Japanese conjugation , like the conjugation of verbs of many other languages, allows verbs to be morphologically modified to change their meaning or grammatical function. In Japanese, the beginning of a word (the stem ) is preserved during conjugation, while the ending of the word is altered in some way to change the meaning (this is the inflectional suffix ). Japanese verb conjugations are independent of person, number and gender (they do not depend on whether the subject is I, you, he, she, we, etc.); the conjugated forms can express meanings such as negation, present and past tense, volition, passive voice, causation, imperative and conditional mood, and ability. There are also special forms for conjunction with other verbs, and for combination with particles for additional meanings.
Japanese verbs have agglutinating properties: some of the conjugated forms are themselves conjugable verbs (or i-adjectives), which can result in several suffixes being strung together in a single verb form to express a combination of meanings.
The imperfect(ive) , present or non‑past form is broadly equivalent to the present and future tenses of English. In Japanese, the imperfective form is used as the headword or lemma, hence the name dictionary form. The terms conclusive, concluding, final, predicative, etc are used for any form that occurs at the end of a sentence; and attributive, adnominal, adjectival, substantival, etc for any form that occurs before a noun. However, in modern Japanese, only the imperfect makes this distinction between "conclusive" and "attributive" in certain cases, particularly in adjectives (more on the subsection below) and copulae; conclusives and attributives are more distinct in classical Japanese.
The imperfect, when used as a predicate (the "conclusive"), generally conveys a present time, an existent habit, a future time and the historical present, [1] which coincides with the simple present and various ways to express the future ("will do," "be going to do," "be doing") in English. However, for certain verbs, the simple imperfect does not suffice to express the same idea as the English "simple present," and the gerundive ‑te iru is required, thus gakusha ga sugurete iru (学者が優れている; 'the scholar excels'), not *gakusha ga sugureru (学者が優れる). Before a noun (the "attributive"), it may be the perfect ‑ta that expresses the "simple present," as in sugureta gakusha (優れた学者; 'a scholar who excels'). In yet more complex sentence, the simple imperfect is expected, such as Kono bun'ya de gakusha ga sugureru to sugu mitomerareru deshō (この分野で学者が優れるとすぐ認められるでしょう; 'If a scholar excels in this field he will be recognized at once'). Polysemous verbs may or may not require the gerund depending on the various senses that they possess. [2]
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| Everybody dies. | Hito wa dare de mo kanarazu shinu (人は誰でも必ず死ぬ) | eternal fact |
| a person who loves nature | shizen o aisuru hito (自然を愛する人) | |
| I would sacrifice my life without hesitation for someone I loved. | Aisuru hito no tame nara inochi o sutete mo oshiku wa nai (愛する人のためなら命を捨てても惜しくはない) | |
| All the trains bound for Tokyo are terribly overcrowded. | Tōkyō e iku ressha wa dore mo hidoi komi yō desu (東京へ行く列車はどれもひどい混みようです) | |
| Our cat's tail is black at the tip. | Uchi no neko wa o no saki ga kuroi (うちの猫は尾の先が黒い) | |
| Before my eyes a black cat dashed across my path. | Me no mae o kuroi neko ga totsuzen yogitta (目の前を黒い猫が突然よぎった) | |
| I have bitter memories of that summer. | Watashi ni wa ano natsu no nigai omoide ga aru (私にはあの夏の苦い思い出がある) | present state |
| This can be illustrated from my own personal experience. | Kono koto wa watashi jishin no taiken kara mo reishō dekiru (このことは私自身の体験からも例証できる) | |
| I’m so annoyed that I feel like crying. [a] | Kuyashikute namida ga deru. (悔しくて涙が出る。) | |
| I saw a red light ahead. | Mae ni akai tōka ga mieta (前に赤い灯火が見えた) | |
| It's that time of year when saury is at its tastiest. | Sanma ga oishii kisetsu ni narimashita (サンマがおいしい季節になりました) | |
| I go abroad at my own expense. | Kaigai ryokō wa jibun no kane de iku (海外旅行は自分の金で行く) | existent habit |
| I usually go swimming in the ocean every summer. | Natsu wa taitei kaisuiyoku ni iku (夏は大抵海水浴に行く) | |
| I'll go to Osaka on the first flight tomorrow morning. | Ashita asa ichiban de Ōsaka ni iku (明日朝一番で大阪に行く) | future action |
| Hi there, where are you going? | Kore, doko e iku (これ、どこへ行く) | |
| They will liquidate the company by the end of next February. | Rainen nigatsu-matsu made ni kaisha o seisan suru. (来年二月末までに会社を清算する。) |
Historically, the vowel u systemically fused with its preceding vowel into one long vowel, which yielded such pronunciation as Tōkyō (東京; /toukjau→toːkjoː/). These fusions are complete in some western dialects, [3] but others still make exceptions for verbs ending in u. Compare the following, whereby the unfused forms are listed first: au, ō (会う; 'meet'), iwau, iō (祝う; 'celebrate'), ou, ō (負う; 'carry'), ōu, oō (覆う; 'cover'). In classical Japanese, the fused forms are traditionally used, [4] regardless of the kana spelling, which is the case for not only the said example godan verbs, but also nidan verbs such as kangō (考ふ; = kangaeru; 'deliberate'), although modern Tokyo speakers may rather use the spelling pronunciation kangau. [5] Some highly elevated verbs such as tamau, tamō (給う; 'bestow') and notamau, notamō (宣う; 'say') accept the fused forms as standard rather than dialectal alternatives. [6] [4] Fusions occur more extensively for the gerund and perfective.
