Filipino animation, also known as Pinoy animation, is a body of original cultural and artistic works and styles applied to conventional Filipino storytelling, combined with talent and the appropriate application of classic animation principles, methods, and techniques, which recognizes their relationship with Filipino culture, comics, and films. It also delves into relying on traditional and common Filipino "sense of going about things" or manner of coping with Filipino life and environment.[1]
Filipino animation is largely part of the Philippine New Wave, a filmmaking term that resurges experimental films in the 21st century.
History
First Filipino cartoon
Kenkoy, one of the earliest Filipino cartoon characters (image dated 1943-03-20).
Original Filipino cartoons began with the publication of local comic books, known as komiks. During the late 1920s, Filipino writer Romualdo Ramos and Filipino visual artist Antonio “Tony” Velasquez created the cartoon character named Kenkoy. It appeared in the pages of the Tagalog-languageLiwayway magazine as a weekly comic strip entitled Mga Kabalbalan ni Kenkoy or "Kenkoy'santics". Because of its popularity it became a Filipino icon and was translated into other regional languages in the Philippines. Since then, other cartoon characters were created by other Filipino comic book artists. The creation of Kenkoy also influenced the works of Filipino musicians such as Nicanor Abelardo (the product was the librettoHay Naku Kenkoy or "Oh, My Gosh, Kenkoy!"), and the emergence of atypical Kenkoy-like pronunciation of English words which came to be known as “Kenkoy’s English” and “CarabaoEnglish”. This influence of Kenkoy gave birth to original Filipino language vocabulary, such as Barok (also became a stand-alone cartoon character), Jeproks, and Pinoy, the colloquial form of the word Filipino. Kenkoy also survived the arrival of the Japanese during World War II. Kenkoy became a tool of the Japanese occupiers for disseminating health programs.[2] Other Filipinos who excelled in the Philippine komiks and cartoon industry are Francisco Coching, and Alex Niño.[2]
Beginnings
The first Filipino-made cartoon for television was Panday, created by Gerry Garcia in 1986 based on the comic book character of the same name produced by Carlo J. Caparas.[3]RPN-9 began airing in November 1986.[3] Garcia is considered as the pioneer of Filipino animation industry. From 1995 to 1997, Garcia worked on the film Adarna: The Mythical Bird (1997), the first Filipino full-length theatrical animated film, based on the 19th century corrido commonly titled Ibong Adarna. Garcia wrote the story and directed Adarna under FLT Productions and Guiding Light Productions. Adarna received recognition from the Metro Manila Film Festival on December 27, 1997, as the first animated film in Philippine cinema. In 1998, it was also included in the Asian Collection of Japan's 7th Hiroshima Animation Festival.[4] Garcia's creation was later followed by the second Filipino full-length animated feature film, Urduja (2008), produced using a mixture of digital and traditional animation techniques.
The Philippine animation industry traces its origins back to the 1980s. Being one of the earlier players in the industry, with the local Philippine animation industry scene being around for already twenty years, the Philippines is considered one of the stronger Asian players in the realm of animation globally.[5] The rising need for outsourced services, mainly from the United States and Europe, caused the continued flourishing of animation studios in the country. These animation studios were for the most part export-driven and catered mostly to the demands of these foreign animators. Among the first few animation studios in the country include Burbank Animation Inc., Asian Animation, and Fil-Cartoons.[5] The clientele of Philippine studios supply the demand coming from the United States and Europe. Today, the country is regarded as one of the main and "stronger players" in outsourced and global animated cartoon production. The Philippines is second to India in providing services related to business outsourcing.[6]
Progress and development
Having originated from Filipino-made cartoons inspired by komiks, the Philippine animation industry later found opportunities abroad on big animated projects. In previous projects of DreamWorks Studios in Los Angeles, the Filipino-American animator Ronnie Del Carmen was chosen as the artistic supervisor for works like The Prince of Egypt and The Road to El Dorado.[7]
In 1983, Burbank Animation Inc., an Australian company, established a branch in the Philippines. Optifex International, Inc., originally called AsianAnimation, was one of the first Filipino owned corporations. In 1988, another large company known as Fil-Cartoons was established.[7]
Other major studios in the country have emerged including Toei Animation, a Japanese company with a Philippine subsidiary that has worked on G.I. Joe, Transformers, Dragon Ball, Sailor Moon and Nadja, and Top Peg Animation and Creative Studio, Inc. which is a Philippine-owned company which has worked on Disney television series including 101 Dalmatians: The Series, The Legend of Tarzan, Kim Possible, and Hercules (1998). In 2009, Toei Animation and Top Draw were part of the 2010–11 Philippines Top 15,000 Corporations as well as four members of the Association Council of the Philippines.[8]
Industry and education
According to the 1994 Census of Establishments, there is a total of 4609 film and animation establishments in the country, with a combined gross revenue of PHP 1.796 billion.[7] A significant number of these firms are located in Metro Manila, the national capital region of the Philippines, amounting to about 34.43% of the total film and animation firms in the country.
