Furiiru people

Last updated
Fuliru people
Fuliiru Grandmother and her Daughter, Lemera, Sud-Kivu.jpg
Fuliru grandmother and her granddaughter, Lemera, Bafuliiru Chiefdom, Uvira Territory, South Kivu
Total population
615,000 [1]
Languages
Kifuliiru, Kiswahili, French, and English
Religion
Christianity, Fuliiru Religion, Islam, and Irreligious
Related ethnic groups
Vira, Nyindu, Bashi
PersonMufuliru
PeopleBafuliru
LanguageKifuliru
CountryBufuliru

The Fuliru people (also spelled Fuliiru) are a Bantu ethnic group predominantly inhabiting the east-central highlands of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). [2] [3] [4] They reside in the South Kivu Province, situated south of Lake Kivu and to the north and northwest of Uvira Territory, along the Ruzizi Plain near the border with Rwanda and Burundi, where a contingent of Fuliru also resides. [5] [4] [6] According to the 2009 census, their population estimate exceeded 250,000, [2] while a 1999 estimate of Kifuliru-language speakers placed the number at 300,000. [4] The Fuliru are renowned for their skilled craftsmanship, particularly in the production of pottery and basketry. Their handcrafted baskets are highly coveted for their intricate designs and exceptional quality, and are frequently employed for storage, decoration, and even as musical instruments. [7]

Contents

The Fuliru, like many other communities in the eastern part of the DRC, face ongoing challenges related to access to basic needs such as clean water, healthcare, and education. Parenthetically, they face issues related to land disputes, political marginalization, and human rights abuses. The Fuliru women and girls are particularly vulnerable to sexual and gender-based violence amplified by the region's persistent armed conflicts, which have resulted in the prevalence of a pervasive culture of impunity. [8] [9] [10] [11]

Bafuliiru Chiefdom

At the onset of Belgian colonization, the establishment of chieftaincies was the primary method of governance, reflecting the decentralized nature of the colonial policy. These chieftaincies were established with due respect to the customs and traditions of each area, particularly based on three principal criteria defined and established by the Belgian colonial administration as essential conditions for the establishment of any chieftaincy. This was done to prevent lawlessness and to avoid violating the ancestral realities that had existed for millennia. Belgian colonial administration's criteria for establishing chieftaincies varied based on the region and the ethnic group in question. The establishment of chieftaincies was often accompanied by the appointment of a local chief (chefs de groupement) or a traditional ruler who was then tasked with maintaining law and order in the area, as well as ensuring the well-being of the local population. However, the establishment of chieftains was controversial, particularly in areas where multiple ethnic groups co-exist. There were instances where the colonial administration had to navigate complex power dynamics and determine which ethnic group or faction should hold the position of chief. This led to tensions between different ethnic groups and, in some cases, even armed conflict. Each ethnic group, however small, was assigned a chiefdom or a sector, if not, a grouping (groupement). The administrative territories were thus constituted within the limits of the chiefdom. The aim was to regroup "ethnic units" in their own geographical entities, but this led to such fragmentation that Orientale Province, which included the present-day Haut-Congo Province and the former Kivu, comprised up to 2,500 chiefdoms and groups. This approach by the Belgian colonial administration was based on the principle of indirect rule, which aimed to maintain control over the local population through traditional rulers. This system was viewed as a means of preserving the existing social and political structures of the colonized societies while ensuring their loyalty to the colonial authorities. However, this approach had some negative consequences. The proliferation of chiefdoms and groups created administrative difficulties for the colonial administration, making it challenging to maintain control over such a vast and diverse territory. Additionally, the creation of numerous chiefdoms and groups resulted in the fragmentation of ethnic groups, further exacerbating existing inter-ethnic tensions and conflicts. [12] [13] [14]

Fuliru traditional masks, November 2019 Bafuliiru mask.jpg
Fuliru traditional masks, November 2019

The Bembe and Buyu were both grouped in the Fizi Territory, which was further subdivided into five sectors, including Itombwe, Lulenge, Mutambala, Ndandja, and Tangani'a. Conversely, the Bafuliru Chiefdom borders Rwanda and Burundi through the Ruzizi Plain in the Uvira Territory. The sandy soil of the plain is suitable for growing crops such as groundnuts and cotton, with Luvungi, Lubarika, and Luberizi being particularly noteworthy areas for such cultivation. The Fuliru collectivity is situated in two distinct types of plateaus: the Middle Plateau and the High Plateau. The Middle Plateau spans between Luvungi and Mulenge, with the altitude gradually increasing from 100 m to 1800 meters. This plateau comprises several groupements and villages, including Namutiri, Ndolera, Bulaga, Langala, Bushokw, Bushuju, Butole, Lemera, Bwesho, Katala, Mulenge, and others. It is also a favorable environment for growing cassava, coffee, banana, beans and maize. The High Plateau, on the other hand, form a watershed between the tributaries of the Ulindi and the Elila rivers, as well as the torrents that flow into the Ruzizi River and Lake Tanganyika. The High Plateaus are characterized by a rugged landscape with steep slopes and elevations ranging from 1800 to 2700 meters. The main villages located on the High Plateaus include Kagongo, Kishusha, Mulobela, and Kashekezi. These villages are known for their cool climate and are suitable for the cultivation of crops such as Irish potatoes and beans. This plateau is mostly used for grazing cattle and is less populated compared to the Middle Plateau. [15] [16]

Bafuliiru groupements (groupings)

Bafuliru Chiefdom is subdivided in groupements (groupings) governed by customary chiefs (chefs de groupement) who are appointed by the paramount chief. Groupements are subdivided in localités (villages) which are also ruled by customary chiefs. Bafuliru Chiefdom is composed of five groupements: Runingu, Itara-Luvungi, Lemera, Muhungu and Kigoma. [17]

The Muhungu groupement consists of the following villages:

  • Kabondola
  • Kagunga
  • Kaholwa
  • Kalemba
  • Kasheke
  • Kaluzi
  • Kazimwe
  • Kibumbu
  • Kasanga
  • Kihanda
  • Mukololo
  • Lugwaja
  • Masango
  • Muzinda
  • Muhungu
  • Namukanga
  • Kiriba
  • Butaho
  • Kahwizi

The Kigoma groupement consists of the following villages:

  • Bibangwa
  • Bikenge
  • Kukanga
  • Bushajaga
  • Kahungwe
  • Butumba
  • Kabere
  • Karava
  • Kalengera
  • Kahololo
  • Kalimba
  • Karaguza
  • Kahungwe
  • Kasheke
  • Kiryama
  • Kanga
  • Kashagala
  • Kasenya
  • Kishugwe
  • Kigoma
  • Lubembe
  • Kihinga
  • Mangwa
  • Miduga
  • Kitembe
  • Mibere
  • Kitija
  • Muhanga
  • Kabamba
  • Mulenge
  • Kaduma
  • Mushojo
  • Masango
  • Kitoga
  • Mashuba
  • Mulama
  • Kagaragara
  • Ndegu,
  • Rurambira
  • Rugeje
  • Rubuga
  • Rusako
  • Sogoti
  • Taba
  • Sange
  • Kabunambo

The Runingu groupement consists of the following villages:

  • Katembo
  • Kashatu
  • Ruhito
  • Ruhuha
  • Namuziba
  • Kasambura
  • Katwenge
  • Bulindwe
  • Narumoka
  • Kalindwe

The Itara-Luvungi groupement consists of the following villages:

The Lemera groupement consists of the following villages:

  • Kiringye
  • Kidote
  • Langala
  • Bwesho
  • Mahungu or Mahungubwe
  • Narunanga
  • Namutiri
  • Lungutu
  • Kahanda
  • Kigurwe
  • Ndunda

Clans

Bafuliru women Women from the Bafuliru community in Uvira (2).jpg
Bafuliru women

Alternatively, Bafuliru are not a homogeneous people; it is an amalgamation of people with diverse backgrounds, a kind of multicultural state, each with distinct origins. To be considered Mufuliru one must be born into one of the thirty-seven progenitor families (clans) of the ethnic group.

