Pashto phonology

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Amongst the Iranian languages, the phonology of Pashto is of middle complexity,[ quantify ] but its morphology is very complex. [1]

Contents

Consonants

Consonant phonemes of Pashto [2]
Labial Dental/
alveolar 		Post-
alveolar 		Retroflex Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
Nasal m n ɳ ŋ 1
Plosive p b t̪ d̪ ʈ ɖ k ɡ ( q )2
Affricate t͡s 3 d͡z 3 t͡ʃ d͡ʒ
Fricative ( f )2 s z ʃ ʒ 4 ʂ 5 ʐ 5( ç ʝ ) x 6 ɣ h
Approximant l ɽ 7 j w
Rhotic r 8

1. The voiced velar nasal /ŋ/ is not represented by a separate letter in the Pashto alphabet, but naturally occurs as an allophonic variant of the voiced alveolar nasal /n/ before velar consonants.
2. The voiceless uvular plosive /q/ (ق) and the voiceless labiodental fricative /f/ (ف) primarily appear in loanwords borrowed from Persian of Arabic origin. In Pashto, the former tends to be replaced with the voiceless velar plosive /k/ or the voiceless velar fricative /x/, and the latter tends to be replaced with the voiceless labiodental plosive /p/.
3. The voiced /d͡z/ (ځ) and voiceless alveolar affricates /t͡s/ (څ) remain in the Kandahar (Southwestern) and Quetta (Southeastern) dialects, as well as among majority of the Karlani dialects. In the Derajat region, these respectfully tend to be simplified to the voiced /d͡ʒ/ and voiced palato-alveolar sibilant affricates /t͡ʃ/. Whereas in the Northwestern and Northeastern Dialects, they are simplified to the voiced /z/ and voiceless alveolar fricatives /s/.
4. The voiced postalveolar fricative /ʒ/ (ژ) exists within the majority of Pashto dialects, but changes to the voiced alveolar fricative /z/ in the Derajat region and the Northwestern Dialect, and to the voiced palato-alveolar sibilant affricate /d͡ʒ/ in the Northeastern Dialect, specifically in Peshawar and Swat.
5. The Pashto letters (ږ) and (ښ) have the most variation in pronunciations; from the archaic Kandahar (Southwestern) voiced /ʐ/ and voiceless retroflex sibilant fricatives /ʂ/, [3] [4] which had shifted to the voiced /ʝ/ and voiceless palatal fricatives /ç/ in the Northwestern Dialect, [5] [6] and from it to the voiced velar plosive /g/ (through phonological fortition/stop reinforcement) and the voiceless velar fricative /x/ in the Northeastern Dialect. [7] [8] On the other hand, it got simplified to the voiced /ʒ/ and voiceless postalveolar fricatives /ʃ/, specificlally in the Quetta (Southeastern) and Derajat Dialects.
6. The Pashto letter (خ) is mostly pronounced as a voiceless velar fricative /x/, and as a voiceless uvular fricative /χ/ in some accents of the Northeastern Dialect, particularly in the regions of Peshawar and Swat.
7. The Pashto letter (ړ) is a voiced retroflex flap /ɽ/ most of the time, but tends to be a lateral flap /𝼈/ at the beginning of a syllable or other prosodic unit, and a regular flap or approximant /ɻ/ elsewhere. [9] [10]
8.The Pashto letter (ر) is pronounced with a voiced alveolar trill /r/ when it is typically used at the beginning of a syllable, and the voiced alveolar tap or flap /ɾ/ is pronounced in between vowels and in word-end position.

Dialects

Dialectal allophones represented by ښ and ږ. The retroflex variants [ʂ,ʐ] are used in the southwestern dialects, whereas the post-alveolar variants [ʃ,ʒ] are used in southeastern dialects. The palatal variants [ç,ʝ] are used in the Wardak and Central Ghilji dialects. In the northeastern dialects, ښ and ږ merge with the velar [x,g].

Phonotactics

Pashto syllable structure can be summarized as follows; parentheses enclose optional components:

Pashto syllable structure consists of an optional syllable onset, consisting of one or two consonants; an obligatory syllable nucleus, consisting of a vowel optionally preceded by and/or followed by a semivowel; and an optional syllable coda, consisting of one or two consonants. The following restrictions apply:

Consonant clusters

Pashto has a lot of word-initial consonant clusters in all dialects; some hundred such clusters occurs. However, there is no consonant gemination. [11]

Examples
Two consonant clusters/tl/, /kl/, /bl/, /ɣl/, /lm/, /nm/, /lw/, /sw/, /br/, /tr/, /ɣr/, /pr/, /dr/, /wr/, /kɽ/, /mɽ/, /wɽ//xp/, /pʃ/, /pʂ/, /xr/, /zb/, /zɽ/, /ʒb/, /d͡zm/, /md͡z/, /t͡sk/, /sk/, /sp/, /ʃp/, /ʂk/, /xk/, /ʃk/, /kʃ/, /kx/, /kʂ/, /ml/, /gr/, /gm/ and /ʐm/etc.
Three consonant clusters/sxw/, /xwɽ/, /xwl/, /nɣw/etc.