Regional distribution of film and animation establishments in the country according to the 1994 Census of Establishments
The employment rate in the Philippine animation sector experienced continued rates of increase from 2004 to 2008, with an annual average rate of increase of 29.10% per year from 3000 workers in 2004 to 8000 workers in 2008. The highest employment growth rate occurred in 2005, increasing the workforce by 50%.[8] However, a sudden drop in total industry employment growth rate was observed in 2007, from 44.4% in 2006 to 7.7% in 2007.[5]
Due to having a low-skill labor force, the Philippines largely relies on the traditional cel-animated production. Only countries like the US and Japan are able to distribute CGI animation to the global market mainly because of the high cost of post-production and distribution of producing CGI.[9]
According to the Animation Council of the Philippines, the number of animation firms in the country has been steadily increasing, with the number of locally owned animation firms increasing at a higher rate than that of foreign-owned animation firms from 1980 to 2011.[10] From 3,000 in 2004, the estimated number of employed artists in the industry has jumped to 10,000 as of 2010. In order to provide students with the proper training for potential careers in the field of animation, government agencies such as the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), Department of Education (DepEd), and the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) have taken actions in creating “regulatory standards for academic requirements associated with two-year animation courses” and “training regulations, courseware, and assessment” for schools offering animation courses.
Though both have long been considered competitors in the global information technology industry, India is admittedly way ahead of the Philippines in terms of size and manpower. Instead of competing against each other, Aninash Gupta, minister of the Embassy of India, encourages “coopetition”, which means cooperation among competitors. By complementing their strengths, both Philippine and Indian animation companies could enter joint ventures to be able to be at par with other Asian countries, like Singapore and Hong Kong, and garner larger parts of the market including the US. In a press conference, Mr. Gupta and Filipino economist Bernardo Villegas urged for the formation of partnerships and business opportunities that the Philippines and India could explore.[7]
Currently, Toon City belongs to an exclusive list of studios, as it has been recognized with the Emmy award of Outstanding Animated Children's Program in 2010, for "Curious George." The studio offers services such as pre-production, storyboarding, Digital 2D, Traditional/Tradigital Animation, Flash, and After Effects.
Toei Animation Philippines Inc.
Toei Animation Philippines Inc. is subsidiary of Toei Animation Co., Ltd. in Japan. It began in 1986 via a Memorandum of Agreement between Toei Animation Co. Ltd and EEI Corp. The studio boasts a total of 200 employees, and has a production capacity of about 60,000 drawings per month.[citation needed]
The company began the digitization of its animation process in the year 1997. It started with Digital Ink and Paint and Special Effects production. In the year 2000, it became the first Philippine animation studio to fully digitize its In-betweening process. On July 1, 2006, the studio started its 3D Computer Graphics production, which also serve the requirements of Toei Animation Co., Ltd.
Philippine Animation Studio Inc.
Philippine Animation Studio Inc. (PASI) is an animation studio established in 1991. It has worked with at least 700 half-hour shows in its library and has worked with several clients such as Nelvana, KKC&D and Warner Bros. Inc. PASI is known for being a producer of traditional 2D animation and Adobe Flash. It is one of the oldest known studios to have specialized in the latter.[12]
ASI Studios
ASI Studios is a Manila-based studio and provides full animation services. The studio is known for having animated the popular television series "George of the Jungle," among other renowned TV series. The studio was brought forth from a collaboration between Manila-based Synergy88 and Singapore's August Media Holdings. It is situated in Quezon City, Metro Manila.[13]
The studio boasts 130 specialized artists and technicians accompanied by experience in 2D, Traditional Cut Out, and Paperless Animation. ASI works primarily on long format 2D animation. A majority of the studio's projects involve work scopes that concern scene layouts, composited animations, storyboards, and designs.