The Fuliru people are made up of about 37 clans: [18]

History

Origin

The origin of the Fuliru people, like that of many ethnic groups in the Great Lakes region of Africa, is complex and multifaceted, shaped by migration, colonization, and conflict. The Fuliru are believed to have originated from the Bantu-speaking people who migrated from West-Central Africa as part of the Bantu migration to Central, Eastern and Southern Africa. Most, however, are descended from Bantu groups that had settled in Southeast Africa after the initial expansion from Nigeria/Cameroon and settled in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in the 16th century. By the mid-1700s, the Bafuliru people had established a significant presence in the region surrounding Lake Tanganyika, specifically in the mountainous hinterland of South Kivu along the Ulindi River. [19] [20]

Mwami Nyamugira Mukogabwe II of Bafuliru Chiefdom in Lemera, Belgian Congo, circa 1925 Mwami Nyamugira Mukogabwe II of Bafuliiru Chiefdom, 1925, Congo Belge.jpg
Mwami Nyamugira Mukogabwe II of Bafuliru Chiefdom in Lemera, Belgian Congo, circa 1925

The Fuliru have a unique history as one of the only highland Bantu groups to have formed a single, relatively small state that was highly centralized. [21] [22] According to oral tradition, the epicenter of the Fuliru people's migratory dispersion in the middle Lwalaba Basin is located at the mouth of the Ulindi River. The Mushi historian Bishikwabo Chubaka has chronicled that after migrating from from Lwindi near the Ulindi River in the mountainous hinterlands, the Fuliru eventually settled in the region now known as Uvira. [20]

Eponym and controversies on chiefdom

The origins of the Bafuliru Chiefdom, prior to its formal establishment as an administrative chiefdom of Uvira Territory in 1928 under Belgian colonial rule, are complex and subject to historical interpretation. Various hypotheses and conjectures have been proposed to explain its emergence.

According to Alfred Moeller de Laddersous, a colonial administrator who extensively studied the Bantu communities in eastern Belgian Congo, noted that the Bahamba clan migrated from the direction of Lwindi, led by Chief Kikanwe, to their present territory, which they found uninhabited. [23] Moeller de Laddersous describes the Bahamba as the region's earliest settlers, in an area known as "Bufulero". [23] Over time, the Bahamba dynasty changes their eponym from Bahamba (Wahamba) to Bafuliru as a badge of their new identity. [23] Congolese historian Jacques Depelchin traces the clan's origins to Mwami Kahamba Kalingishi, [24] believed to have arrived in the 16th century, per Belgian colonial records, [25] or the 17th century, as argued by historians Kingwengwe Mupe and Bosco Muchukiwa Rukakiza. [26] [27]

Other accounts suggest that the Bafuliru and the neighboring Vira people migrated from the northeast, crossing Lwindi and settling in the area. [28] According to the scholar Cuypers, this migration could have included a prolonged detour through Maniema rather than a direct movement. [29] Led by an ancestral figure named Nalwindi, the group split into two: the Bafuliru, under Kahamba Kalingishi, settled around the highlands of Lemera, while the Vira, led by Kirungu, established themselves on Munanira's peak, eventually spreading to the valley lowlands and the present-day Uvira Territory. [28] Depelchin also observes that both "Buvira" (today's Bavira Chiefdom) and "Bufuliro" (Bafuliru Chiefdom) had multiple bami (a term equivalent to "mwami" among many eastern Congolese Bantu groups). [24] He firmly states that this part of the country (encompassing Bavira and Bafuliru chiefdoms) has never had one paramount chief, as the Bafuliru retained their own independent paramount chief. [24] By 1907, colonial surveys delineated the Bafuliru's ethnic boundaries, which stretched along Lake Tanganyika and the Ruzizi Plain from Moira to the Luvivi River, encompassing territories that sometimes overlapped with Bavira lands. [28]

Uvira fortress entrance, Belgian Congo, 1910s Uvira fort.jpg
Uvira fortress entrance, Belgian Congo, 1910s

Bosco Muchukiwa Rukakiza points out that Chief Luhama—a central figure in Bafuliru history and founder of the Bahamba dynasty—consolidated power by dividing his domain among his three sons to foster stability and manage local demands for autonomy. [30] Luhama's strategic division granted his eldest son, Nyamugira, to control the land from Moira to the Munyovwe River; his second son, Mutahonga, received areas from the Munyovwe to the Kise River and the eastern slopes of the Ruzizi Valley; and his third son, Lusagara, managed the mountainous regions. [28] This arrangement retained centralized control through family ties, with power transferring from father to eldest son. Eventually, some members of the Bafuliru's Balunga clan joined the Bavira, forming a unique group that did not adopt the Bafuliru's original leadership structures. [28] Among other prominent clans, the Bazige (or Bazeke), who were given land by Chief Muluta to their leader Ngabwe, either overcame or were assimilated into the Bafuliru Chiefdom. [28] Oral history suggests the Bazige had an autonomous chiefdom in the present-day Muhungu groupement, which they governed under Kalunga, son of Mukobesi, before being conquered and subjugated by Mahina Mukogabwe (often referred to as Nyamugira Mukogabwe II), a Fuliru chief. [28] This union merged two distinct groups, with Kalunga's lineage recognized to preserve social cohesion, mutual trust, and integration within the Bafuliru. Over time, the Bazige adopted the Kifuliiru language, strengthened by intermarriage and economic exchanges, and ultimately accepted Mukogabwe as their Mwami. [28]

The formal establishment of the Bafuliru Chiefdom came on 18 August 1928, when it was recognized by the colonial authorities. [31] [32] [33] Kingwengwe Mupe, a Fuliru historian, notes that Chief Matakambo, identified as the son of Mahina Mukogabwe, grandson of Nyamugira I—the first Bahamba leader—received his official appointment on 19 March 1933. [26] Later, on 4 March 1940, Nyamugira, another of Mahina's descendants, was also made chief, consolidating Bahamba leadership over the chiefdom. [26] There is some inconsistency in historical accounts, while some sources uphold the claim that the Bahamba clan played an instrumental role in founding the chiefdom, other narratives indicate that they supplanted the Balemera clan to establish their hegemony and royal lineage in the Bafuliru Chiefdom. [26] [34] Kingwengwe Mupe argues that the Bahamba clan drove out (and possibly dethroned) the Balemera clan to occupy Uvira Territory. According to Mupe's account, the Balemera clan can be traced back as the indigenous people who first inhabited the region. It is believed that the Bafuliru Chiefdom, which had its stronghold in Lemera, was the very heartland of their ancestral domain. [34] [26]

Barundi and Banyarwanda migration to Bafuliiru territories

Barundi

In the late 1800s, various groups established themselves in Bafuliru's lands in search of more arable soil. Led by Chief Ngabwe, the Barundi arrived from Burundi and assertively requested land from the Bavira, which they acquired between the Kiliba and Kawezi Rivers in exchange for ivory. As the tides of colonialism encroached across the region, it sparked wars of expansion on both sides. The Mwami of the Bafuliiru tenaciously claimed jurisdiction over certain villages in the Ruzizi Plain, while the Mwami of the Plain sought to establish his own authority. In the absence of a resolution, both chiefdoms resorted to warfare to vie for dominance. [35] [36]

After Chief Ngabwe consolidated his authority, Chief Kinyoni, a sub-chief under Burundian King Mwezi Gisabo from the Banyakarama Dynasty, established his own presence along the Ruzizi River's right bank. With swift prowess, he conquered southern villages like Kigoma, Mulenge, Kihanga, and Kalengera, expanding his dominion. He then launched a northward offensive, seizing Kiringye, Kabwiba, and Kigwena, nearly half of the Bafuliru Chiefdom. [37] [35] [38] Facing significant territorial setbacks, the Bafuliru Chiefdom rebuffed to capitulate and shoved forward to defend Bwesho. Led by the renowned leader Katangaza—a respected and influential figure from Bwesho—they rallied their forces and readied themselves to face the ineluctable advance of Chief Kinyoni and his dexterous warrior, Rubisha. Following their advent in Bwesho, Rubisha and his army encountered fierce resistance from Bafuliru's army, resulting in Kinyoni being callously wounded and succumbed to a spear attack, including his son Rubwatara. His troops were subsequently expelled from every village they had captured. However, Kinyoni's troops managed to retreat to Luvungi, where they received support from Belgian colonists, who provided them with much-needed resources and supplies. This assistance allowed Kinyoni's troops to regroup and prepare for another attempt to conquer the Bafuliru Chiefdom under the guidance of Katangaza. Despite the setback, the Bafuliiru troops pursued the retreating army and eventually expelled them from Kiringye. [39] [40] [35]