Examples

An edited [note 1] list from the book Pashto Phonology by M.K. Khan: [12]

IPAMeaning
V[o]'was' (dialectal)و
VC[as]'horse'اس
VCC[aɾt̪]'loose'ارت
CV[t̪ə]'you'ته
CVC[ɖeɾ]'many, very'ډېر
CVCC[lund̪]'wet'لوند
CCV[mlɑ]backملا
CCVC[klak]'hard'کلک
CCVCC[ʒwənd̪]'life'ژوند
CCCV[ˈxʷlə]'mouth'خوله
CCCVC[nd̪ɾoɾ]'sister-in-law'ندرور
CCCVCC[ʃxʷand̪]'chewing [of food]'شخوند

Vowels

Most dialects in Pashto have seven vowels and seven diphthongs. [13]

Front Central Back
Close i u
Mid e ə o
Open a ɑ

Prehistory

There are many complexities on the development from Proto-Iranian into the modern Pashto vowel inventory (romanization will be used here): [15]

Diphthongs

Front Central Back
Close uɪ
Mid əɪoɪ
Open aɪ, aʊɑɪ, ɑʊ

Elfenbein notes that the long diphthongs [ɑi, ɑw] are always stressed, whilst the short diphthongs may or may not be stressed. [16]

Orthography of diphthongs

InitialMedialFinal
aɪایَيـَی
əɪۍ and ئ
oɪاویويـوی
uɪاویويـوی
aʊاوَوَو
ɑɪآيايای
ɑʊآواواو

Stress

Pashto has phonemic variable stress, [17] unique amongst Iranian languages. [11]

For instance, in verbs to distinguish aspect:

Imperfective verb

(mostly final stress)

MeaningPerfective verb

(initial stress)

Meaning
[kenɑstə́ləm]'I was sitting'[kénɑstələm]'I sat down'
[kenɑstə́m]'I was sitting'[kénɑstəm]'I sat down'
[bakenə́m]'I shall be sitting'[bakénəm]'I shall sit'

Basic word stress

Stress is indicated by the IPA stress marker [ˈ].

In general, the last syllable is stressed if the word ends in a consonant, and the penultimate syllable is stressed if the last syllable ends in a vowel. [18]

ExampleIPAMeaning
رنځور[ranˈd͡zuɾ]'sick' (adj. masc.)
رنځوره[ranˈd͡zura]'sick' (adj. fem.)
کورونه[koˈruna]'houses' (n. masc. pl.)
ښځو[ˈʂəd͡zo]'women' (n. fem. pl. obl.)
لاندې[ˈlɑnd̪e]'below' (adv. circumpos.)
ځمکپوهنه[d͡zmək.poˈhəna]'geography' (n. fem.)

Masculine words ending in "ə"

These have final stress generally. [19]

ExampleIPAMeaning
تېره[t̪eˈrə]'sharp' (adj.)
لېوه[leˈwə]'wolf' (n.)

Feminine words ending in "o"

These end in a stressed /o/. [20] [21]

ExampleIPAMeaning
بيزو[biˈzo]'monkey'
پيشو[piˈʃo]'cat'
ورشو[waɾˈʃo]'meadow, pasture'

Wordings ending in aleph

Words ending in IPA /ɑ/ i.e. ا are stressed in the last syllable.

ExampleIPAMeaning
اشنا[aʃˈnɑ]'familiar' (n. masc.)
رڼا[raˈɳɑ]'light' (n. fem.)

Exceptions

Word meanings also change upon stress.

WordIPAMeaning 1IPAMeaning 2
جوړه[ˈd͡ʒoɽa]'well'[d͡ʒoˈɽa]'pair'
اسپه[ˈaspa]'mare'[asˈpa]'spotted fever'

Intonation

Questions

WH-Questions (who, where, when, etc.) follow a hat pattern of intonation: a rise in pitch followed by a fall in pitch. [22]

تاسو چېرته کار کوئ
[tɑ́so↗tʃértakɑrkawə́ɪ↘]

Yes/No-Questions end in a high intonation: a rise in pitch.

غنم يې ورېبل؟
[ɣanə́mjewә́rebəl↗]

Contrastive focus

When a word is contrasted with another word it carries a low then high pitch accent, followed by a sharp fall in pitch accent.