Top Draw Animation
Top Draw Animation is a Manila-based studio established in 1999 by Wayne Dearing. They provide a full range of pre-production and production services. Their pre-production services include story boards, location design, model and prop design, background color and color styling. For production, they offer Flash animation and Toon Boom Harmony.
The company has worked with several clients such as DHX Media, SLR Production and Brain Power Studio.[14]
World Anime Networks
World Anime Networks, Inc. (WAN) is a Japanese Animation Studio founded by Ryoji Kawaguchi. WAN Philippine branch was established in Baguio City on October 26, 2017, and, though working on titles with other companies, is mostly doing work for the Japanese animation studio Feel.
Outsourcing services
In previous years, cartoons were primarily developed and produced in the United States. Recently, approximately 90 percent of animations are created in Asia,[15] including India, China and Taiwan, North and South Korea, Singapore and the Philippines.[6][16] The current trend is that American animation companies are setting up more animation studios in the Philippines.[15] Many animated cartoons are currently created and subcontracted[1] in studios of Disney, Marvel, Warner Bros., Hanna-Barbera, Cartoon Network[6] and Universal Studios[17] in the Philippines.[15] An example is the Filipino company called Fil-Cartoons, a subsidiary of Hanna Barbera and Turner Broadcasting. Reasons for choosing the Philippines by such American animation producers include the influence of Western humor, nuances,[6] and culture to Filipinos, the existence of talented Filipino artists, an established local animation industry, the emergence of the business process outsourcing industry in the country, and cheaper production costs.[6] Compared with India where outsource studios are supported by India's profitable software industry the Philippines are ahead in 2D animation due to their close ties to the Western mindset.[18] Producing animated cartoons is also cheaper than in other Asian countries.[15] An example of an American comic book superhero for Marvel Comics drawn by a Filipino is Wolverine.[2] The trend in the industry is paving the way for making the Philippines as the world's “cartoon capital”.[15] Filipino cartoonists are also known illustrators of Japanese-style cartoons called anime[19] and manga.[1][2] Analyses of the economy of the Philippines state that its services is what the country is best at. Reasons given include the country's English-language competence, competitively priced labor for a range of middle-level technical skills, familiarity with American cultural norms, and widespread international employment experience.[20] Filipino artists have the capacity to draw 24-30 drawings a day, which equates to 2–3 seconds of animation.
The animation industry began in the early 1950s to promote products through animation. Some examples of popular cartoonists are Jerry Navarro, Larry Alcala, Vicente Penetrante and Jose Zabala Santos.[21] During the Marcos period back in the 1960s, animation become one of the regime's tools for propaganda for patriotism. In 1979, The Adventures of Lam-Ang was produced, which was a 6-minute animated feature that was based on the folklore of the same name.[22]
The Philippines Department of Trade and Industry has ranked animation among the five priority industries for promotion under the IT-service sector roadmap. The DTI led a five-company delegation to the 2002 International Animated Film Market in Annecy, France, the world's largest show, and promoted Philippine animation companies in the 19th International Film and Program Market for TV, Video, Cable and Satellite in Cannes, France. In February 2003, animation companies attended the local “e-Services Philippines: IT Outsourcing Conference and Exhibition”. On this occasion DTI and the Animation Council of the Philippines also launched an annual amateur competition – Animazing Shorts – with assistance from Intel Philippines and the local distributor of the Maya animation Software.[22]
Foreign ownership or leadership is considerable, and has provided Philippines-based studios with the contacts, credibility (to foreign buyers, including both production studios and TV chains), finance, and production and creative expertise. The major studios include:
Toei Animation is the Japanese company that hasdecided to entrust 60 percent of its total animation work to its Philippine subsidiary.
Top Peg Animation and Creative Studio Inc., a 100-percent Philippine-owned company
Top Draw, which is a recent entrant that is highly regarded and which does international work.
Philippines Animation Studios (PASI), which is funded by a listed Malaysian company, and which has a strong core team of animators.
Holy Cow! Animation, a studio specializing in 3D (three-dimensional) digital animation.