Banyarwanda

During the period of European penetration, the Banyarwanda, now commonly referred to as "Banyamulenge", emerged as a significant group in the region. [41] The term "Banyarwanda" includes Hutus, Tutsis, and Twa people from Rwanda, who share the same common language and cultural heritage. In traditional Rwandan society, a feudal system existed in which Hutus were expected to leave their land available for Tutsis to graze their cows. This arrangement was enforced through a system of clientelism, where Tutsis loaned their cows to Hutus, who in turn were required to lend their land. Wealth was measured by the number of cows one possessed, and the richest Tutsis had the largest herds. At the top of this social hierarchy was the king, known as the " Mwami ", who was believed to possess divine powers and symbolized national unity. The king surrounded himself with Tutsi warlords and Hutu advisers who oversaw the distribution of land. Over time, the Tutsis established a system of serfdom that further marginalized the Hutu people. The Belgian colonial administration formalized and solidified this social system, ultimately leading to its being perceived as an ethnic divide between Hutus and Tutsis. [42] [43]

Between 1935 and 1955, the colonial power of Belgium in the Belgian Congo, which had guardianship over Ruanda-Urundi, officially encouraged and facilitated the immigration of Rwandans to Kivu. The Rwandans who migrated to Itombwe and Uvira during this time were predominantly Tutsis, and were favored by Belgian colonists due to their perceived superiority over the Hutus. [44] [45]

Unusually in contacts with the Tutsi pastoralists from Banyarwanda group, the Fuliru were neither conquered nor assimilated by them, but instead engaged in trade and occasional cattle raiding, leading to a deep and long-lasting social interaction that particularly impacted the Fuliru people. The Banyarwanda later acquired Mulenge and Upper Sange from the Bafuliru, and many of them settled in remote areas, including Kalamba, the Ruzizi Plain, and the Mulenge hills, before spreading to other parts of southern Kivu. The Belgian colonial administration, through the Mission d'immigration des Banyarwanda (MIB), facilitated the immigration of Rwandans to other parts of the Belgian Congo. Between 10,000 of Rwandan families were established in various regions of Belgian Congo, including the current Masisi Territory, the Bwito Chiefdom in the Rutshuru Territory, the Buzi-Ziralo grouping (groupement) in the Kalehe Territory, and Moba in Katanga. Other eastern regions such as Baraka and Marungu were also prepared to welcome the immigrants. This immigration policy was officially supported by the Belgian colonial government, which aimed to promote economic development and expand its control over the region. However, the influx of Rwandans led to tensions and conflicts with the local population, contributing to the ongoing ethnic tensions in the region. [46] [47] [48] [49]

Mining by the Union Miniere du Haut Katanga, 1922 S.A. mining and engineering journal (1891) (14592056547).jpg
Mining by the Union Minière du Haut Katanga, 1922

Another factor that fostered this immigration of Rwandans was the recruitment of labor. Between the 1920s and 1950s, the colonial authorities in Belgian Congo actively recruited labor for large mining companies such as the Union Minière du Haut-Katanga and Kivu, particularly in Kalima and Kamituga. Many of these workers were Rwandan and were hired under contract, but they did not renounce their nationality or property, which remained in Rwanda. This immigration of Rwandans was also facilitated by the establishment of a chiefdom for the Banyarwanda after the arrival of numerous laborers brought by missionaries from neighboring Rwanda. [50] [51] [52]

Monsignor Faustin Ngabu, who was the president of the Episcopate of Congo and the bishop of the Diocese of Goma, acknowledged this historical event in his Easter pastoral letter of 11 April 1998 (French: Lettre Pastorale du 11 avril 1998).

In the letter, he stated: [53]

"With us, the main tribes or socio-political communities are called, I quote in alphabetical order: Bahavu, Bahunde, Banande, Banyanga, Barega, Bashi, Batembo. The Banyarwanda (Hutus and Tutsis), at least those who were, those who no longer want this title and those who still identify with this term, will want to understand that, in their case, the notion of "tribe" that they give themselves when they declare themselves Hutu and Tutsi cannot be understood in the same sense as that of the other communities mentioned above. Indeed, unlike that of the Hutus and Tutsis, the Havu, Hunde, Nande, Nyanga and Tembo communities each have their "Mwami" and their "Balu" or "Vakama", who are respectively their heads of state and leading executives in the precolonial context. These communities have their traditional values which are based on their languages, their territories, their customs and their own family, matrimonial, cultural, economic, political and religious organizations. For the case of Hutus and Tutsis, after 23 years already spent in this diocese, I am not able to say the same; how does each of these two Hutu and Tutsi groups constitute a tribe? It is up to them to understand it and convince others of it."

The marginalization of Fuliiru communities

Since the 1960s, the cohabitation between the Banyarwanda and their Congolese neighbors has been plagued by problems, resulting in serious social tensions and violence. The escalation of these tensions and violence has led to lethal conflict of a social, cultural, economic, and security nature. Human rights organizations estimate that as of May 1996, the total number of deaths from the conflict stands around 70,000. [54]

The tension within Bafuliru communities originates from the circumstance where Rwandan refugees, placed by the Belgian colonial administration and the United Nations in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, failed to uphold their designated status upon their arrival. Instead, they profess to be a newly established ethnic group known as "Banyamulenge" (literally 'those who live in Mulenge') through an entirely fabricated ethnogenesis. This emerging identity allowed them to lay claim to land and resources in the area, setting off conflicts with Fuliru, who consider Mulenge as their ancestral homeland. [55] Following the nation's independence, the Banyarwanda, both Tutsi and Hutu, striven to establish recognition of their rights as "indigenous", vouching they possessed two "chefferies" (traditional chiefdoms) unrecognized by other ethnic groups. The Tutsi contended that their migration to the Congo Basin coincided with that of their Fuliru, Vira, Bembe, and Lega counterparts, antedating the establishment of the Congo Free State, and consequently, should be entitled to equivalent ethnic rights as other communities. [56] In 1976, Faustin Tabazi Rugama, a Munyamulenge writer, attempted to legitimize the notion of a tribe called "Banyamulenge" that presumably held sway in Mulenge prior to the Berlin Conference. This "historical and scientific" apologia was unlikely intended to equate the "Banyamulenge" pseudo-tribe with the indigenous Congolese ethnic groups. Under the pressure of Gisaro Muhoza, a Rwandan university administrator and revered as the creator of the term "Banyamulenge", Rugama used the term in his thesis. [57] According to René Lemarchand, Banyamulenge constitute a "Rwandan-origin" community that established themselves in the Kivu region and were not known by this name during the colonial period. Using "Banyamulenge" as an ethnic identify, they campaigned for Congolese citizenship along with land possessed by indigenous Fuliru populace. [45] [55]

First and Second Congo Wars

Monument of the Katogota massacre Katogota Memoire.jpg
Monument of the Katogota massacre

In the early stages of the First and Second Congo Wars, a large contingent of Banyamulenge traversed into Bafuliru communities to provide support to the Tutsi members of the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDLC). This influx of Banyamulenge played a pivotal role in enabling the AFDLC to seize control of the region from local chiefs and civilians who were uprooted from their ancestral lands against their will. The conflict was marked by brutal violence against the civilian population. On 6 October 1996, Banyamulenge rebels launched an assault on Lemera, a town situated in the north-western region of the Uvira Territory in South Kivu Province, resulting in the loss of several dozen lives. A total of 37 individuals, including two medical personnel, lost their lives in a hospital massacre. The armed assailants also pillaged the Lemera Hospital, the largest hospital in the region, located approximately 85 kilometers north of Uvira. [58] [59] [60]

In October 1998, a large number of people were brutally killed and displaced in Uvira, including the former Mulenge post chief, Ladislas Matalambu, who met his demise on 1 October 1998, at 7:30 p.m. Additionally, Alexis Deyidedi, the former administrative secretary of the Bafuliiru Chiefdom, was assassinated on 2 October 1998, at 11 p.m. The AFDL troops forced many Bafuliru, Babembe, Warega, and Bavira individuals to flee and take refuge in neighboring countries such as Burundi, Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya, Zambia, and Mozambique. The displacement caused a ripple effect of the humanitarian crisis, with many facing severe challenges, including inadequate food and water supplies, inadequate medical facilities, and substandard living conditions. [61] [62] [63]