Among verbs ending in the vowel u, the verb 言う・云う exceptionally only takes the fused form yū, never the unfused *iu, not even in careful speech. [7] Despite the pronunciation, its standard kana spelling is still いう, not ゆう, [8] [9] (although the latter is still listed in dictionaries, [9] and can be used, apart from ゆー or just ゆ, as a nonstandard alternative to reflect the actual pronunciation [10] ). This convention, along with the particles wa (は), e (へ) and o (を), is retained from historical kana orthography for practical purposes. For yū (言う), the kana spelling いう is in keeping with other conjugational forms such as iwanai (いわない) and itta (いった). 言う(yū; 'say') is possibly homophonous with 結う(yuu → yū; 'fasten'), [7] except that the latter can be unaccented or accented, while the former is only unaccented. [6] [4] In this article, the more phonetically accurate spelling ゆう is used in the conjugation tables below not to obscure phonetic changes between verb forms. The yu‑ resulting from the fusion in yū has begun to spread to other forms, such as yuwa‑, yutte and yutta, whose statuses are certain, although the statuses of yui, yue and especially yuō are dubious. It has been claimed that there are dialects where yui nagara, yueba and yue have occurred. [11] [12]
Aru is now a full-fledged godan verb, but it used to belong to an irregular class called "r-row irregular conjugation" ( ラ行変格活用 , ra-gyō henkaku katsuyō) in classical Japanese. Although having been long displaced by its attributive aru, its distinct conclusive ari lingers on in some proverbial cliches, such as kono chichi ni shite kono ko ari (この父にしてこの子あり; transl. like father, like son), jinsei yama ari tani ari (人生山あり谷あり; transl. life has peaks and valleys), etc, or the pseudoclassical baseball cliche pinchi no ato ni chansu ari (ピンチの後にチャンスあり; transl. after a crunch comes a chance).
Certain ‑suru or ‑zuru verbs and their godan and ichidan equivalents are interchangeable (or at least sensitive to specifically what follows them) and even used in the same text, although it has been claimed that, at least for the conclusive/attributive form, the more classical/literary (文語, bungo)/western ‑zuru variants are more "formal" and "basically a written form", [13] compared to the more modern/colloquial (口語, kōgo)/eastern ‑jiru variants. [14] The ‑su variants are highly inconsistent across verbs, and even for highly "godan‑ized" verbs like aisuru (愛する), whose other forms are predominantly godan, the conclusive/attributive aisuru and conditional aisureba in particular are still preferred to the fully godan variants aisu and aiseba. [15] In some cases it is not clear whether aisu is godan or actually pseudo-classical, for example in aisu beki (愛すべき) where all ‑suru verbs can optionally lose the ru. In classical or pseudo-classical literature, aisu is more likely to be conclusive and aisuru is more likely to be attributive or nominalized.
The extenders beshi, beki, beku, etc, can stylistically take classical conclusives before them, [16] including the irregular su (す; 'do') [b] and ku (来; 'come'), and the nidanu (得; 'get'), tabu (食ぶ; 'eat'), kazou/kazō (数ふ; 'count'), otsu (落つ; 'fall'), etc. These can be substituted with the modern irregular suru (する) and kuru (来る), and the ichidaneru (得る), taberu (食べる), kazoeru (数える), ochiru (落ちる), etc. Some governmental institutions have shifted away from the nidan style (uku beki (受くべき; 'ought to receive')) in favor of the ichidan style (ukeru beki (受けるべき)). [18] [19] With the classical irregular conclusive ari (あり; 'exist') and its derivatives, however, the attributive is used instead, as in aru beshi (あるべし; 'ought to be'), yokaru beshi (良かるべし; 'ought to be good'), etc rather than *ari beshi, *yokari beshi, etc, and such exceptions coincide with the modern godan conclusives ending in aru of the same verbs and adjectives. [16] [20] [21]
The politeness auxiliary ‑masuru is characterized as "pseudo-literary" [22] or faux archaic. [23] It was used in parliamentary speech during the 20th century, but usage drastically declined into the 21st century. [24] Some examples include Wakayama ni orimasuru haha (和歌山に居りまする母; 'my mother who is in Wakayama'), Taku e de mo maitte iru yō ni itasō ka to zonjimasuru no de gozaimasu (宅へでも参っているように痛そうかと存じまするのでございます; 'I am wondering whether I should decide to come and stay perhaps at your house'), Sore ni gisei no tame o omotte mimasuru to, geshuku ni okimasu no wa ikaga de gozaimashō (それに犠牲の為を思って見ますると、下宿に置きますのはいかがでございましょう; 'And thinking of the victims' welfare, how about putting them in a boarding house?'). The conjugational similarity between ‑masu and suru suggests an etymological link. [25]
The sound sequence /Vi/, with /V/ being a vowel, is often colloquially and masculinely fused into a long vowel. Since all adjectival conclusive/attributive forms have this sound sequence, they are liable to such fusion. Most adjectives of this kind remain distinctly masculine, and their phonetic spellings are found in written dialog for masculine characters in fiction, such as nai → nē (ねえ・ねー; 'nonexistent'), urusai → urusē → ussē (うるせえ・うるせー・うっせえ・うっせー; 'noisy; pesky'), hayai → ha(y)ē (はええ・はえー; 'quick'), sugoi → sugē (すげえ・すげー; 'superb'), tsuyoi → tsu(y)ē (つええ・つえー; 'strong'), warui → warī (わりい・わりー; 'bad'), yasui → yashī (やしい・やしー; 'easy; cheap'), mazui → majī (まじい・まじー; 'unpalatable'), atsui → achī (あちい・あちー; 'thick; hot'), kayui → kaī (かいい・かいー; 'itchy'), etc. Non-masculine examples include yoi → (y)ē → ī (いい・いー; 'good'), [21] and kawayui → kawaī (かわいい・かわいー; 'adorable'). See Japanese phonology § Vowel fusion for further citations.
The classical conclusives nashi and yoshi in particular are now more of cliches rather than catch-all representatives of adjectives in general. Nashi is often used as a nominal suffix meaning "without", "‑less" or "‑free", as in satō nashi no jōzai (砂糖なしの錠剤; 'sugar-free tablet'). Yoshi is often used as an interjection meaning "Good!" or "Alright!". The classical onaji has evolved into an adjectival noun (onaji da/de aru/desu, onaji (na), etc), and despite being originally conclusive, it is now prevalently attributive. Other examples of classical conclusives for cliched, proverbial and elevated uses include Tenki wa yoshi, kaze wa nashi, buratsuku no ni motte koi no hi da (天気はよし、風はなし、ぶらつくのに持ってこいの日だ; transl. The weather's nice, there's no wind, it's the perfect day to stroll), Genkin fuyō jidai, chikashi de aru (現金不要時代、まさに近しである; transl. The cashless era is nigh), Eyasuki mono wa ushinaiyasushi (得やすきものは失いやすし; transl. Easy come, easy go), Kyū kābu Jiko ōshi (急カーブ 事故多し; transl. Sudden curve: Many accidents), [26] etc.