Along with these, there are numerous other smaller companies.[22]
In recent years, some of the major studios that had been captive to or owned by larger foreign studios have now branched out to seek work on their own worldwide through their networks.[22]
Animation Council of the Philippines
The Animation Council of the Philippines, Inc. is the industry association and serves as the primary overseer and coordinator for Filipino animators. The council is a part of a bigger umbrella association coordinated by the Information Technology and Business Process Association of the Philippines. (IBPAP)[6]
Filipino animation festival
Fiesta Karera, a 6-minute 3D animation entry of DLS-College of St. Benilde that won the 1st Philippine Animation Competition
The First Philippine animation festival was held in Pasay as an additional program of the 7th Philippine Graphic Expo of 2002 which featured 3D animation entries from De La Salle–College of Saint Benilde, University of the Philippines Diliman and Philippine Women's University via Artfarm and Animasia. It was College of St. Benilde's entry, Fiesta Karera that won the festival which was authored by Ervin Malicdem, Dante Tiongson, Mark Ylagan, Jonathan Wongkee, Jefferson Lim, Vincent Cheng, Gerard Cruzado, Justin Teh, and Ace Gatdula.[23]
Animahenasyon, a Filipinized contraction of animation and imagination, is a Philippine animation festival established by the Animation Council of the Philippines. Its purpose is to recognize Filipino animators and their original works.[1]
Editorial cartoons
In Davao, a Filipino Englishteacher named Leonila Liberato incorporated editorial cartoons, such as those from the Philippine Daily Inquirer, in her lesson plans for critical reading classes, resulting in her winning the Inquirer's Education (IIE) Lesson Plan Contest. Liberato's purpose was to acquaint Filipino students with current events and issues happening in the Philippines, and to promote a “higher order of thinking”, through editorial cartoons.[24]
Filmography
Over the years, majority of Filipino-made animated films and series are largely outsourced by companies in the United States and Japan. Only a few animated films and series are actually made specifically for Filipino audiences. A few of them have been released for film festivals competitions. In the past 2-3 years, the Filipino animation industry slowly began to create animations directed to Filipino audiences, such as Trese, although the number of films and series produced is still small compared to those produced by Japan, China, South Korea, and the United States.
Avid Liongoren is a Filipino filmmaker, animator, and illustrator for both animated and live-action productions, notably he founded an animation production company Rocketsheep Studios. His works are developed mostly for television commercials and music videos in 2000s, and began to rose local popularity of his works developed only animated features aimed for adult audiences in the mid-2010s and 2020s.[26]
In 2016, Liongoren's first feature film debut was live-action animated hybrid film Saving Sally, was first introduced in mid-2000s after the concept by Charlene Sawit in 2000, originally titled Monster Town as a short story. It began in early-2000s and took twelve years to develop the film before was released in Philippine cinemas on Christmas Day as an official submission at the 2016 Metro Manila Film Festival,[27][28] which received both commercial success and positive reviews from critics in the Philippines.
In 2020, Liongoren's second film, Hayop Ka!, concepted after Saving Sally and took three years to produce, describe it as "light and comical", aim for adults due to use of amount of profanity and sexual content like the previous film did.[29][30] The film starring Angelica Panganiban, Robin Padilla, and Sam Milby. The film was distributed by Netflix to positive reviews and garnered seven nominations at the 44th Gawad Urian Awards including Best Film and Best Director, winning Best Animation,[31] as well as six nominations at the 60th FAMAS Awards including Best Film and Best Director, winning Best Screenplay.[32] It was nominated as an official selection for main competition at the 2021 Annecy International Animated Film Festival, became the first Filipino animated feature film to do so, although it lost to Academy Award-nominee Flee.[33]
In 2021, it was announced two animated projects based on other works; Zsazsa Zaturnnah Vs The Amazonistas Of Planet X, an adult animated superhero film based on a komik Zsazsa Zaturnnah by Carlo Vergara, where did it posted at Facebook,[34] after originally pitched as a television series nor another live-action film but agreed to produce as an animated film with Vergara as a screenplay.[35]Light Lost, a fantasy adventure based on the graphic novel of the same name by Rob Cham.[36]
At the same year, he announced after the first film success that the sequel titled Hayop Ka Din!, is now in the works with Empoy Marquez reprises his role as Jerry the Frog.[37]
Carl Joseph Papa
Controversy
There is still an issue regarding the majority of Filipino animation studios who continue to outsource their talents to foreign film makers for non-Filipino audiences due to finances. Some Filipino studios and their talents have also been abused by big 'greedy' foreign animation studios.[38][39][40][41]
Wang Film Productions Co., Ltd. is one of the oldest and most prolific Taiwanese-American animation studios since 1978. The company, based in Xindian, Taipei and Los Angeles, California, has done traditional hand-drawn 2D animation/ink and paint for various TV shows and films for studios across North America, Europe and Asia-Pacific.