On 14 May 2000, the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie (RCD), a rebel group comprising mainly Banyamulenge child soldiers, perpetrated a massacre in the village of Katogota. The victims, numbering 375 in total, were primarily from the Bafuliru community and were brutally murdered in cold blood. Some were mercilessly gunned down, while others suffered the grisly fate of having their throats slashed, and their bodies were thrown into the Ruzizi River to dispose of the evidence. The rebels also set fire to their homes, leaving many others to burn to death. The horrors of the Katogota massacre caused many to flee their homes, including up to 3,500 Congolese, mainly from the Bafuliru and Babembe communities, who sought refuge in Burundi on 10 June 2004, to escape ongoing ethnic persecution. [64] [65] [66] [67]

Ongoing violence

The ongoing violence in the Bafuliru communities has been exacerbated by political instability, resource scarcity, and deep-seated mistrust between the various groups. The situation is further complicated by the involvement of different armed groups, including militias and rebel factions, who compete for control over the region's resources and strategic locations. The proliferation of weapons and the absence of effective governance has allowed these groups to act with impunity, perpetrating horrific acts of violence against civilians and engaging in illicit activities, including the illegal exploitation of mineral resources. The impact of the conflict on the local population has been devastating, with many families displaced from their homes, and their livelihoods destroyed. The absence of adequate humanitarian assistance has only exacerbated the already dire situation, with many facing severe challenges, including food and water insecurity, inadequate medical care, and substandard living conditions. [68] [69] [70] [71]

In June 2014, 35 Fuliru were killed in an attack on the town of Mutarule. The attack was believed to be ethnically motivated. The massacres were carried out mainly by Barundi and Banyamulenge rebel groups in a determined, planned, systematic and methodical manner, and were inspired by ethnic hatred. [72] In January 2019, Twigwaneho and Ngumino, a Banyamulenge rebel groups, reportedly torched homes and property belonging to the Bafuliru in the village of Babengwa. [73]

Between February 2019 and 2020, a large number of Bafuliru were killed and displaced, leading them to the Bijombo camp in the South Kivu Province. Despite efforts to prioritize and act on serious cases in the immediate aftermath of the ethnic violence, there have been few prosecutions and fewer convictions, as well as a near total lack of investigations of those who organized and financed the violence. [74] [75]

Language

Fuliru traditional dance in Sange, 2004 Bafuliiru.jpg
Fuliru traditional dance in Sange, 2004

Kifuliru is a member of the Bantu branch of the Niger-Congo language family. [76] The English linguist Malcolm Guthrie classified it in the D50 subgroup along with Shi, Havu, Vira, Tembo, and Nyindu, placing Kifuliru among the African Great Lakes Bantu languages. [76] Achille Emile Meeussen and linguists at the Royal Museum for Central Africa in Tervuren categorized Kifuliru under J54, describing it as an "interlacustrine" language. [76] The Fuliru are connected to the Vira in a Fuliru-Vira culture cluster. Both ethnic groups are interlacustrine, living between the African Great Lakes. [77] Kifuliru is commonly spoken in the Uvira Territory, with over 275,000 speakers. [76] It is mutually intelligible with several neighboring languages, including Nyindu and Vira, with which it shares 90% lexical similarity, and Shi, with which it has about 70% lexical similarity. [78]

One notable dialect of Kifuliru is Kivuluga, a fusion of Shi and Kifuliru, which is predominantly spoken in the Itara-Luvungi groupement. This dialect emerged due to the region's close linguistic proximity of Shi and Kifuliru speakers. [76]

Economy

Fuliru herdsman in the Mitamba market of Bijombo in the High Plateau, South Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo Fuliiru Herdsman.jpg
Fuliru herdsman in the Mitamba market of Bijombo in the High Plateau, South Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo

The Bafuliru economy is almost exclusively agriculturally based, although they also own and raise cattle for milk and meat; [79] [17] their homelands in the South Kivu Province are some of the most intensively farmed areas of the country. More than 90% of the population makes its livelihood by producing food crops or through industrial work involving the processing of crops. [17] Principal food crops include cassava, corn, rice, plantains, and, to a lesser extent, bananas, beans, and peanuts. [17]

Manioc

According to Bafuliru folklore, cassava originated from Lwindi Chiefdom and was introduced by them during their migration. [17] Today, cassava remains a vital food source for the Bafuliru, particularly for those inhabiting the Ruzizi Plain and the entire Bafuliru Chiefdom. Having a cassava field is regarded as a treasure trove and is highly valued by the community. [17] Besides its roots, cassava leaves are also consumable, and its stems are used for lumber. Cassava's significance goes beyond its dietary value and practical uses. [17] It has a significant role in the governance of the community, serving as a source of tax revenue. Eighty percent of all taxes collected come from cassava alone. [17] This tax collection method enables tax collectors to fill the state treasury at both community and zone levels, which, in turn, supports the local markets of the Bafuliru Chiefdom. [17]

Banana

Advancements in cassava production in Katogota Cassava Production In Katogota.jpg
Advancements in cassava production in Katogota

The banana plant is an adaptable crop that thrives in nearly every region of the Bafuliru Chiefdom. It has a significant role in the chiefdom's customs and traditions, particularly during marriage ceremonies. [17] In Fuliru mythology, it is believed that one cannot engage in any strenuous activities without a banana. [17] Specifically, during a wedding ceremony or after mourning, an individual intending to marry must present a jar of fermented banana and sorghum beverage, referred to as "I mbindi ya mavu yo kudeterakwo" in Kifuliru, meaning "the jar of alcohol that allows you to speak". This jar of banana alcohol must be offered to the attendees; otherwise, the speaker is unable to convey a meaningful message. [17] The beverage is also called Kasigisi. [17] [80] [81] [82] [83]

Additionally, during childbirth, the banana tree is seen as holding ritual significance, as it is believed that the umbilical cords of certain children are buried near banana fields. [17]

Rice

Rice Cultivation In Ruzizi Plain of DR Congo.jpg
Ruzizi Plain, South Kivu Province, DR Congo.jpg
Rice cultivation in the Ruzizi Plain, Uvira Territory

Rice grown in the Bafuliru Chiefdom belongs to the genus Oryza and Ozyresatira species. Its various types include IR5, L9, and IRON 282. It is primarily an income generator rather than a food source at the CEP Kabwe, Kaliri, and at the Community Development Center (Cenre Developpement Communautaire; CDC) base in Kiringye. [17] [84] [85] [86]

Bean

Beans are grown predominantly in the central part of Lemera, covering areas from Rubanga to Mulenge. [87] [88] They are marketed in Bukavu and Uvira, with a large portion exported to nearby countries like Burundi and Rwanda. [17] [89] While beans, alongside rice, are exported, they usually fetch lower prices due to the local population's modest consumption of these foods as dietary staples. [17] Traditionally, a bean dish is served with cassava mbundu . [90] [17]

Corn

A Fuliiru mother carrying a load on her back Fuliiru mother carrying a load on her back In Uvira Territory, South Kivu Province, DR Congo.jpg
A Fuliiru mother carrying a load on her back

Corn is a widely grown crop in the Ruzizi Plain, particularly in the Itara-Luvungi groupement, and in the Hauts Plateaux, where it acts as the primary food source. [17] [91] [92] [93] Although many Bafuliru from the Hauts Plateaux consume corn, some don't favor corn. [17]

Peanut

Peanuts are mainly grown in Luvungi and Lubarika, though they are also present in Lemera and Rubanga. [17] Peanuts are a local treat and are also exported to nearby countries like Rwanda and Burundi. [17] Some are sold in Bukavu. [17]

Coffee

Two species of coffee exist in the Bafuliru Chiefdom are Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora . The arabica species is the most common in Bafuliru Chiefdom. It is a culture of exporting coffee to Burundi. [17]

Culture

Fuliru traditional dance in Sange, 2004 Bafuliiru.jpg
Fuliru traditional dance in Sange, 2004

Music

Music is part and parcel of the Bafuliru culture. Bafuliru music is characterized by a variety of traditional instruments such as the ngoma (drum), xylophone, and flute, which are used to create complex rhythms and melodies. The melodic strains of traditional instrument permeate the air, accompanied by the hypnotic rhythm of indigenous dance, which envelops the senses with its entrancing cadence. [94] The ngoma, in particular, is an essential instrument in Bafuliru music, and it is often played during various social and religious events. Bafuliru music also incorporates a form of call-and-response singing, where one group of singers will lead with a phrase, and another group will respond with a harmonized phrase. This technique creates a rich and layered sound that is both engaging and captivating. Bafuliru also have songs that praise their leaders and ancestors, and these are often performed during political rallies and other communal events. [95] [96] [97] [98] [99] [100]

