれだけ得るか、シビアじゃないとやってけないわ。甘ちゃんのあなたのカノジョを諸手を挙げて応援するようでは、とっくに寝首を掻かれているわよ」
↑ Hichiwa, Yuka (20 July 2005). 涙のＫＩＳＳ. お願い！ダーリン (in Japanese). Vol.2. Gentosha Comics.
↑ Shioda, Takehiro (1 June 2010). 「いらして」？ 「いらっしゃって」？. NHK BunkenNHK文研 (in Japanese). NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute. Archived from the original on 23 October 2025.
1 2 3 Hardy, Thomas (13 March 2015). The Return of the Native帰郷 (in Japanese). Vol.2. Translated by Kobayashi, Seiichi; Asano, Mariko. Gutenberg 21. "No," she said, "we won't have any of this. If she comes in she must see you—and think if she likes there's something wrong! But how can I open the door to her, when she dislikes me—wishes to see not me, but her son? I won't open the door!" […] "I thought you had been dreaming," said she. […] "Were you dancing with her, Diggory?" she asked, in a voice which revealed that he had made himself considerably more interesting to her by this disclosure.「だめよ」と彼女は言った、「こんなことはやめましょう。お姑様が入ってらしたら、あなたに気がつくにちがいないわ――それに、勝手に何かおかしいと思われでもしたら！ でもどうしてわたしが戸を開けてあげられて？ わたしを嫌ってらっしゃって――わたしじゃなく、息子に会いたがってらっしゃるのに。わたし、ドアは開けないわ」 […] 「夢を見てらしたんだと思いましたわ」 […] 「その方と踊っていらしたの、ディゴリ？」と彼女は聞いたが、その声はこの打ち開け話で彼女が彼のことを、以前よりもずっと興味のもてる人物だと思ってしまったことを示していた。
↑ Satow, Ernest Mason (1873). "Paradigms". Kuaiwa Hen, Twenty-Five Exercises in the Yedo Colloquial, for the Students. With Notes. Vol.Part II. Notes. Yokohama: Lane, Crawford & Co. pp.170–188.
↑ Matsumura, Akira (2006). スーパー大辞林 (in Japanese). Sanseidō.
↑ Tanabe, Seiko (1 July 2003). 恋する罪びと. PHP文庫 (in Japanese). PHP Institute. ISBN978-4-569-57986-3. 邸を出るまでは、業平は高子を背に負った。[…] うち払いがたい高子の面影、背に負うたときの感触。[…] 大穴牟遅、決心すると手ばしこく、根の国の王者の権威を象徴する生大刀・生弓矢、天の沼琴を持ち、須勢理を背に負って逃げ出す。
↑ Hawthorne, Nathaniel (20 December 1950) [1 September 1937]. "The Gorgon's Head" ゴーゴンの首. A Wonder-Book for Girls and Boysワンダ・ブック――少年・少女のために―― (in Japanese). Translated by Miyake, Ikusaburō (8thed.). Even the helmet, that covered him with its invisibility, had vanished!隠す力を以て彼を覆うた兜さえも、もう見えませんでした！
↑ Aeschylus; Sophocles; Euripides (20 May 2016). ギリシア悲劇全集[The Complete Collection of Greek Tragedies] (in Japanese). Translated by Uchiyama, Keijirō. Gutenberg 21. 何とした二重の苦難が、 神々から急に降って、 館を覆うたことか！[…]二つの星が馬の軛に降り立って、真黒な雲で戦車を覆うたというのですから。[…]しかし、葡萄の蔓の若緑をもってこれを覆うたは我である。[What twofold grief, Has befallen these halls, So quickly, from the gods! […] Two stars landed upon the horses’ yokes and plunged the chariot into a pitch-dark cloud. […] I myself covered it with leafy shoots of grapevines.]