The classical attributive ending ‑ki, the ancestor of the modern attributive/conclusive ending ‑i, is still used in elevated cliches and titles for books and fictional characters, such as jinkaku naki shadan (人格無き社団; 'unincorporated association'), [27] Osorenaki Tansasha, Akiri (恐れなき探査者、アキリ; 'Akiri, Fearless Voyager'), [28] furuki yoki jidai (古き良き時代; 'the good old days'), [27] yoki Samariya‑bito/‑jin / hitsujikai ( 善きサマリヤ人・羊飼い; 'the good Samaritan / shepherd'), Utsukushiku Aoki Donau ( 美しく青きドナウ ; ' The Beautiful Blue Danube '), Aoki Me no Otome (青き眼の乙女; transl. Maiden with Eyes of Blue), [29] Akaki Ryū (赤き竜; transl. Crimson Dragon), [30] Atarashiki Mura ( 新しき村 ; lit. 'New Village'), Imawashiki Tsurīfōku (忌まわしきツリーフォーク; 'Ambominable Treefolk'), [31] etc.
The attributive ending ‑karu, a fusion of the infinitive ending ‑ku and the verb aru, is uncommon in modern Tokyo Japanese. It has been found in such constructions with ‑beki as tanoshikaru beki (楽しかるべき; transl. that ought/is supposed to be joyful; that is otherwise happy). [32] In Kyushu, ‑karu was reduced further to ‑ka, [33] and yoka is used instead of either yoi or yoshi. [34] [c]
The classical adjectival extenders beshi, gotoshi and maji are still used in elevated language. Their attributives retain the ‑ki ending as in beki, gotoki, majiki, although the ‑i ending as in bei, majii has historically and dialectally occurred. [35] [36] For beshi in particular, its attributive beki can be used conclusively in the phrase beki da/de aru/desu. For more examples, see #Imperfective: Grammatical compatibility below.
| Conclusive form | Attributive form | Interchangeable counterpart |
|---|---|---|
| Godan verbs | ||
| 結う(yuu, fasten) | ||
| 言う(yū, say) | ||
| 紛う (magau/magō [6] , mistake) | ||
| 給う (tamau/tamō [6] [4] , bestow) | ||
| 宣う (notamau/notamō [6] [4] , say) | ||
| 勝つ (katsu, win) | ||
| 狩る (karu, hunt) | ||
| 有る (aru, exist) | ||
| 貸す (kasu, lend) | ||
| 愛す (aisu, love) | 愛する (aisuru) [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] | |
| 達す (tassu, reach) | 達する (tassuru) | |
| 書く (kaku, write) | ||
| 嗅ぐ (kagu, smell) | ||
| 呼ぶ(yobu, call) | ||
| 読む(yomu, read) | ||
| 死ぬ (shinu, die) | ||
| Ichidan verbs | ||
| 見る (miru, look) | ||
| 達しる (tasshiru, reach) | 達する (tassuru) | |
| 察しる (sasshiru, guess) | 察する (sassuru) [43] | |
| 信じる (shinjiru, believe) | 信ずる (shinzuru) [44] [45] [46] [38] [47] [48] | |
| 進じる・進ぜる (shinjiru/shinzeru, give) | 進ずる (shinzuru, give) | |
| 強いる (shiiru, coerce) | ||
| 悔いる (kuiru, regret) | ||
| 落ちる (ochiru, fall) | ||
| 閉じる (tojiru, close) | ||
| 生きる (ikiru, live) | ||
| 得る (eru, get) | ||
| 経る (heru, pass) | ||
| 教える (oshieru, teach) | ||
| 交える (majieru, mix) | ||
| 憂える (ureeru, grieve) | ||
| 和える (aeru, dress (food)) | ||
| 終える (oeru, complete) | ||
| 消える (kieru, vanish) | ||
| 当てる (ateru, hit) | ||
| 出る (deru, exit) | ||
| 愛でる (mederu, love) | ||
| 寝る (neru, sleep) | ||
| 真似る (maneru, imitate) | ||
| 兼ねる (kaneru, combine) | ||
| 受ける (ukeru, receive) | ||
| Pseudo-nidan verbs | ||
| 強う (shiu/shū, coerce) [49] [50] | 強うる (shiuru/shūru, coercing) | |
| 悔ゆ (kuyu, regret) [51] | 悔ゆる (kuyuru, regretting) | |
| 落つ (otsu, fall) [52] | 落つる (otsuru, falling) | |
| 閉ず (tozu, close) [53] [54] | 閉ずる (tozuru, closing) | |
| 生く (iku, live) [55] [56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] | 生くる (ikuru, living) | |
| 得 (u, get) [d] [62] [63] | 得る (uru, getting) [e] | |
| 経 (fu, pass) [64] [65] | 経る (furu, passing) | |
| 教う (oshiu/oshū, teach) [66] [67] | 教うる (oshiuru/oshūru, teaching) | |
| 交う (majiu/majū, mix) [68] [69] | 交うる (majiuru/majūru, mixing) | |
| 憂う (ureu [6] /uryō, grieve) [70] [71] | 憂うる (ureuru/uryōru, grieving) | |
| 和う (au/ō, dress (food)) | 和うる (auru/ōru, (food-)dressing) | |
| 終う (ou/ō, complete) [72] | 終うる (ouru/ōru, completing) | |
| 消ゆ (kiyu, vanish) [73] [74] | 消ゆる (kiyuru, vanishing) | |
| 当つ (atsu, hit) [75] | 当つる (atsuru, hitting) | |
| 出 (zu, exit) [76] | 出る (zuru, exiting) | |
| 愛ず (mezu, love) [77] [78] | 愛ずる (mezuru, loving) | |
| 寝 (nu, sleep) | 寝る (nuru, sleeping) | |
| 真似 (manu, imitate) [79] | 真似る (manuru, imitating) | |
| 兼ぬ (kanu, combine) [80] | 兼ぬる (kanuru, combining) | |
| 受く (uku, receive) [81] [82] [83] [84] | 受くる (ukuru, receiving) | |
| Irregular verbs | ||
| する (suru, do) | ||
| す (su, do) | する (suru, doing) | |
| 勉強する (benkyō su, study) | ||
| 勉強す (benkyō su, study) | 勉強する (benkyō suru, studying) | |
| 愛する (aisuru, love) | 愛す (aisu) [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] | |
| 愛す (aisu, love) | 愛する (aisuru, loving) | |
| 達する (tassuru, reach) | 達す・達しる (tassu/tasshiru) | |
| 達す (tassu, reach) | 達する (tassuru, reaching) | |
| 察する (sassuru, guess) | 察しる (sasshiru, guess) [43] | |
| 察す (sassu, guess) | 察する (sassuru, guessing) | |
| 信ずる (shinzuru, believe) | 信じる (shinjiru) [44] [45] [46] [38] [47] [48] | |
| 信ず (shinzu, believe) | 信ずる (shinzuru, believing) | |