Religion

Traditional beliefs

Before the advent of Christianity, Bafuliru adhered to a traditional belief system centered around the worship of a supreme deity known as Rurema, regarded as the creator of all things in both the terrestrial and celestial realms. [101] [17] [102] Rurema was perceived as an invisible and transcendent force beyond human reach. [103] Intermediaries played a crucial role in connecting the people to this deity. Among the most significant spiritual leaders representing Rurema were Mushabo, Budisi, and Mugajalugulu, to whom the Bafuliru turned in matters that seemed beyond their control. [104]

Catholicism

Catholicism made its initial inroads into Bafuliru Chiefdom with the construction of the first chapel in Luvungi in 1933, overseen by the parish of Nyangezi in the neighboring Walungu Territory. [104] However, the growth of the Catholic Church in the region took a notable turn in 1974, when the influence of the Banyamulenge community shaped its direction. [104] This influence saw the diaconate of Bibangwa becoming a focal point for anti-Fuliru activities orchestrated by the Banyamulenge. [104] It contributed to the arming of Tutsi groups in the Hauts Plateaux. [104] As a result, the Church was perceived by some as complicit in fostering divisions and hatred between the Bafuliru and the populations of the Hauts Plateaux. [104]

Protestantism

Fuliiru Couples.jpg
Fuliru couples in Uvira. The wife adorns herself with a traditional dress, a purse hanging on her shoulder, a headdress, earrings, and a wedding ring. The husband wears a white shirt paired with gray pants, along with a wristwatch, a bracelet, a phone, and a wedding ring.
Fuliru tailor in Uvira.jpg
Fuliiru tailor named Dorcas in Uvira

The Bafuliru were introduced to Protestantism through Swedish missionaries David and Svea Flood, who arrived in the Itara-Luvungi groupement in 1921. [105] [106] [104] Their mission encountered resistance from Mwami Nyamugira Mukogabwe II, who was initially hesitant about foreign religious influences that could threaten traditional beliefs. [106] Despite these challenges, the Floods managed to convert a local boy, a milestone that would eventually lead to the broader acceptance of Christianity within the Bafuliru community. [106] The chief himself later embraced the faith, and through the work of the Floods and their successors, Protestantism gained a strong foothold in the region. [106] By the mid-1920s, following a formal agreement between Uvira's territorial authorities and Protestant missionaries, Protestant churches began to proliferate, with congregations established in key locations such as Lemera, Ndolera, Luvungi, and Kigoma groupement. [104]

Attire

In the past, Fuliru wore skirts of cloth made from tree bark, and cloaks made of animal hides. These have long been replaced by Western-style clothing. However, handmade beaded necklaces and bracelets are still worn. The woven fabrics, adorned with intricate patterns of vivid hues have honed their craft over generations.

Architecture

Traditional Fuliru houses are huts made from wood, reeds, and straw and are shaped like beehives. High hedges serve as fences. In recent years, modern houses have been built with modern materials. [107]

Art

Fuliru crafts include pottery, woodwork, jewelry, metal work, and basket weaving. [108] [109]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">South Kivu</span> Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

South Kivu is one of 26 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Its capital is Bukavu.

Banyamulenge is a community that lives mainly in South Kivu province. The Banyamulenge are culturally and socially distinct from the Tutsi of South Kivu, with most speaking Kinyamulenge, a mix of Kinyarwanda, Kirundi, Ha language, and Swahili. Banyamulenge their role in Mobutu's war against and victory over the Simba Rebellion, which was supported by the majority of other tribes in South Kivu, their role during the First Congo War and subsequent regional conflicts (Rally for Congolese Democracy–Goma, Movement for the Liberation of the Congo, National Congress for the Defence of the People, and more importantly for the fact that two of the most influential presidents of their country declared them as enemy of the State both in 1996 and 1998.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Uvira</span> City in Democratic Republic of the Congo

Uvira is a city strategically located in the South Kivu Province of the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Covering approximately 16 square kilometers and with an estimated population of 726,000 as of 2024, it borders Bafuliru Chiefdom and Ruzizi Plain Chiefdom to the north, Bavira Chiefdom to the south, and Lake Tanganyika and the Ruzizi River to the east. These rivers form natural boundaries between the DRC and Burundi. Located in the Ruzizi Plain at a low altitude, the city lies between Burundi's Congo-Nile ridge and the Mitumba mountains.

Mulenge is a village encircled by hills in the Bafuliiru Chiefdom, located in the Uvira Territory of South Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). It is situated on the high plateaus of the Itombwe massif, overlooking the locality of Uvira. The area has conventionally been inhabited by various ethnic groups, including the remnants of the autochthonous population of African Pygmies, as well as Bantu ethnic groups such as the Mbuti, Fuliiru, and Nyindu. The region boasts high agricultural productivity, with two harvests typically achievable each year.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Runingo</span> Grouping in South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo

Runingo, commonly known as Runingu, is one of the groupements (groupings) that constitutes the Bafuliiru Chiefdom in the Uvira Territory of the South Kivu Province in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). It is situated near the border with Burundi, along National Highway 5, to the north of Butaho.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Uvira Territory</span> Territory in South Kivu, DR Congo

Uvira Territory is a territory in South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is bordered by Walungu Territory to the north, Mwenga Territory to the west, Fizi Territory to the south, and Burundi and Lake Tanganyika to the east. Its capital is Uvira.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Luvungi</span> Town in Democratic Republic of the Congo

Luvungi, also known as Itara-Luvungi, is one of the groupements (groupings) within the Bafuliiru Chiefdom in the Uvira Territory of the South Kivu Province in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Situated on the Ruzizi Plain, it lies at the borders of Uvira Territory and Walungu Territory, in close proximity to the frontiers of Rwanda and Burundi. Luvungi is home to a population of approximately 85,000 individuals, predominantly consisting of Fuliru agriculturalists who play a vital role in the local community. There's also has a small population of Vira, Bembe, Lega, Shi, Burundians and Banyamulenge. Its economy is founded mainly on subsistence agriculture and the artisanal mining of cassiterite, an ore of tin.

Lemera is one of the groupements (groupings) within the Bafuliiru Chiefdom, located in the Uvira Territory of the South Kivu Province in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). It is situated in the northwestern part of the Uvira Territory, approximately 60 kilometers north of Bukavu and 90 kilometers southwest of the border with Rwanda and Burundi. Lemera is in close proximity to several villages, including Kasheke, Nyambasha, Luzira, Lukayo, Kajuju, Lushasha, and Ihusi.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lulenge</span> Sector in the Fizi Territory, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo

Lulenge constitutes one of the four sectors within the Fizi Territory of South Kivu Province, situated in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Geographically positioned adjacent to the Kiloba and Makena villages at an elevation of 943 meters, the sector's administrative center is Kilembwe. Lulenge is delineated to the north by the Itombwe sector and Mwenga Territory, to the east by Lake Tanganyika and the Mutambala sector, to the south by the N'gangya sector, and to the west by Shabunda Territory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sange, Democratic Republic of the Congo</span> Town in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Sange is a village located in the Bafuliiru Chiefdom in the Uvira Territory of the South Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is situated 24 km from the Burundian border, at 1,021 meters altitude.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Katogota</span> Village in the DRC

Katogota is a village located in the Itara-Luvungi grouping within the Bafuliiru Chiefdom in Uvira Territory of the South Kivu Province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Situated approximately 60 km south of Bukavu, Katogota is in close proximity to the Kamonyi and Rusagara villages, near the border regions of Rwanda and Burundi.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kamanyola</span> Grouping in Ngweshe Chiefdom, Walungu Territory

Kamanyola is one of the groupements (groupings) within the Ngweshe Chiefdom of the Walungu Territory. It is located in the Ruzizi Plain in the South Kivu Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), sharing a border with Rwanda and Burundi. Kamanyola stands at a height of 901 meters and is closely situated to the suburb of Mwaro and the village of Mubombo.