Knowledge process outsourcing (KPO) describes the outsourcing of core information-related business activities which are competitively important or form an integral part of a company's value chain. KPO requires advanced analytical and technical skills as well as a high degree of specialist expertise.
The Cinema of the Philippines began with the introduction of the first moving pictures to the country on August 31, 1897, at the Salón de Pertierra in Manila. The following year, local scenes were shot on film for the first time by a Spaniard, Antonio Ramos, using the Lumiere Cinematograph. While most early filmmakers and producers in the country were mostly wealthy enterprising foreigners and expatriates, on September 12, 1919, Dalagang Bukid , a movie based on a popular musical play, was the first movie made and shown by Filipino filmmaker José Nepomuceno. Dubbed as the "Father of Philippine Cinema," his work marked the start of cinema as an art form in the Philippines.
Zsazsa Zaturnnah is a fictional comic book superheroine created by Filipino illustrator and graphic designer Carlo Vergara. The character first appeared in the Filipino graphic novel, Ang Kagila-gilalas na Pakikipagsapalaran ni Zsazsa Zaturnnah, originally a self-published work in December 2002 consisting of two parts. It was later distributed and merged in a single volume by Visprint Inc.. The graphic novel won a National Book Award in 2003 given by the Manila Critics Circle. It was the 12th bestselling fiction book among Philippine publications in 2005 based on the records of National Book Store.
Lauro "Larry" Zarate Alcala was a well-known editorial cartoonist and illustrator in the Philippines. In 2018, he was posthumously conferred the National Artist for Visual Arts title and the Grand Collar of the Order of National Artists.
Anime-influenced animation or Animesque is a type of non-Japanese works of animation that are similar to or inspired by anime that is not made in Japan. Generally, the term anime refers to a style of animation originating from Japan. As Japanese anime became increasingly popular, Western animation studios began implementing some visual stylizations typical in anime—such as exaggerated facial expressions and "super deformed" versions of characters.
Comics have been popular throughout the Philippines from the 1920s to the present. Komiks were partially inspired by American mainstream comic strips and comic books during the early 20th century. The medium first became widely popular after World War II. Its mainstream appeal subsided somewhat during the latter part of the 20th century with the advent of other mass-media forms such as telenovelas, but experienced a renaissance in the mid-2010s with the increasing popularity of artists such as Gerry Alanguilan, Arnold Arre, Budjette Tan, Kajo Baldisimo, and the rise of fan communities through comic book conventions such as komikon. Webcomics produced by independent Filipino web-based artists have caught the attention of local and foreign readers.
Clem Arnold Lawrence Arre is a Filipino comic book writer, artist and self-taught animator best known for his graphic novels The Mythology Class (1999) and Ang Mundo ni Andong Agimat (2006). He was born in Metro Manila, Philippines.
Outsourcing of animation has become widespread. Starting in the late 1950s, the animation for many low-budget American animated productions has been done by animation studios in foreign countries such as Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Canada, Mexico, Australia, the Philippines, and India. This is done to lower the cost of animation production.
Armand Serrano Armand is a Filipino American visual development artist who is known for his works in animated feature film studios such as Walt Disney Animation Studios, Marvel Studios, Sony Pictures Animation, and Skydance Animation. He has been in the animation industry for more than three decades. Armand is currently working as a production designer and art director. He is also known as a lecturer in the field of animation and design and conducts workshops and demos internationally.
José Zabala-Santos, nicknamed as "Mang Pepe" by hometown neighbors and as "Zabala" by colleagues in the cartooning profession, was a successful cartoonist in the Philippines and was one of the pioneers of Philippine comics. He became one of the most popular cartoonists in the Philippines during the 1950s because of his cartoon characters such Popoy, Sianong Sano, and Lukas Malakas. Zabala is one of the "respected names" of artists in the Philippine cartoon and comics industry.