↑ 日本人にとって望ましい環境像とは. 環境ビジョン・シンポジウム報告書 (in Japanese). Vol.2. Japan Environment Association. 21 January 1983. pp.64, 110. それから原宿で踊り狂っている男の子たちにインタビューしているわけですが，「お父さんたち，何か言いませんか」と問うたら「悪いことだけはするな，と言われてきています」と答えているわけです。[…] シンポジウムの時間について問うた間５では，１日を適当とする回答が７０％で，前回の６７％を上廻って最も多く，次いで２日は２４％であった。
↑ Tokosumi, Akifumi (24 March 2000). 第５章 物語理解と感性過程. 高次感性機構としての言語と感情 (doctoral thesis) (in Japanese). p.111. さらに「このお話をどのように読んでいったかについて，お話の筋に沿って順序立ててお話下さい」と問った．
↑ りんごニュース (in Japanese). No.2645. 25 June 2005. 成り枝の圧縮、つまりスパータイプ化を力説した晩年の斉藤昌美氏に問ったことがある。
↑ Tatano, Hirokazu (June 2009). 親水性と安全性 −−2008年7月都賀川水難からの教訓−−(PDF). Annals of Disaster Prevention Research Institute東京大学防災研究所年報 (in Japanese) (52 A). Figure 10に過去の事故の記憶を問った結果を示す。[…]その認知度を問ったところ[…]Figure 15に河川敷から逃げるタイミングについて問った質問に対する回答の分布を示す。
↑ Shida, Gishū (20 July 1953). 一二 諸撰集と俳交. 蕪村一代物語. 物語日本文學 (in Japanese). Shinjuku, Tokyo: Shibundō. p.90. 安永二年九月には、伊勢の三浦樗良が上京し、几董と打連れて蕪村を夜半亭に訪うた。
↑ Fukuda, Eiji (18 September 1921). 四七 先發‥‥‥‥、設營隊. 勳章もらひそこねの話 (in Japanese). Kanda, Tokyo: 啓成社. p.292. 午前十一時半、漸く定福庄に到着、此所より通州まで僅に二里餘、少時休憇すべしと、予は通路より四五町北にある守備隊を訪つた。
↑ Jūichiya, Gisaburō (15 June 1930). あの道この道. キヤベツの倫理. 新興藝術派叢書 (in Japanese). Ushigome, Tokyo: Shinchosha. p.218. 「今晚は。」と訪つた。
↑ Matsumoto, Kamejirō (18 July 1931). 五月五日. 中華五十日游記 (in Japanese). Kanda, Tokyo: 東亞書房. p.147. 【同仁會】 午前九時高橋氏の案內で、道順により、先づ同仁會病院を訪つた。
↑ Akagi, Tsuyoshi (17 September 2010). 国際的にいかに受け取られるのか、私にもはっきりしない. 亡国の本質 日本はなぜ敗戦必至の戦争に突入したのか (in Japanese). PHP Institute. ISBN978-4-569-79092-3. けれども、九月二十五日の三者会談の結果について、ブロンベルクが同盟案に非常に関心を抱いているとの報告を受けた大島は、ドイツ軍も乗り気であると信じ、協定草案の準備に取りかかる一方、東京の参謀本部に訓令を請うた。[…] なお、オットが本国宛ての報告電の暗号文を組むに際し、手助けを請うたのは、ナチ党員で、ドイツの新聞『フランクフルター・ツァイトゥング』紙の記者である親密な友人、実はソ連のスパイのリヒャルト・ゾルゲであった。
↑ Sakurazawa, Yū (10 November 2014). 第20章 腹心の友との仲直り. よじれた戸籍 (in Japanese). Seiten no Hekireki. ディズニーの朝からの私の気持ちと、私の目から見て何が起きたのかを詳しく説明した。野上さんとは一生会わないし口もきかないと約束し、美沙が私にとってどんなに大切かを表現できる限りの言葉で書いて、許しを乞うた。
↑ Seko, Kōji (15 June 2007). ８ 下戸の章 おもしろくない人間か？. 自分に酔う人、酔わない人. PHP Shinsho (in Japanese). PHP Institute. ISBN978-4-569-69209-8. 官位も捨て妻子も捨てて出家した西行も、山中の庵でのひとり住まいで、月明かりの下、人を恋うた。
↑ Nomura, Ayuko (31 August 2007). 長安の記憶 ―周縁によるみやこの文学イメージ―(PDF). 古代都市とその刑制 (in Japanese). 14. Nara Women's University: 90. 宮中に仕えたのは足掛け三年という短い年月、石もて追われたみやこではあったが、李白は生涯、長安を恋うたのである。
↑ Amano, Fujio (5 August 1917). 第六章 鎭守の森と豐年祭. 鎭守の森と盆踊 (in Japanese). Kyōbashi, Tokyo: 文原堂書店. p.87. 母の乳房を戀つた幼年の愛情が、鎭守森哺まれて始めて神聖なる戀の焰を燃やすのである。
↑ Euripides (20 May 2016). "Ἱππόλυτος" ヒッポリュトス[Hippolytus]. ギリシア悲劇全集[The Complete Collection of Greek Tragedies] (in Japanese). Translated by Uchiyama, Keijirō. Gutenberg 21. 【アルテミス】 汝の崇め方を憤り、また純潔を厭うたのだ。[[Artemis] She was enraged by the way thou worshippedst, and she loathed thy chastity.]