Bwegera is a village in the Bafuliiru Chiefdom in the Uvira Territory of South Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Bwegera has an elevation of 952 meters and is situated in the vicinity of the Kakamba and Nyaruhuhuma villages. The region It's crossed by Lake Tanganyika, providing a vital source of water and transportation for the local inhabitants. Bwegera is rich in building materials such as rubble, sand, and baked bricks, making it an ideal location for construction and development. The region also encompasses a vast rural area where agriculture, animal breeding, and fishing are the primary means of livelihood.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lubarika</span> Village in Bafuliru Chiefdom, Uvira Territory

Lubarika is a village situated in the hills and high plateaus of Itara/Luvungi groupement in the Bafuliiru Chiefdom, Uvira Territory, in the South Kivu Province of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It sits at an elevation of 969 meters above sea level and is near the villages of Murunga and Nyakagobe II. Lubarika is a predominantly agricultural region with large hectares used for subsistence agriculture. Agriculture is practiced by an extensive segment of the population. The products grown are mainly intended for domestic consumption and commercialization. Moreover, fishing is carried out artisanally in Lake Tanganyika by the local population.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mutambala</span> Sector in the DRC

Mutambala is a sector that constitutes one of the four sectors in the Fizi Territory of the South Kivu Province in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Mutambala is situated near Lake Tanganyika, in the west by the Lulenge sector, in the north by the Tangani'a sector, and in the south by the Ngandja sector. It has a surface area of 777 km 2. The sector consists of five groupings (groupements), including the Basimukindja groupings, the Batombwe groupings, and the Babwari groupings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ruzizi Plain</span> River valley in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo

The Ruzizi Plain is a valley situated between the Mitumba mountain chain and the Ruzizi River. It serves as a natural border, separating the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) from Burundi and Rwanda on the other side. The Ruzizi Plain is an integral part of the larger Western Rift Valley, which stretches across several African countries. It is traversed by the Ruzizi River, which flows from Lake Kivu through the plain and into Lake Tanganyika. It covers an area of 175,000 hectares divided between Burundi, Rwanda and the DRC. In Burundi, the plain extends to the northern sector of Imbo. It is bounded by parallels 2°36′ and 3°26′ south latitude and by meridians 29°00′ and 29°26 east longitude—an area of 1025 km2. The Congolese side is bounded to the north by the plain of Bugarama (Rwanda), to the east by the plain of Imbo (Burundi), to the West by the chain of Mitumba and to the South by Lake Tanganyika. The region covers thus about 80,000 hectares with 80 kilometers in length.

Bibogobogo, alternatively referred to as Bibokoboko in Kibembe, is a village in the middle plateaus of the Mutambala Sector in the Fizi Territory in the South Kivu Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). It is situated in the forested mountains and middle plateaus, overlooking Baraka in the south-west, near Kisombe and Bibokoboko II villages. Geographically, Bibogobogo shares its boundaries with Uvira Territory to the north, Mwenga and Shabunda Territories to the west, Kalemie Territory to the south, and Lake Tanganyika to the east.

Kidote, also known as Kidoti, is a small village situated in the middle plateaux of Lemera, within the Bafuliiru Chiefdom of the Uvira Territory in the South Kivu Province in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). It also serves as a camp for Congolese Internally Displaced People (IDPs) from various regions of Bwegera.

Kiringye is a village situated in the Lemera groupement within the Bafuliiru Chiefdom, which is part of Uvira Territory in the South Kivu Province in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The village is located at an elevation of 928 meters and is in close proximity to the localities of Luburule and Karenzu.

The Bafuliiru Chiefdom, also spelled as Chefferie de Bafulero, is a chiefdom located in Uvira Territory, South Kivu Province, in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