| 進ずる (shinzuru, give) | 進ぜる・進じる (shinzeru/shinjiru) | |
| 進ず (shinzu, give) | 進ずる (shinzuru, giving) | |
| 来る (kuru, come) | ||
| 来 (ku, come) [85] [86] | 来る (kuru, coming) | |
| 有り (ari, exist) | 有る (aru, existing) | |
| Verbal auxiliaries | ||
| 〜ます(る) (‑masu(ru)) [87] [88] [89] [90] [91] [92] | ||
| Adjectives and adjectival auxiliaries | ||
| 無い (nai, be nonexistent) | ||
| 無し (nashi, be nonexistent) | 無き (naki, being nonexistent) [93] [94] | |
| 無かる (nakaru, being nonexistent) [95] [96] [97] [98] | ||
| 良い (ii/yoi, be good) | ||
| 良し(yoshi, be good) | 良き(yoki, being good) [99] | |
| 良かる(yokaru, being good) [100] [101] | ||
| 同じい (onajii, be the same) | ||
| 同じ (onaji, be the same) | 同じき (onajiki, being the same) [102] | |
| 同じかる (onajikaru, being the same) [103] | ||
| 可し (beshi, ought/have to) | 可き (beki, having to) | |
| 可かる (bekaru, having to) [104] | ||
| 可い (bei/bē, ought/have to) | ||
| 如し (gotoshi, be like) | 如き (gotoki, being like) | |
| 如かる (gotokaru, being like) [105] [106] [107] | ||
| まい (mai, probably not/let's not) [108] | ||
| まじ (maji, probably not/let's not) | まじき (majiki, not meant to) | |
| まじかる (majikaru, not meant to) | ||
| まじい (majii, probably not/let's not) | ||
| Special auxiliaries | ||
| 〜ん・〜ぬ (‑n(u), not) | ||
| 〜ず (‑zu, without) | 〜ざる (‑zaru, without) | |
The imperfective conclusive/attributive form can be followed by various extenders. [109]
| Extender | English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|---|
| to (と) | When it's late March, cherry blossoms start to bloom. | Sangatsu no kōhan ni naru to, sakura ga sakihajimemasu. (3月の後半になると、桜が咲き始めます。 [110] ) | matter-of-fact (factual, habitual, procedural, etc) condition |
| Every morning when I wake up, I drink a cup of black tea. | Maiasa okiru to, kōcha o ippai nomimasu. (毎朝起きると、紅茶を1杯飲みます。 [110] ) | ||
| If/When you put money in and press this button, a ticket comes out. | Okane o irete botan o osu to, kippu ga dete kimasu. (お金を入れてボタンを押すと、切符が出てきます。 [110] ) | ||
| na (な) | Don't be mad. | Sō okoru na yo (そう怒るなよ) | plain negative command |
| Being told not to look just makes you want to see even more. | Miru na to iwareru to yokei mitaku naru mono da (見るなと言われると余計見たくなるものだ) | quoted negative command | |
| nakare (なかれ) | Never speak ill of others. | Hito o hibō suru nakare (人を誹謗するなかれ) | same as na; more elevated |
| mai (まい) [f] | If this keeps up, it probably won't rain today. | Kono bun nara kyō wa furu mai (この分なら今日は降るまい) | negative tentative |
| I'd rather not tell you the rest. | Sono saki wa mā hanashimasu mai (その先はまあ話しますまい) | negative hortative | |
| Whether I go or not is up to me. | Ikō to iku mai to ore no katte da (行こうと行くまいと俺の勝手だ) | ||
| majiki (まじき) | impermissible discriminatory conduct | yurusu majiki sabetsu kōi (許すまじき差別行為) | that something ought not to, is not supposed to, must necessarily not, or is impossible to happen |
| Such conduct is unbecoming to a student. [g] | Gakusei ni aru majiki kōi da (学生にあるまじき行為だ) | ||
| beshi (べし) | It must be a mistake. | Ayamari naru beshi (誤りなるべし) | that something ought to, is supposed to, has necessarily to, or is possible to happen |
| Folks like those will surely go to hell. | Sayō no monodomo wa jigoku ni otsu beshi (さようの者どもは地獄に堕つべし) | ||
| a job that must be done | yaru beki shigoto (やるべき仕事) | ||
| I saw all I needed to see. | Miru beki mono wa mita (見るべきものは見た) | ||
| available heat | riyō shiu beki netsuryō (利用し得べき熱量) | ||
| Word of its development had been passed from mouth to mouth, casting a gloom over the otherwise joyous family supper. | Shokei no moyō wa kuchi kara kuchi e to tsutaerare, tanoshikaru beki kazoku no shokutaku o kuraku shite ita. (処刑の模様は口から口へと伝えられ、楽しかるべき家族の食卓を暗くしていた。 [111] ) | ||
| […] Nicholas, who […] had spent that otherwise joyful day in inactivity, felt as though his chest tightened even more. | […] kono tanoshikaru beki hi o mui no uchi ni sugoshite shimatta Nikorai no mune wa, nao issō shimetsukerareru yō na omoi ga shita. ([…]この楽しかるべき日を無為のうちにすごしてしまったニコライの胸は、なお一層締めつけられるような思いがした。 [112] ) | ||
| Children ought to care for their parents. | Kodomo wa oya o taisetsu ni su(ru) beki da (子供は親を大切にす(る)べきだ) | ||
| You should teach your children what's wrong is wrong. | Kodomo ni wa warui koto wa warui to oshieru beki da (子供には悪いことは悪いと教えるべきだ) | ||
| “To be, or not to be, that is the question. […]” | “Aru beki ka, nakaru beki ka, sore ga mondai da. […]” (「在るべきか、なかるべきか、それが問題だ。[…]」 [97] ) | ||
| The party started the preparation necessary to take back power in the next election. | Sono tō wa tsugi no senkyo de seiken o dakkan su(ru) beku junbi o kaishi shita (その党は次の選挙で政権を奪還す(る)べく準備を開始した) | ||
| Do this, if possible! | Nashiu beku wa kore o nase (為し得べくはこれを為せ) | ||
| Get in touch as soon as possible. | Naru beku hayaku renraku shite kure (なるべく早く連絡してくれ) | ||
| bekarazu (べからず) | No smoking on school premises | Kōnai ni te kitsuen su bekarazu (校内にて喫煙すべからず) | that something ought not to, is not supposed to, must necessarily not, or is impossible to happen |