Antonio "Tony" Velasquez is a Filipino illustrator regarded as the Father of Tagalog comics and as the pioneer and founding father of the Philippine comics industry. He was the creator of Kenkoy, an “iconic Philippine comic strip character”.
Francisco "Kenkoy" Harabas is a Philippine comics character created by writer Romualdo Ramos and cartoonist and illustrator Tony Velasquez in 1929. Velazquez continued the strip for decades after Ramos' death in 1932. Kenkoy was seminal to Philippine comics and thus Velasquez is considered the founding father of the komiks industry. The term kenkoy has entered the Filipino language to mean a joker, jester, or a hilarious person.
AsiaPOP Comic Convention, also known as AsiaPOP Comicon, or simply APCC, is an annual comic book fan convention held in Metro Manila, Philippines. APCC features international brands in the fields of comics, toys, animation, film, television and music within the pop culture phenomena. The convention has since included a larger range of pop culture and entertainment elements across virtually all genres, such as video games, books and sports. APCC is the largest pop culture convention in the Philippines and South East Asia, and one of the largest in Asia.
Hayop Ka!, also known as Hayop Ka! , Hayop Ka! The Nimfa Dimaano Story, and You Animal!, is a 2020 Philippine adult animated romantic comedy film directed by Avid Liongoren. It features a voice cast topbilled by Angelica Panganiban, Robin Padilla, and Sam Milby. Panganiban voices Nimfa, an anthropomorphic feline who works as a perfume salesperson and whose boyfriend, a mongrel named Roger (Padilla), is employed as a janitor. When Nimfa meets Iñigo (Milby), a wealthy dog with a career as a high-profile entrepreneur, she finds herself in the middle of a love triangle.
Trese is an anime-influenced television series based on the Filipino comic series of the same name by Budjette Tan and Kajo Baldisimo. Produced by BASE Entertainment, the series was released on June 10, 2021 on Netflix in the United States, which was followed by a global release the next day.
Heneral Tuna is a 2021 Philippine animated web miniseries directed by Avid Liongoren under Rocketsheep Studio.
The 1982 animators' strike was a labor strike conducted by American animators in the Greater Los Angeles area. The strike, organized by the Motion Picture Screen Cartoonists Local 839, was caused by disagreements between the labor union and studios over runaway productions, a term referring to outsourcing production work to outside of the metropolitan area. The strike ran from August to October and ended in failure for the union, who failed to win concessions from the studios.
Adarna: The Mythical Bird is a 1997 Filipino animated musical fantasy film directed by Geirry A. Garccia. Based on the 19th century corrido commonly titled Ibong Adarna, it is the first full-length theatrical animated film produced in the Philippines. The animation took two years to finish, with producer Rose L. Flaminiano of FLT Films purchasing the rights to the film when it was nearing completion, upon which a new nine-minute scene was added. The film was released on December 25, 1997, as part of the Metro Manila Film Festival, where it won a special citation award for its pioneering achievement in Philippine animation.
1 2 3 4 5 Garcia, Leonardo R., and Carmelita B. Masigan. "An in-depth Study on the Animation Industry in the Philippines." Center for Business and Economics Research and Development De La Salle University, August 17, 2001.
1 2 Castillo, P. J. (2012), "Developing AEC into a Global Service Hub: The Case of the Creative Industries in the Philippines" in Tullao, T. S. and H. H. Lim (eds.), Developing ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) into a Global Services Hub, ERIA Research Project Report 2011-1, Jakarta: ERIA, pp.271-338.
↑ Yoon, Hyejin, M.A. "The Animation Industry: Technological Changes, Production Challenge, and Global Shifts." The Ohio State University, 2008.
↑ Lachica, Joy L. "Industry Profile: Animation." Board of Investments.
↑ Baliscan, Arturo and Hal Hill (2003). "Introduction", in idem (eds.), The Philippine Economy, Oxford University Press. ISBN9780195158984
↑ Garcia, Leonardo and Carmelita Masigan (2001). “An in-depth study on the animation industry in the Philippines”, mimeo, Center for Business and Economics Research and Development, De La Salle University.
1 2 3 4 Feichin, Ted Tschang, and Andrea Goldstein. "Production and Political Economy in the Animation Industry: Why Insourcing and Outsourcing Occur." DRUID Summer Conference 2004, 2004.
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