References

  1. ↑ "Fuliro in Congo, Democratic Republic of". Joshua Project. Retrieved 8 August 2023.
  2. 1 2 "Fuliiru." Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, Volume 1 (Jamie Stokes, editor) (2009). Infobase: p. 234.
  3. ↑ Johan Pottier, Re-Imagining Rwanda: Conflict, Survival and Disinformation in the Late Twentieth Century (2002). Cambridge University Press: p. 16.
  4. 1 2 3 "Furiiru." Ethnologue: Languages of the World (16th ed) (2009). M. Paul Lewis (editor), 2009. Dallas: SIL International.
  5. ↑ James Stuart Olson, The Peoples of Africa: An Ethnohistorical Dictionary. Greenwood: 1996, p. 183.
  6. ↑ "Africa Report" (Vol. 10), African-American Institute, p. 9
  7. ↑ Hautmann, Frédéric (1939). "Étude ethnographique de l'Itombwe (district du Kivu, Congo Belge)". Geographica Helvetica (in French). 4 (3): 175–176. doi: 10.5194/gh-4-175-1949 . S2CID   180994095.
  8. ↑ "Sud-Kivu : près de 90 % de déplacés internes de Bafuliiru regagnent leurs villages". Radio Okapi (in French). 2022-07-08. Retrieved 2023-05-11.
  9. ↑ "Uvira : les déplacés de Bwegera appellent le gouvernement à assurer leur sécurité". Radio Okapi (in French). 2022-06-10. Retrieved 2023-05-11.
  10. ↑ "Sud-Kivu: la population de la Ruzizi bénéficie d'une coopérative laitière financée par la MONUSCO". Radio Okapi (in French). 2022-02-10. Retrieved 2023-05-11.
  11. ↑ "Sud-Kivu: la présence des groupes armés à Lemera inquiète l'autorité coutumière". Radio Okapi (in French). 2022-02-11. Retrieved 2023-05-11.
  12. ↑ Journal of Religion in Africa: Religion en Afrique, Volume 31 (in English and French). Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan. 2001. pp. 146–148.
  13. ↑ De Saint Moulin, L. (1975). "Récents mouvements de population dans la zone densément peuplée de l'Est-Kivu" (in French). In Etudes d'Histoires Africaines, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  14. ↑ Hoffmann, Kasper (2021-02-01). "Ethnogovernmentality: The making of ethnic territories and subjects in Eastern DR Congo". Geoforum. 119: 251–267. doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2019.10.002. ISSN   0016-7185. S2CID   158809374.
  15. ↑ Mutambo, Joseph (March 1997). Les Banyamulenge: qui sont-ils?, d'où viennent-ils?, quel rôle ont-ils joué (et pourquoi) dans le processus de la libération du Zaïre? (in French). Limete/Kinshasa.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  16. ↑ Mutambo, Joseph (1997). Les Banyamulenge: qui sont-ils?, d'où viennent-ils?, quel rôle ont-ils joué (et pourquoi) dans le processus de la libération du Zaïre? (in French). Limete/Kinshasa. p. 6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Kishamata, Jérôme Katongo. "Monographie de la Cheffeerie des Bafuliiru" [Monograph of the Bafuliiru Chiefdom]. Africmemoire.com (in French). Retrieved 20 October 2024.
  18. ↑ Njangamwita Kibego, Nabuvira (2013). Livre d'Or des Bavira: Au centre de la gloire passée de l'Empire Baluba (in French). Ottawa.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  19. ↑ Loons, René (March 3, 1933). "«Etude sur l'origine des Bafulero», Etude de l'administrateur territorial R. Loons" ["Study on the origin of the Bafulero", Study of the territorial administrator R. Loons] (in French). Tervuren, Flemish Brabant, Belgium: Royal Museum for Central Africa. Retrieved 2023-02-13.
  20. 1 2 Chubaka, Bishikwabo (1987). "Aux Origines de la Ville d'Uvira Selon les Explorateurs et les Pionniers de la Colonisation Belge Au Zaire (1840-1914)". Civilisations. 37 (1): 83–126. ISSN   0009-8140. JSTOR   41968746.
  21. ↑ Congo Democratic Republic Foreign Policy and Government Guide, Vol 1: Strategic Information and Developments (2007). Washington: International Business Publications: p. 99.
  22. ↑ James Stuart Olson, The Peoples of Africa: An Ethnohistorical Dictionary. Greenwood: 1996, p. 183.
  23. 1 2 3 Moeller, Alfred Alphonse Jean (1936). "Les grandes lignes des migrations des Bantus de la province orientale du Congo belge" (PDF). p. 136.
  24. 1 2 3 Depelchin, Jacques (1974). From Pre-capitalism to Imperialism: A History of Social and Economic Formations in Eastern Zaire. Stanford, California, United States: Stanford University. pp. 50–105.
  25. ↑ Loons, René (March 3, 1933). "«Etude sur l'origine des Bafulero», Etude de l'administrateur territorial R. Loons" ["Study on the origin of the Bafulero", Study of the territorial administrator R. Loons] (in French). Tervuren, Flemish Brabant, Belgium: Royal Museum for Central Africa. Retrieved 2023-02-13.
  26. 1 2 3 4 5 Mupe, Kingwengwe (1982). Immigration et intégration des Barundi et des Banyarwanda dans les communautés Bafuliro et Bavira (1850–1980). Bukavu, Zaire. pp. 8–10.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  27. ↑ Muchukiwa, Bosco (2006). Territoires ethniques et territoires étatiques: pouvoirs locaux et conflits interethniques au Sud-Kivu (R.D. Congo) (in French). Paris, France: Éditions L'Harmattan. p. 11. ISBN   9782747598576.
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Sabuni, Abel Mukunde (2007). "Bilan humain des conflits armés et ses conséquences sur le développement du territoire d'Uvira de 1996 à 2005" [Human toll of armed conflicts and its consequences on the development of the Uvira territory from 1996 to 2005] (in French). Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural de Bukavu (ISDR). Retrieved 30 December 2023.
  29. ↑ Mahano, Mahano Ge (2001). Existe-t-il des rwandais congolais? (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Éditions Sophia. p. 64.
  30. ↑ Rukakiza, Bosco Muchukiwa (2004). "Pouvoirs locaux et contestations populaires dans le territoire d'Uvira au Sud-Kivu de 1961 à 2004" [Local powers and popular protests in the Uvira territory in South Kivu from 1961 to 2004]. Antwerp, Flemish Region, Belgium: IPGD. p. 40. Retrieved 8 November 2024.
  31. ↑ Culture et société: Volume 4 (in French). Bujumbura, Burundi: Centre de Civilisation Burundais. 1981. p. 114.
  32. ↑ Rapport de la collectivité des Bafuliiru (in French). Lemera, Uvira Territory, South Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Archives de la Division Provinciale de L’administration du Territoire. 4 October 1986.
  33. ↑ Chubaka, Bishikwabo (1987). "Aux Origines De La Ville D'uvira Selon Les Explorateurs Et Les Pionniers De La Colonisation Belge Au Zaire (1840-1914)". Civilisations. 37 (1): 91–92. ISSN   0009-8140. JSTOR   41968746.
  34. 1 2 Depelchin, Jacques (1974). From Pre-capitalism to Imperialism: A History of Social and Economic Formations in Eastern Zaire. Stanford, California, United States: Stanford University. p. 61.
  35. 1 2 3 Jacques, Depelchin (1974). From Pre-capitalism to Imperialism: A History of Social and Economic Formations in Eastern Zaire (Uvira Zone, C. 1800-1965). Stanford University. pp. 80–90.
  36. ↑ Chrétien, Jean-Pierre (2006). The Great Lakes of Africa: Two Thousand Years of History. Princeton, New Jersey: Zone Books. ISBN   9781890951351.
  37. ↑ Katchelewa, Shimbi Kamba (2001). L'Est du Congo-Zaïre: Uvira : aux sources d'une conscience rebelle (in French). Milan, Italy: Éditions 5 continents. p. 113. ISBN   9782922300222.
  38. ↑ Muchukiwa, Bosco (2006). Territoires ethniques et territoires étatiques: Pouvoirs locaux et conflits interethniques au Sud-Kivu (RD Congo) (in French). Paris, France: Editions L'Harmattan. pp. 23–24. ISBN   9782296425569.
  39. ↑ Katchelewa, Shimbi Kamba (2001). L'Est du Congo-Zaïre: Uvira : aux sources d'une conscience rebelle (in French). Milan, Italy: Éditions 5 continents. p. 171. ISBN   9782922300222.
  40. ↑ Depelchin, Jacques (1974). From Pre-capitalism to Imperialism: A History of Social and Economic Formations in Eastern Zaire. Stanford University.
  41. ↑ Kamba, Katchelewa S. "La question de la nationalité à l'est du Zaïre" [The question of nationality in eastern Zaire](PDF). Congoforum.be (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. pp. 3–16. Retrieved 9 November 2024.
  42. ↑ Lemarchand, René (May 1999). "Ethnicity as Myth: The View from the Central Africa" (PDF). Centre of African Studies, University of Copenhagen. Retrieved 2023-02-10.
  43. ↑ Newbury, Catharine; Newbury, David (1999). "A Catholic Mass in Kigali: Contested Views of the Genocide and Ethnicity in Rwanda". Canadian Journal of African Studies. 33 (2/3): 292–328. doi:10.2307/486267. ISSN   0008-3968. JSTOR   486267. PMID   19899231.
  44. ↑ Prunier, Gérard (2009). Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN   9780195374209.
  45. 1 2 Lemarchand, René (May 1999). "Ethnicity as Myth: The View from the Central Africa" (PDF). Centre of African Studies, University of Copenhagen. p. 15. Retrieved 10 February 2023.
  46. ↑ Hautmann, Frédéric (1939). "Étude ethnographique de l'Itombwe (district du Kivu, Congo Belge)". Geographica Helvetica. 4 (3): 175–177. doi: 10.5194/gh-4-175-1949 . S2CID   180994095.
  47. ↑ Newbury, David (1996). "Convergent Catastrophes in Central Africa". Review of African Political Economy. 23 (70): 573–576. doi:10.1080/03056249608704230. ISSN   0305-6244. JSTOR   4006351.
  48. ↑ Spitaels, R. (1953). "Transplantation de Banyarwanda au Kivu", Problèmes d'Afrique Centrale (in French). Brussels, Belgium. p. 110.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  49. ↑ Ndeshio Rurihose, O. (June 1992). La nationalité de la population zaïroise d'expression kinyarwanda au regard de la loi du 26 June 1991 (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. p. 10.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  50. ↑ Kanyamachumbi, Patient (1993). Les populations du Kivu et la loi sur la nationalité (in French). Democratic Republic of the Congo. pp. 17 and 137.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  51. ↑ Moeller de Laddersous, Alfred (1936). "Les grandes lignes des migrations des Bantus de la province orientale du Congo belge. p. 91" (PDF).