| A word against his action was called for. [h] | Kare no kōdō hitokoto nakaru bekarazu de atta (彼の行動に対して一言なかるべからずであった) | ||
| Yoshitsura was known as Sahara Jūrō, with an imposing stature, brains and brawn, and far too many exploits to count, […] [i] | Yoshitsura wa iwayuru Sahara Jūrō de, yōbō kaii, tanryaku ari, senkō agete kazō bekarazu, […] (義連はいわゆる佐原十郞で、容貌魁偉、膽略あり、戦功挙げて数うべからず、[…] [113] ) | ||
| the don'ts [j] | bekarazu shū (べからず集) | ||
| There are things beyond human comprehension. [k] | Jinchi ni rikai shiu bekarazaru koto ga aru (人智に理解し得べからざることがある) | ||
| an unpardonable crime | yurusu bekarazaru hanzai (許すべからざる犯罪) |
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)In each case, the question at stake was whether legislation should have regard for the condition of one particular class rather than of another—fairly compelling antecedent consideration of the theoretical principles governing existing incomes.かかる場合には、當面の問題は、立法がある特定の階級の狀態を他の階級以上に顧慮すべきや否やと云ふことであつた――卽ち現在の所得を支配する理論的諸原則を先づ以て考慮することを飽くまで强ふべきや否やと云ふことであつた。
Gravi cose e noiose sono i movimenti vari della fortuna, de' quali però che quante volte alcuna cosa si parla, tante è un destare delle nostre menti, le quali leggermente s'addormentano nelle sue lusinghe, giudico mai rincrescer non dover l'ascoltare ed a' felici ed agli sventurati, in quanto li primi rende avvisati ed i secondi consola.運命の色々の移りかわりは、痛ましくも、悲しいものでございます。その轉變について何かお話がでますと、その度に、その甘い幻想のなかにともすれば睡つているわたくし達の頭が目醒まされるものでございますから、これを聞くことは、幸福な人にとりましても、不運な人にとりましても、これを聞いた曉は前者を益し、後者を慰めるという點で、決して悔ゆべきことではないと、わたくしは考えているのでございます。[Wretched and doleful are the various shifts of Fortune. Whensoever any discourse on her vicissitudes arises, our minds, which at times fall asleep into her sweet delusions, are awakened. I hold that hearing this is never to be regrettable, either to the happy or the unhappy, inasmuch as having heard it augments the former and consoles the latter.]
—Mi corazón late tranquilo, mi mano va segura…「僕は氣持は靜かで、手もとも狂つちやゐない」と彼は四邊を見廻しながら云つた。「先づ、諸君の中で、自分の父を愛さなかつた者があるか、父の想ひ出を嫌ふやうな屈辱な生れかたをした者があるか。見給へ、諸君はこの沈默がお解りだらう? 平和の神の僧となつて、神聖とか宗敎とか年中口にしながら、腹の黑い貴樣のやうな奴は父の何たるを知らないんだ。さもなけりや貴樣、自分の父のことを考へても見ろ! 貴樣が馬鹿にしてる、この會衆の中に貴樣のやうな奴は一人も居ないぞツ。貴樣は奈落の底へ落つべき奴だ!」[“My mind is calm, my hand is steady,” he said, looking around. “First, is there one among you who has not loved his father, who was born in such humiliation that he hates his memory? See? You understand this silence? Priest of a God of peace, your mouth is full of sanctity and religion, yet you black-hearted knave do not know what a father is supposed to be. If not, think of your own father for a change! In this crowd which you scorn there is not a single knave like you. You deserve to go to the depths of hell!”]
Y mirando alrededor suyo:
—Antes, ¿hay entre vosotros alguno que no haya amado a su padre, que haya odiado su memoria, alguno nacido en la vergüenza y la humillación…? ¿Ves?, ¿oyes ese silencio? Sacerdote de un Dios de paz, que tienes la boca llena de santidad y religión, y el corazón de miseria, tú no debiste conocer lo que es un padre… ¡hubieras pensado en el tuyo! ¿Ves? ¡Entre esa multitud que tú desprecias no hay uno como tú! ¡Estás juzgado!
Мы сами на своем веку, в наших странствованиях, видали людей, умирающих за столь же мало существующую Дульцинею или за грубое и часто грязное нечто, в котором они видели осуществление своего идеала и превращение которого они также приписывали влиянию злых, — мы чуть было не сказали: волшебников — злых случайностей и личностей. Мы видели их, и когда переведутся такие люди, пускай закроется навсегда книга истории! в ней нечего будет читать. Чувственности и следа нет у Дон-Кихота; все мечты его стыдливы и безгрешны, и едва ли в тайной глубине своего сердца надеется он на конечное соединение с Дульцинеей, едва ли не страшится он даже этого соединения!我々自身が現代に於て、自己の國內にあつて、ヅウルシネアにも劣らぬ實在性の少ないものゝ爲に、或は粗野であるばかりか、屢々汚穢なる或ものゝ爲に、死ぬところの人々を見受ける。斯る人々は其の何物かのうちに自己の理想の存在を認め、其の變化を惡の(我我は、魔術遣ひの、とまでは言はない。)力、惡しき偶然と、個性の影響とに歸したのである。我々は彼等を見た。而して斯る人間が絕滅するときには、歷史の書を閉ずべきである。歷史のうちに讀むべき何物も存在しなくなるだらう。肉慾はドン・キホーテに痕跡もない。彼の凡ゆる幻想は皆含羞、無邪氣である。彼は心の奧底で、窃かにヅウルシネアと逢ひたいと望んでゐたかどうか、又此の逢ふことですらも、恐れてはゐなかつたか奈何か、疑ひなきを得ない。[We ourselves, in our time, in our own country, see men die for things as unreal as Dulcinea, or for things not only crude but often filthy, in which they saw the existence of their own ideal, whose transformation they ascribed to the influence of evil forces (we would almost call them magicians), wicked accidents and individuality. We have seen them, and when such men perish, the book of history is to be closed. There will exist nothing in history to read. There is no trace of sensual desires in Don Quixote. All his fantasies are bashful and guileless. One cannot help but suspect whether in the depths of his heart he secretly hoped to see Dulcinea, or if he even dreaded seeing her.]