↑ Natsume, Sōseki (10 March 1936). 評論. 評論 雜篇. 漱石全集 (in Japanese). Vol.13. Kanda, Tokyo: 漱石全集刊行會. p.302. 夫程大仕掛の手數を厭ふ位なら、序に文藝院を建てる手數をも厭つた方が經濟であると考へる。
↑ Kikiyama; Akira (4 November 2015). 第十四話 かえる. ゆめにっき あなたの夢に私はいない. VG文庫 (in Japanese). ISBN978-4-569-76477-1. わたしは、木の根っこに足を取られて転び、森のあちこちから聞こえてくる鳥や野獣らしき鳴き声に怯え、樹木の梢がつくった闇に呑まれることを厭った。
↑ Nakamura, Ryūsuke (1 March 1996). 北から南から[From the North, from the South]. 秋津洲物語[Tales from Akitsushima] (in Japanese). PHP Institute. ひょっとして、といま唐突に思えてきました。此度のイネ作り云々は神々のわしら人間に与え給うた試練なのではないか、と。[Perhaps, as it has just occurred to me now, that this time around, things such as rice cultivation might be trials that the gods have laid upon us humans.]
↑ Musäus, Johann Karl August (20 September 2007). Melechsalaメレクザーラ(PDF). ドイツ人の民話 (in Japanese). Translated by Suzuki, Mitsuru. Kokushokankokai. pp.46–47, 55–56. そなたが領主として一地方を治めるようになれば、王冠を望むことも叶いましょう。王は、偉大なる預言者がその息女に与えたもうた女婿を拒絶なさりますまい」。[…]天界そのものがこの教化の仕事にお恵みを垂れたもうたためか、王女の異国趣味が外国人の宗教的概念にまで拡大されたためか、あるいは、改宗を説く説教者の人柄も加えて勘定に入っていたためか、要するに、彼女は全身これ耳と化し、夕方の薄闇が増して授業を打ち切らなかったら、まだまだ何時間も喜んで先生の言葉に聴き入っていたことだろうが、今回のところは急いで面紗を下ろし、後宮へ向かった。
↑ Cornaro, Luigi (24 May 2012). 講話（一）：食を節することの重要性について[The First Discourse: On the Importance of Restricting Intake]. 無病法 極少食の威力[How to Stay Free of Illness: The Power of Minimal Intake] (in Japanese). Translated by Nakakura, Genki. PHP Institute. ISBN978-4-569-80568-9. 私の方はというと、この苦難をむしろ神がおくり給うた試練としてとらえ、いっそう心身の強靭さを証明すべき機会だと考えて、そのように対処し、そのけっか、最後には事態の好転をみたのであった。[On my part, I brought myself to view this ordeal as a test sent down by God, thinking it was an opportunity to further prove my strength of body and mind, and in overcoming it as such, I saw that the situation changed for the better as a result.]