  52. ↑ Vandewoode, EJ (1939). Documents relatifs à l'ancien District du Kivu (in French). Brussels, Belgium. pp. 17–21.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  53. ↑ Ngabu Bishop, Faustin (April 11, 1998). Lettre Pastorale du 11 avril 1998. Goma, Demoacrtic Republic of the Congo.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  54. ↑ Chiffres rapportés par le journal Zaïrois (in French). le Soft, quoted by Poutier, 1996. May 6, 1996.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  55. 1 2 ""Banyamulenge", Roberto Garreton's report & Human Rights in Fizi, Uvira & Mwenga, Zaire: The anatomy of a fraud and genesis of a conflict" (PDF). Montreal, Québec, Canada: Forum Baraza La Kivu. 10 May 1996. pp. 10–24. Retrieved 1 September 2023.
  56. ↑ "Les deux premières guerres d'agression du Rwanda contre la RDC: Prélude à la troisième guerre". Archived from the original on 2004-09-12. Retrieved 2023-02-16.
  57. ↑ Bob, Olivier (1999). Guerres au Congo-Zaïre (1996-1999): acteurs et scénarios (in French). Tervuren, Belgium. p. 126.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  58. ↑ "Attacks against other civilian populations - South Kivu" . Retrieved 2023-05-15.
  59. ↑ "27 ans de massacre de Lemera (Sud-Kivu) : Denis Mukwege crie « Justice » pour les victimes de ce crime". 7sur7.cd (in French). 2022-10-06. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
  60. ↑ Kisangani, Emizet F.; Bobb, Scott F. (2010). Historical Dictionary of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. p. 42. ISBN   9780810863255.
  61. ↑ Emizet, Kisangani N. F. (2000). "The Massacre of Refugees in Congo: A Case of UN Peacekeeping Failure and International Law". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 38 (2): 163–202. doi:10.1017/S0022278X0000330X. ISSN   0022-278X. JSTOR   161648. S2CID   154818651.
  62. ↑ "Democratic Republic of Congo Situation of Selected Groups" (PDF). April 1998.
  63. ↑ "The End Of Mobutu's Dictatorship – Democratic Republic of the Congo". reliefweb.int. 30 May 1997. Retrieved 2023-02-10.
  64. ↑ By (2000-05-21). "Report Claims Rebels Massacre 300 in Congo". Orlando Sentinel. Retrieved 2023-05-14.
  65. ↑ "Thousands of Congolese refugees continue to flood into Burundi, UN says | UN News". news.un.org. 2004-06-15. Retrieved 2023-02-10.
  66. ↑ "Memoire Online - Bilan humain des conflits armés et ses conséquences sur le développement du territoire d'Uvira de 1996 à 2005. - Abel MUKUNDE SABUNI". Memoire Online. Retrieved 2023-05-14.
  67. ↑ "Report: Congo rebels slaughter 300 - UPI Archives". UPI. Retrieved 2023-05-14.
  68. ↑ "Insécurité au Sud-Kivu: 4 600 Congolais se réfugient au Burundi". Radio Okapi (in French). 2014-09-02. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
  69. ↑ "Tanganyika : la Monusco facilite le dialogue entre les Twa, Holoholo et Bafuliro". Radio Okapi (in French). 2019-02-12. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
  70. ↑ "Uvira: Richard Muyej installe un cadre de concertation pour concilier 2 communautés". Radio Okapi (in French). 2012-09-30. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
  71. ↑ "DR Congo: 1,900 Civilians Killed in Kivus Over 2 Years". Human Rights Watch. 2019-08-14. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
  72. ↑ "Dozens killed in DRC over 'stolen cattle'". Al Jazaeera. June 8, 2014. Retrieved June 8, 2014.
  73. ↑ "Analytical note on the human rights situation in the highlands of Mwenga, Fizi and Uvira territories, South Kivu province, between February 2019 and June 2020" (PDF). August 2020.
  74. ↑ O'Brien, Andrew (16 October 2020). "In Pictures – Inside the displaced persons camp of Bijombo in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo". The Scotsman.
  75. ↑ "African Union urges 'peace' as DR Congo crisis widens". Deccan Herald. 2020-12-05. Retrieved 2023-02-12.
  76. 1 2 3 4 5 "Chapter One: Review of Literature In Oral Tradition Genre". Africmemoire.com. Retrieved 5 June 2023.
  77. ↑ Daniel P. Biebuyck, Lega Culture: Art, Initiation, and Moral Philosophy Among a Central African People. University of California Press: 1973, p. 20 and p. 183.
  78. ↑ "Report on Congo DRC, Paving the reconstruction". Winne.com. Retrieved 20 October 2024.
  79. ↑ Stuart Olson, James (1996). The Peoples of Africa: An Ethnohistorical Dictionary. Greenwood, Indiana, United States. p. 183.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  80. ↑ Jouannet, Francis (1984). Phonologie du kifuliru: langue bantoue du groupe J (in French). Paris, France: Société d'études linguistiques et anthropologiques de France. pp. 13–14.
  81. ↑ Hamoniaux, Roger (1968). Le Déclin des idoles (in French). Paris, France: Éditions France-Empire. pp. 47–63.
  82. ↑ Bulletin des séances, Volume 5 (in French). Brussels, Belgium: Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-Mer. 1934. p. 670.
  83. ↑ Mbomba, Mashauri (2019-01-01). "Consideration of women through some disallowances in Fuliiru raditional society". Thesis.
  84. ↑ "Performance of introduced irrigated rice varieties in Ruzizi plain, South Kivu province, DR Congo" (PDF). Kampala, Uganda: Regional Universities Forum for Capacity Building in Agriculture. September 2012. Retrieved 3 September 2023.
  85. ↑ "Travaux de rehabilitation du Cenre Developpement Communautaire (CDC) de Kiringye dans le Territoire d'Uvira, province de Sud-Kivu en République démocratique du Congo" [Rehabilitation works of the Community Development Center (CDC) of Kiringye in the Territory of Uvira, province of South Kivu in the Democratic Republic of the Congo]. Ungm.org. Retrieved 4 September 2023.
  86. ↑ Leposo, Bruce (July 10, 2019). "Sud-Kivu-PICAGL : Avis au public d'étude d'impact environnemental et social pour la réhabilitation et la modernisation du centre de développement communautaire de Kiringye à Uvira". libregrandlac.com (in French). Retrieved 2023-09-04.
  87. ↑ E, Ngabo (30 August 2023). "Lemera: Les habitants sont frappés par la famine, les acteurs de la société civile demandent aux humanitaires d'intervenir" [Lemera: Residents are hit by famine, civil society actors ask humanitarians to intervene]. Kivutimes (in French). Retrieved 29 September 2023.
  88. ↑ "République Démocratique du Congo: Etude des Marchés dans les territoires du Sud-Kivu et du Maniema" [Democratic Republic of Congo: Market Study in the Territories of South Kivu and Maniema](PDF). Documents.wfp.org (in French). 17 June 2011. Retrieved 29 September 2023.
  89. ↑ E, Ngabo (14 October 2022). "Lemera: Les habitants en crainte de la famine suite au manque de pluie" [Lemera: Residents fear famine following lack of rain]. Kivutimes (in French). Retrieved 29 September 2023.
  90. ↑ Mbomba, Mashauri (2019-01-01). "Consideration of women through some disallowances in Fuliiru raditional society". Thesis: 13.
  91. ↑ Bagula, Espoir Mukengere; Mapatano, Sylvain; Katcho, Karume; Mushagalusa, Nacigera Gustave (2013-09-04). "Efficience des techniques de gestion de l'eau et de fertilité des sols sur le rendement du maïs dans les régions semi-arides : cas de la plaine de la Ruzizi (Sud-Kivu, République Démocratique du Congo)". VertigO - la revue électronique en sciences de l'environnement (in French) (Hors-série 17). doi: 10.4000/vertigo.13922 . ISSN   1492-8442.
  92. ↑ Rushigira, Cadeau; Villar, Patricio Mendez del; Paget, Nicolas (2023-05-15). "La filière riz dans la plaine de la Ruzizi à l'est de la RDC. Organisation et transmission de l'information". Économie rurale. Agricultures, alimentations, territoires (in French) (384): 77–92. doi: 10.4000/economierurale.11395 . ISSN   0013-0559.
  93. ↑ Byakombe, Pépin-Raoul Mughusu (2015). "Etude de l'évolution de la productivité du manioc à Itara/Plaine de la Ruzizi" [Study of the evolution of cassava productivity in Itara/Ruzizi Plain] (in French). Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Catholic University of Bukavu. Retrieved 2023-09-29.
  94. ↑ "DISCUSSION OF SOME FULIRU WEDDING SONGS:A SOCIO-CULTURAL CONSIDERATION". www.africmemoire.com. Retrieved 2023-06-05.
  95. ↑ "General Introduction". www.africmemoire.com. Retrieved 2023-06-05.
  96. ↑ "Chapter One: Review of Literature In Oral Tradition Genre". www.africmemoire.com. Retrieved 2023-06-05.
  97. ↑ "Chapter Two: Data Analysis". www.africmemoire.com. Retrieved 2023-06-05.
  98. ↑ "Chapter Three: Socio-cultural Analysis". www.africmemoire.com. Retrieved 2023-06-05.
  99. ↑ "Chapter Three Continuation". www.africmemoire.com. Retrieved 2023-06-05.
  100. ↑ "General Conclusion". www.africmemoire.com. Retrieved 2023-06-05.
  101. ↑ Muchukiwa, Bosco (2016). "Education à la paix dans la bible et chez les Bafuliiru" [Peace education in the Bible and among the Bafuliiru](PDF) (in French). Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural de Bukavu (ISDR). pp. 1–8. Retrieved 2023-12-30.
  102. ↑ La Civilisation ancienne des peuples des Grands Lacs: Colloque de Bujumbura, 4-10 septembre 1979 (Collection Histoire africaine) (in French). Editor: Centre de Civilisation Burundaise. Paris, France: Éditions Karthala. 1981. p. 72.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  103. ↑ Kishamata, Jérôme Katongo. "Monographie de la Cheffeerie des Bafuliiru" [Monograph of the Bafuliiru Chiefdom]. Africmemoire.com (in French). Retrieved 20 October 2024.
  104. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Kishamata, Jérôme Katongo. "Monographie de la Cheffeerie des Bafuliiru" [Monograph of the Bafuliiru Chiefdom]. Africmemoire.com (in French). Retrieved 20 October 2024.
  105. ↑ Collins, James (March 2007). Tears in My Heart. Salem Publishing Solutions. pp. 310–313. ISBN   978-1-60266-256-8.
  106. 1 2 3 4 White, Ellen Gould Harmon (November 2003). Joy in the Morning. Family Heritage Books. pp. 31–33. ISBN   978-1-885204-01-1.
  107. ↑ "General Introduction". www.africmemoire.com. Retrieved 2023-08-20.
  108. ↑ Gompel, F. Van (1934). Rapport présenté par le gouvernement belge au Conseil de la Société des Nations au sujet de l'administration du Ruanda-Urundi pendant l'année (in French). Belgium: Imprimeur-Éditeur. p. 23.
  109. ↑ Verhaegen, Benoît (1966). Rebellions au Congo, Volume 2 (in French). Brussels, Belgium: Centre de recherche et d'information socio-politiques. p. 384.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.