Голубенок в яйце не может сменить свой слишком короткий клюв и погибает. Рабочий класс, поставленный перед вопросом — быть или не быть, может прогнать Макдональда и мистрис Сноуден и вооружиться клювом революционной партии для разрушения капиталистической системы.小さな鳩は卵の中でその短い嘴を長いのと變へることは出來ない、それ故に死ぬのだ。然し、勞働階級は「生くべきか死ぬべきか」との問題に直面する時はマクドナルドやスノーデン夫人を投げ出し、資本主義制度を覆す爲に革命的な團體てふ嘴を身に艤するであらう。[The little pigeon in the egg cannot swap its short beak for a long one, so it dies. But the working class, when confronted with the question of “to be or not to be,” may cast out MacDonald and Mrs Snowden, and fit themselves with the beak of a revolutionary party to overthrow the capitalist system.]
Соня возмущена, когда Раскольников предлагает ей отвлеченно-логический вопрос о сравнительной ценности двух жизней, негодяя Лужина и бедной, честной женщины Катерины Ивановны Мармеладовой.ラスコォリニコフが、能なしのルージンと貧しい、品のよい女カテリーナ・イワーノヴナ・マルメラードワの二人の生命の比較的な価値について、抽象的で、論理的な質問を浴びせかけると、ソォニヤはひどく困惑させられた。
— Зачем вы спрашиваете, чему быть невозможно? — с отвращением сказала Соня.
— Стало быть, лучше Лужину жить и делать мерзости? Вы и этого решить не осмелились?
— Да ведь я Божьего Промысла знать не могу… И к чему вы спрашиваете, чего нельзя спрашивать? К чему такие пустые вопросы? Как может случиться, чтоб это от моего решения зависело? И кто меня тут судьей поставил: кому жить, кому не жить?
North. Believe me, noble lord,ノー さァ、手前は、實際、このグロースターシャーの地理は、全く不案內でございます。荒れ果てた山々の步きにくい凸凹路が一段と里數を長びかせて、疲勞を覺えさせまするところを、途々面白いお話をうけたまはりましたので、恰も砂糖によって辛い進軍を慰めると同樣の愉快を得ました。が、ロッスやウィロービーに於ては、レーヴンスパールからコストヲルドまでの進軍に艱難いたしてをるでありませう、あなたと御一しょでないために。手前は、おかげを持ちまして、此長道中の退屈を非常に紛らすことを得ました。が、彼等とても、手前が旣に有する其同じ恩惠をやがて頂戴する望みによって慰められませう、喜びを得べき望みは、遂げられた望みに比べて其喜ばしさは殆ど劣らないのでありますから。さう心得て、疲れ果てた彼等諸卿も、遠路を短く思ふでありませう、ちょうど、手前が現にお傍にゐて、喜びを得て、さう感じましたやうに。
I am a stranger here in Gloucestershire:
These high wild hills and rough uneven ways
Draws out our miles, and makes them wearisome;
And yet your fair discourse hath been as sugar,
Making the hard way sweet and delectable.
But I bethink me what a weary way
From Ravenspurgh to Cotswold will be found
In Ross and Willoughby, wanting your company,
Which, I protest, hath very much beguiled
The tediousness and process of my travel:
But theirs is sweetened with the hope to have
The present benefit which I possess;
And hope to joy is little less in joy
Than hope enjoy'd: by this the weary lords
Shall make their way seem short, as mine hath done
By sight of what I have, your noble company.
Schittenhelm verlangt mit Recht, daß die ganze Frageder Proteinkörpertherapie einer systematischen kritischen Untersuchung unterzogen werde, um nicht in einer „roh empirischen, von Zufallstreffern abhängige Empfehlung dieses oder jenes Mittels" auszuarten.シッテンヘルム氏 Schittenhelm は蛋白體療法は孰れも系統的,批判的の試驗を經べきもので,此種の藥劑を粗雜な試驗や偶然の事から賞讃したりして,墮落に陷らしめてはならぬと唱道したのは當を得てゐる。[Schittenhelm rightly advocated that any protein-body therapy undergo systematic and critical testing, so as not to degenerate into lauding such and such medication based on crude testing or chance.]
Durant le premier âge, le tems étoit long; nous ne cherchions qu'à le perdre, de peur de le mal employer. Ici c'eſt tout le contraire, & nous n'en avons pas aſſez pour faire tout ce qui ſeroit utile. Songez que les paſſions approchent, & que ſi-tôt qu'elles frapperont à la porte, votre éleve n'aura plus d'attention que pour elles. L'âge paiſible d'intelligence eſt ſi court, il paſſe ſi rapidement, il a tant d'autres uſages néceſſaires, que c'eſt une folie de vouloir qu'il ſuffiſe à rendre un enfant ſavant. Il ne s'agit point de lui enſeigner les ſciences, mais de lui donner du goût pour les aimer, & des méthodes pour les apprendre, quand ce goût ſera mieux développé. C'eſt-là très-certainement un principe fondamental de toute bonne éducation.さて、幼兒の時期は時日が永かつたから、敎育上の失策があつてはならぬと思つて、早く大きくなつたらよからうと願つて居たけれども、早此の時期は時日の經過が頗る早くて、何も大切な事はしないで過ぎて行く。其から此の時期になると情癖が起つて來る。情癖が起つて來たら、諸君の生徒は早何ものにも注意を向けなくなる。當時は最も大切な敎育をすべき時で、子供を學者になさうと思つて敎育する樣な馬鹿らしい事をしてはならぬ。此の時期は子供に學問を敎ふべき時では無くて、學問の趣味や、學問の仕方を敎へる時である。卽ち善良な敎育の根本的原則を授くる時である。[Now, since time was long during infancy, we wished to grow up quickly not to bungle it, educationally speaking; but now that the passage of time is far too quick, it goes by without anything worthwhile. And then the passions begin to emerge, and when they do, your pupil will soon not direct their attention to anything else. Now is the time of utmost importance for education, so we cannot afford such folly as to educate the child in the hope of making him a scholar. This is no time to teach him the sciences, but to give him a taste for and the methods of learning them. It is, in other words, time to impart a fundamental principle of good education.]