↑ Takahashi, Chikumei (10 July 1940). （九） 承陽殿の額と聨. 永平寺聨額の解說 (in Japanese). Shiba, Tokyo: Kōmeisha. p.60. 私が三十餘年前、初めて拜登した時、この石塔をも拜禮させて給つた。
↑ Yamane, Kikuko (25 November 1940). シオン議定書. 釋迦の卷. 光りは東方より (in Japanese). Vol.4. Ushigome, Tokyo: 日本と世界社. p.102. そこで、ジヤポン、ミカドのことゝいひ、世界統一遊す神子の話しといひ外國には何か日本――ミヅラホの國について何か古い傳說か口碑があるに相異ないとは思つてゐたが、神大に日本から人類が始り、日本天皇がその御直統であらせられ、しかも世界を統へ給つたときいて、初めてこの言葉の意味が氷解されて有難いと思ふ。
↑ Bradbury, Ray Douglas (20 October 2017). "I Sing the Body Electric!" 吾は唄う、この身の充電するまで！. I Sing the Body Electric!ブラッドベリは歌う (in Japanese). Translated by Nakamura, Yasuo. Gutenberg 21. "Here's Abominable Lunch Number Seventy-seven," she announced. "Made from plastic food bags, parsley, and gum from under theatre seats. Brush your teeth after or you'll taste the poison all afternoon."「さあ、おぞましき昼食第七十七号ですよ」とお祖母さまはのたもうた。「プラスチックのパックに入っているインスタント食品と、パセリと、映画館の座席の下から拾って来たガムでこしらえたのよ。あとで歯を磨きなさいね――さもないと、夜になるまでずっと毒の味が口に残りますからね」
↑ Fukuda, Mahito (31 March 2022). 不動明王像(PDF). Artes MUNDI (in Japanese) (7): 131. 和尚は居住まいを糺して勤行して、やおら不動明王に魂入れがあると宣うた。
↑ Shida, Hideyo (25 February 2016). 第一章. 異世界だと思ったら崩壊した未来だった 神話の時代から来た発掘師 (in Japanese). TO Books. 俺としては大した労力は払っていないし、稼ぎを独り占めするのは気が引けていたから、皆が無理にでも納得してくれたことは嬉しかったりする。 「発掘より狩猟のほうが儲かるんじゃないか？」 なんてことを冗談めかして阿古川哲也がのたまったが、狩猟をすればいつでも肉が食えることは別にして、トレジャーハントの魅力のほうが俺には格段に上だった。たぶん阿古川哲也や他の二人も同じ考えだろう。
↑ Shimizu, Tsurusaburō (28 October 1902). 米國勞働便覽 併英語會話 (in Japanese). Matsuda Jinjirō. pp.29, 149–150, 152. 其口元へ持つて行つて見るので、[…]Ihavegonethere 私がそこへ行いた[…]卽ち自分が何日に其處へ行つたといふ過去を言つて居る。[…]Went 行つた
↑ Yamamuro, Gunpei (28 July 1923). 人生の旅行 (in Japanese). 救世軍出版及供給部. pp.6, 12, 176. 上野の廣小路へは行つて參りましたが、[…]私が先年滿洲の大連に行つた時、玄海灘の上にて、汽船の事務長が私にむかひ、[…]一通りの合點が行いたので、
↑ Ikari, Shizan (15 January 1926). 女禍傳 (in Japanese). 大阪屋号書店. pp.38, 47, 339, 374. 李靖と同じ月の五月からは烈しい痢病にかゝつて段々衰弱を加へて行つた。[…]都の感業寺とやらいふ御寺へ行つて、[…]私は行いて祝賀を述べました。[…]其處へ御身が行いたのはわる
↑ Kitaura, Keitarō (6 June 1913). 一一、赤き心. 嗚呼姬鏡 (in Japanese). 和州當麻護念院. p.69. 「私も何を仕て居るのだらう、若しや病氣にでもと思いまして、早速行つて伺ひますると姬は……姬は何處へ行つたのか？」[…]「して何處へ行いたのです？」
↑ Blasco Ibáñez, Vicente (15 March 1924). "Flor de mayo" 五月の花[Mayflower]. Flor de mayo五月の花[Mayflower] (in Japanese). Translated by Urasawa, Kazuo. Yūrakuchō, Tokyo: Hōchi Shinbun Shuppansha. p.142. そして波止場人足達は、恰も海が彼等を生きたまゝ食つてしまつたかの樣に默つて四方に消えて行いた。
↑ de Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel (13 November 1915). "Capítulo XXXII. Que trata de lo que sucedió en la venta a toda la cuadrilla de don Quijote" 第三十二章 は宿屋でドン・キホーテ一行の上に起つたどもを述べる。[Chapter XXXII. Which Treats of What Befell Don Quixote’s Party at the Inn]. ドン・キホーテ[Don Quixote] (in Japanese). Vol.1. Translated by Shimamura, Hōgetsu; Katagami, Noburu (2nded.). Kōjimachi, Tokyo: Uetake Shoin. p.545. — Como me lo pregunta este señor —respondió ella—, no pude dejar de respondelle.『この旦那樣がお訊ねになつたので、御返事せんわけには行かなんだもの。』と娘は言つた。[“As the gentleman asked me, I could not help answering him,” said the girl.]