But although Russia was recognised as a potential enemy, this was certainly not the time to provoke a clash with her. It was of the first importance that she should be placated until the present struggle had been brought to a conclusion. The Naval Staff was accordingly informed by the Foreign Office that negotiations for the return of Northern Sakhalin were about to be set in train, but that every effort would be made to prolong them.露國は、今や再び日本正面の敵となりつゝあるのではあるが、干戈を交ふべき時機でない事は明かである。眼前に進行中の日米戰爭が片附くまで、日本は絕對に陰忍自重せねばならなかつた。そこで日本外務省は、北樺太の還附交涉は間もなく開始せねばならぬが、出來るだけ之れを遷延せしめる樣努力する積てあると、海軍省に通吿したのであつた。
Resté seul et tranquille, je pensai sérieusement à rétablir ma santé, car tout ce que je venais de souffrir m'avait donné des contractions de nerfs qui pouvaient prendre un caractère alarmant. Je me mis au régime, et en trois semaines je me trouvai parfaitement bien.ひとりになつて、私はほつとした。もうこれで誰に煩はされることもない。私は眞劍に自分の健康の恢復について考へた。脫走に際して極度に心身を勞したことから、私の健康狀態には憂ふべき兆候が現はれてゐたからである。私は靜養の日々を送り、三週間で元通りの完全な健康を取り戾した。[Being alone, I now rested easy, bothered by no one any longer. I thought seriously of recovering my health, for it had shown worrisome signs after I had strained my body and mind to extremes during the escape. I passed some recuperative days, and in three weeks I regained my perfect health.]
Toutes ces vieilleries, troupeau, grains, fruits, légumes, doivent un jour disparaître. Ainsi le veut, dit-on, le progrès; ainsi l'affirme la cornue, qui, dans sa présomption, ne reconnaît rien d'impossible.家畜の群だ、種子だ、果實だ、野菜だと云つたやうな、そんな古いものはすべて、何時かは消ゆべきものだ。それが進步と云ふものださうだ。思ひ上がつて、何等不可能な事を認めぬ化學は、さう確言して居る。[All such old things as groups of livestock, grains, fruits, vegetables, must one day disappear. Thus is it willed, one would say, by progress; thus is it affirmed by chemistry, which, in its presumption, acknowledges none as impossible.]
That then, and as often as the said Elizabeth Mollineux shall happen to be enceint with child or children severally and lawfully begot, or to be begotten, upon the body of the said Elizabeth Mollineux, during her said coverture,—he the said Walter Shandy shall, at his own proper cost and charges, and out of his own proper monies, upon good and reasonable notice, which is hereby agreed to be within six weeks of her the said Elizabeth Mollineux’s full reckoning, or time of supposed and computed delivery,—pay, or cause to be paid, the sum of one hundred and twenty pounds of good and lawful money, to John Dixon, and James Turner, Esqrs. or assigns,—upon trust and confidence, and for and unto the use and uses, intent, end, and purpose following:—上記エリザベス・モリノーが上述の妻としての身分において、その体にそれぞれ合法的に授けられたる子供を懐妊する毎に、――上記ウォルター・シャンディは、自らの費用と負担とにおいて、自らの囊中より、適当かつ合理的なる通告の下に、――この場合、その通告は、彼女即ち上記エリザベス・モリーノの予測され、計算された出産予定日より六週間を遡る期間内においてなすものと取り決める――正しく、合法なる貨幣による百二十ポンドの金額を受託者ジョン・ディクスン、及びジェイムズ・ターナー両氏に支払うか、または支払われるよう手配し、信頼と信任との下に、次のごとき用途、目的、意図、意向に当つべきものとする。――
Was ich mir nicht verſagen konnte, war, ſobald als nur möglich den Umgang mit den Gliedern der herrnhutiſchen Gemeinde fortzuſetzen und feſter zu knüpfen, und ich eilte, eine ihrer nächſten Einrichtungen zu beſuchen: aber auch da fand ich keineswegs, was ich mir vorgeſtellt hatte. Jch war ehrlich genug, meine Meinung merken zu laſſen, und man ſuchte mir hinwieder beizubringen: dieſe Verfaſſung ſei gar nichts gegen eine ordentlich eingerichtete Gemeinde. Jch konnte mir das gefallen laſſen; doch hätte nach meiner Uberzeugung der wahre Geiſt aus einer kleinen ſo gut als aus einer großen Anſtalt hervorblicken ſollen.私のどうしても押へることのできなかつた願ひは、できるだけ早くヘルンフート敎團の團員との交通を續け且つ更に堅く結びつくといふことでした、それで私は近くにあるその施設の一つを急いで訪ねました――然しそこでも私は自分で想像してゐたものを全然發見することができませんでした。私は正直に自分の思つたことを相手に洩しました、すると人人はそれに對してこの施設はちやんと整頓されてゐる敎團に比べては物の數ではないのだといふことを呑み込ませようとしました。私はそれを默つて聽いてゐました。然し私の確信によれば、眞の精神は小さな施設からでも大きな施設からと同樣に輝き出べき筈のものだと思ひます。[One desire I could not repress no matter what was, as soon as possible, to resume and further strengthen communion with the members of the Herrnhutish community, and so I hastened to visit one of their nearby establishments――but even there I could not find anything at all like what I had imagined. I frankly shared what I thought with them, and in response they tried to convince me that this establishment was nothing compared to an orderly community. I listened without objection, yet it was my conviction that the true spirit ought to have shone through from a small establishment just as well as a large one.]
Lorsque la fleur fit son apparition sur notre terre, il n'y avait autour d'elle aucun modèle qu'elle pût imiter; il a fallu qu'elle tirât tout de son propre fond.花が我が地球上に現はれた時彼等の周圍には眞似べき典型もなかつた。彼等は何事も自分の內部からひき出さねばならなかつた。[When flowers made their appearance on our earth, there was no model around them to imitate. They had to draw everything from their own inside.]
Some parishes were united to the Castle Church,—the Church of All Saints its ecclesiastical name,—and the tithes furnished the stipends of the professors, who were to be prebendaries of the Church.また城敎會――宗敎的名稱は諸聖徒敎會といふ――に數敎區を併合し其十分一稅を以て敎授中該敎會の有給僧を兼ぬべき者の俸給に充てた。
I drew out my purse; a meagre thing it was. 'Five shillings, sir.' He took the purse, poured the hoard into his palm, and chuckled over it as if its scantiness amused him. Soon he produced his pocket-book: 'Here,' said he, offering me a note; it was fifty pounds, and he owed me but fifteen. I told him I had no change.私は財布を取り出した。いくらもなかった。
'I don't want change; you know that. Take your wages.'
I declined accepting more than was my due. He scowled at first; then, as if recollecting something, he said—
'Right, right! Better not give you all now: you would, perhaps, stay away three months if you had fifty pounds. There are ten; is it not plenty?'
'Yes, sir, but now you owe me five.'
'Come back for it, then; I am your banker for forty pounds.'
The offence is holy that she hath committed;アンが犯した此不埒は神聖な不埓です。かういふ僞りは、奸計とか不柔順とか不孝とかいふ汚名を受くべきぢゃありません。これによって强迫結婚が彼女の身に持ち來すべき不神聖な、呪ふべき數千時間を避け得たからであります。
And this deceit loses the name of craft,
Of disobedience, or unduteous title,
Since therein she doth evitate and shun
A thousand irreligious cursed hours,
Which forced marriage would have brought upon her.
Then it follow'd moſt naturally, It is God that has made it all: Well, but then it came on ſtrangely, if God has made all theſe Things, He guides and governs them all, and all Things that concern them; for the Power that could make all Things, muſt certainly have Power to guide and direct them.斯う思ふと自然「それは神樣だ」と考へられて來る、「が、さて、神樣が萬物をお造りになつたとすると、その神樣はまた、その萬物を指導し支配されてゐる筈である。さうすればこの神樣の造られた天地間に於て、一事一物たりとも、そのお指圖なく、また、その御承知のない事が起つて來べき筈はない。すれば、神樣は、自分が此處に斯うした悲慘な境涯にをるといふ事も御承知の筈だ。今まで自分の身の上に振りか〻つた事は皆これ神樣の思召から出たに違ひない」と、何う考へて見ても、さうとしか思へなくなつて來た。
If ſo, nothing can happen in the great Circuit of his Works, either without his Knowledge or Appointment.
And if nothing happens without his Knowledge, he knows that I am here, and am in this dreadful Condition; and if nothing happens without his Appointment, he has appointed all this to befal me.
Nothing occurr'd to my Thought to contradict any of theſe Concluſions; and therefore it reſted upon me with the greater Force, that it muſt needs be, that God had appointed all this to befal me; that I was brought to this miſerable Circumſtance by his Direction, he having the ſole Power, not of me only, but of every Thing that happen'd in the World. Immediately it follow'd,
Why has God done this to me? What have I done to be thus us'd?
Revolt our subjects? that we cannot mend;臣民がみんな叛いたといふか? 是非に及ばん。彼等が予に背約したのは、同時に神に對しての誓約を破ったのぢゃ。不幸、破壞、滅亡、衰廢、何となと叫べ。最惡は死ぢゃが、死は早晩來べきものぢゃ。
They break their faith to God as well as us:
Cry woe, destruction, ruin and decay;
The worst is death, and death will have his day.
"To be, or not to be, that is the question. […]"「在るべきか、なかるべきか、それが問題だ。[…]」
Ты чего смеешься-то? Не веришь, атеист. А ты почем знаешь? Да и то соврал, если уж подслушал меня: я не просто за одну графиню Дюбарри молился; я причитал так: «Упокой, господи, душу великой грешницы графини Дюбарри и всех ей подобных», а уж это совсем другое; ибо много таковых грешниц великих, и образцов перемены фортуны, и вытерпевших, которые там теперь мятутся, и стонут, и ждут;貴様、何を笑っていやがるんだ? 貴様にゃ信じられないんだな、不信仰ものめ。貴様にわかってたまるもんか! それに本当にぬすみ聞きしたのなら、貴様は嘘をついている。おれはな、デュバルリ伯爵夫人ひとりのためにお祈りをあげたんじゃないんだ、『気高き罪びと、デュバルリ伯爵夫人と、それに同じきあまたの罪びとの魂に安息を垂れたまえ』と言ってお祈りしたんだぞ。これとあれじゃ、すっかり事情が違うからなあ。なぜって、そんな風なえらい罪びとや、運命の手ひどい変化に会った人や、不幸に苦しみぬいてきた人などが数多くあの世で、いまうめいたりして安息を待ちのぞんでいるんだぞ。[What the hell are ya laughin’ at? Ya believe nothin’, heathen! Ya don’t even get it straight, and if ya really did hear me right, that’s a lie yer tellin’! I didn’t pray for the Comtesse du Barry alone, I actually prayed, “May the Lord grant refuge to the souls of the Comtesse du Barry the noble sinner, and of countless sinners like herself.” That’s somethin’ else entirely. Because there are many such great sinners, those who met with brutal turns of fate, those who have suffered through misfortunes, they’re groanin’ now while awaitin’ refuge in the afterlife.]
La nuit venait de descendre sur la ville frémissante encore du bruit de ce supplice, dont les détails couraient de bouche en bouche assombrir dans chaque maison l'heure joyeuse du souper de famille.処刑の興奮さめやらぬパリの町に夜の帳がおりていった。処刑の模様は口から口へと伝えられ、楽しかるべき家族の食卓を暗くしていた。[The curtain of night had fallen upon the city of Paris, still reeling from the frenzy of the execution. Word of its development had been passed from mouth to mouth, casting a gloom over the otherwise joyous family supper.]
Толкова по-болезнено се свиваше сърцето на Николай, изтърпял напразно всичкия страх, който обзема човек пред сражение, и прекарал целия този весел ден в бездействие.それだけに、戦闘に先立つ恐怖にいたずらに悩んで、この楽しかるべき日を無為のうちにすごしてしまったニコライの胸は、なお一層締めつけられるような思いがした。[And Nicholas, who had vainly suffered all the dread that precedes a battle and had spent that otherwise joyful day in inactivity, felt as though his chest tightened even more.]
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