↑ Shakespeare, William (3 March 1934). "Scene V. Another part of the field." 第五場 戰場の他の一部。. Julius Caesarヂュリヤス・シーザー. 新修シェークスピヤ全集 (in Japanese). Vol.26. Translated by Tsubouchi, Shōyō. Kōjimachi, Tokyo: Chūō Kōron Sha. p.201. Bru. Farewell, good Strato.—Caesar, now be still: I kill'd not thee with halfe so good a will.ブルー さやうなら、ストレートーよ。……シーザーよ、今こそ安心なさい。予はお前さんを此半分ほども甘んじては殺さなんだのだ。
1 2 Shibata, Renzaburō (20 December 1966). 裏返し忠臣蔵. 柴錬立川文庫 (in Japanese). Chiyoda, Tokyo: Bungeishunju. pp.33–34, 177, 183, 251, 254, 257–258. ……わからなんだ。[…]「……しかし、わしの憤は、消えはせなんだ。[…]」[…]「……左様か。吉良殿が、そのような悪党とは、知らなんだな」[…]「わたしは、若様が、よもや、浮橋大夫と枕を交される、とは思うて居りませなんだ。……あれで、よろしゅうございました」[…]「いかにも――。その通りでは、ござらなんだかな？」[…]「まこと、失礼なおたずねをつかまつりますが、貴女様は、堀部安兵衛殿とは、一度も、契られませなんだか？」[…]実は、この男、忍びの者にて、つまり、赤穂藩へ仕えてはいたものの、家来ではありませなんだ。[…]「[…]すがには、もとより、何が書かれてあるのか、判る由もありませなんだが、もうおさむらい様は、もどっては来なさらぬ、と予感したと申します。はたして、安兵衛殿は、再びその家には、戻って参られなかった。[…]……つまり、すがと安兵衛殿とは、たったそれだけの縁しか持って居りませなんだ」
↑ Rowling, Joanne (18 December 2001) [8 December 1999]. "Chapter 4: The Keeper of the Keys" 第４章 鍵の番人. Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stoneハリー・ポッターと賢者の石 (in Japanese). Translated by Matsuoka, Yūko (380thed.). Tokyo: Say-zan-sha. p.76. ISBN4-915512-37-1. 'It's them as should be sorry! I knew yeh weren't gettin' yer letters but I never thought yeh wouldn't even know abou' Hogwarts, fer cryin' out loud! Did yeh never wonder where yer parents learnt it all?'「ごめんなさいはこいつらのセリフだ。おまえさんが手紙を受け取ってないのは知っとったが、まさかホグワーツのことも知らんとは、思ってもみなかったぞ。なんてこった！ おまえの両親がいったいどこであんなにいろんなことを学んだのか、不思議に思わなんだのか？」
↑ Kaionji, Chōgorō (19 December 2012). 海賊と豪族. 海と風と虹と (in Japanese). Vol.2. Gutenberg 21. うまく行かなんだ時は追捕使がどう朝廷に報告するかわからんぞといわんばかりのことばに、守と介はおびえ上がって、豪族らを召喚出頭させて、ふたりがかりで説得することになった。
↑ Chekhov, Anton Pavlovich (4 March 2015). "Моя жизнь" わが生活[My Life]. わが生活・谷間 (in Japanese). Translated by Nakamura, Hakuyō. Gutenberg 21. «А я опять не помер!»「やれやれ、またわしは死ななんだよ！」[“Good grief, once again, I didn’t die!”]
↑ Hardy, Thomas (13 March 2015). The Return of the Native帰郷 (in Japanese). Vol.1. Translated by Kobayashi, Seiichi; Asano, Mariko. Gutenberg 21. "Sure I should never have thought you had the face. Well, and what did the last one say to ye? Nothing that can't be got over, perhaps, after all?" […] Ay, when I think what she'll say to me now without a mossel of red in her face, it do seem strange that 'a wouldn't say such a little thing then....「まさかお前がそんなに厚かましいとは思わなんだ。ところで最後に声かけた娘っ子は何て返事しただ？結局、聞き流してしまえねえようなことじゃなかろう？」[…]ああ、女房も今なら顔なんかちっとも赤らめんで言ってのけるだろうにって思やあ、あのころ、あんなつまらんこともよう言わなんだのが不思議に思えるだ。
↑ Aeschylus; Sophocles; Euripides (20 May 2016). ギリシア悲劇全集[The Complete Collection of Greek Tragedies] (in Japanese). Translated by Uchiyama, Keijirō. Gutenberg 21. あの先にマラトーンが滅ぼした異邦人だけでは足らなんだか？[…] 【カッサンドラ】 かの罪を犯せしのちは、何人も何事にも妾を信じなんだ。 […]何ゆえに受け取ると直ぐに殺さなんだ？[…]さらばぞ、かつては栄えた市よ、磨き上げた城よ、ゼウスの姫パッラスが破壊せなんだら、そなたは今も聳え立っておろうものを！[…]彼女はプリュギアへ行きはせなんだ。[…] 【クレオン】 いや、聞かぬ、聞きはせなんだぞ、市よ、さらばだ！[Were they not enough, all the barbarians that Marathon had exterminated in those times past? […] [Cassandra] After I had sinned as such, nobody believed anything I said. […] Why didst thou not kill me as soon as thou receivedst me? […] Farewell to the once prosperous city and the polished castle, ye would be standing tall if Pallas, Daughter of Zeus had not demolished you! […] She never went to Phrygia. […] [Creon] Nay, I will not listen, I never did, farewell to the city!]
↑ Kozakai, Fuboku (June 1927). 体格検査. キング (in Japanese). 体格検査ではねられても、私は、私の軍人志願をあきらめることが出来ませぬでした。
↑ Miyake, Hiizu (30 September 1970). 資料二 三宅秀回顧談. Journal of the Japanese Society of Medical History日本醫史學雜誌 (in Japanese). 16 (3). Bunkyō, Tokyo: Japanese Society of Medical History: 217–218. ポンペは終始江戸へ参りませんでしたから、あの時分私は横浜に居つたので一向知りませぬ、私の先生と云ふは前に申した米国海軍々医でアレキサンドル・エ・ウエツドルと申す横浜居留地内の開業医でありましたが英仏独三ケ国語に通じて居りましたので居留民に信用せられ流行しました。[…]それから別に私共では版にしませぬでしたけれども全躰新論（解剖生理）もある。
↑ Nakajima, Machiko (1 February 2003). 第八章 信貴山炎上. 柳生石舟斎宗厳 戦国を戦い抜いた柳生新陰流の祖. PHP文庫 (in Japanese). PHP Institute. 「いや、あの世たらの彼岸までお伴つかまつりまする。この世ではまだまだ話し足りませぬでしたゆえ」
↑ Kaionji, Chōgorō (1 February 1989). 柳沢騒動. 時代小説文庫 (in Japanese). Vol.162. Fujimi Shobō. pp.19, 39, 126. 頼りに思う大猷院様（三代家光）は上様が六つになられた年にあえなくおなくなりなさるし、それからのわしの苦労は一通りではありませなんだ。あの頃は、上様が今日のようなご身分におなり遊ばそうとは、誰も思うておりませなんだ。[...]「お名前は存じませなんだが、あの人ならば、わたくしも感心しておりました」
↑ Habu, Michihide (21 December 2012). 出世街道. 明智左馬助 光秀を最後まで支えた智勇兼備の将. PHP文庫 (in Japanese). PHP Institute. 「おめでとうございます。将軍家に近侍しておりましたならば、とてもこのような領主にはなれませなんだが、まずは、信長さまのお陰でござりまするな」
↑ Banno et al. (2020a), pp.259–260, "Lesson 11, Grammar 2: 〜たり〜たりする". sfnp error: no target: CITEREFBanno_et_al.2020a (help)
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