نه له د نه کشر يم
[na↘lə↗dənəkə́ʃərjə́m↘]

Dialectal phonology

Consonants

This diagram is based on Anna Boyle's division of the dialect variations on geographic regions: [23]

Dialectښږڅځژ
Southwestern dialects e.g., Sharkhbun dialects (Kandahar–Herat, southwestern Afghanistan) ʂ ʐ t͡s d͡z ʒ
Southeastern dialects e.g., Ghurghusht and Lodi dialects (Quetta–Zhob and Dera Ismail Khan–Bannu, southwestern Pakistan) ʃ ʒ t͡s (in Ghurghusht dialect)

t͡ʃ (in Lodi dialect)		 d͡z (in Ghurghusht dialect)

d͡ʒ (in Lodi dialect)		 ʒ (in Ghurghusht dialect)

z (in Lodi dialect)
Central dialects – Karlani dialects (Paktika–Tirah, southeastern Afghanistan and western Pakistan) ç (in Zadrani)

ɕ (in Waziri)		 ʝ (in Zadrani)

ʑ (in Waziri)		 t͡s d͡z ʒ
Northwestern dialects e.g., Wardak and Ghilji dialects (Zabul–Maidan Wardak, northwestern Afghanistan) [24] ç ʝ s and t͡s z and d͡z ʒ and z
Northeastern dialects e.g., Kharshbun dialects (Kabul–Kunar and Swat–Peshawar, northeastern Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan) x ɡ s z ʒ (in northeastern Afghanistan)

d͡ʒ (in northwestern Pakistan)

Regional variation

This diagram, however, does not factor in the regional variations within the broad geographic areas. Compare the following consonant and vowel differences amongst regions categorised as northern dialects: [24]

Northern dialects
Meaning Wardak Jalalabad Bati Kot
دوی'they'[deɪ̯][ˈduwi][ˈduwi]
راکړه'give' (imperative of راکول)[ˈrɑka][ˈrɑka][ˈrɑkɽa]
پوهېدل'to know'[pijeˈd̪əl][pojeˈd̪əl][pojiˈd̪əl]
شپږ'six'[ʃpaʝ][ʃpag][ʃpiʒ]
وريځ'cloud'[wəɾˈjed͡z][wɾez][wəˈred͡z]
ښځه'woman'[ˈçəd͡za][ˈxəza]
اوبه'water'[ˈobə][ˈubə][ˈobə]

Or the difference in vowels and diphthongs in North Eastern Pashto:

Meaning Swat Peshawar
ودرېږه'stop' (imperative of درېدل)['wəd̪ɾega][ˈod̪ɾega]
جنۍ'girl'[d͡ʒiˈnəɪ̯][d͡ʒiˈnɛ]

Alveolo-palatal fricative

Rozi Khan Burki claims that the Ormuri alveolo-palatal fricative [ ɕ ] and [ ʑ ] may also be present in Waziri. [25] But Pashto linguists such as Josef Elfenbein, Anna Boyle or Yousaf Khan Jazab have not noted this in Waziri Phonology. [26] [27] [28]

Vowels

Waziri vowels

Front Central Back
Unrounded Rounded
Close i u
Mid ɛ œ ə ɔ
Near-Open æ
Open a ɒ
Vowel shift

Corey Miller notes that the shift does not affect all words. [29]

In the Waziri dialect, [ ɑ ] in Standard Pashto becomes [ ɔː ] in northern Waziri and [ ɒː ] in southern Waziri. [30]

MeaningStandard PashtoN. WazirwolaS. Wazirwola
ماسته'yogurt'[mɑsˈt̪ə][mɔːsˈt̪ə][mɒːsˈt̪ə]
پاڼه'leaf'[pɑˈɳa][ˈpɔːɳjɛː][ˈpɒːɳjɛː]

In the Waziri dialect, the stressed [ o ] in Standard Pashto becomes [ œː ] and [ ɛː ]. The [ o ] in Standard Pashto may also begin with a glide: [jɛ], [wɛː]. [30]

MeaningStandard PashtoWazirwola
لور'sickle'[loɾ][lœːɾ]
وړه'flour'[ˈoɽə][ˈɛːɽə]
اوږه'shoulder'[ˈoga][ˈ(j)ɛʒa]
اوس'now'[os][wɛːs]

In the Waziri dialect, stressed [ u ] in Standard Pashto becomes [ iː ]. [31]

MeaningStandard PashtoWazirwola
موږ'we'[muɡ][miːʒ]
نوم'navel'[num][niːm]

When [ u ] begins a word in Standard Pashto, it can become [ jiː ] or w[ ɛ ].

MeaningStandard PashtoWazirwola
اوم'raw'[um][jiːm]
اوږه'garlic'[ˈuɡa][ˈjiːʒa]
اوده'asleep'[ˈud̪ə][wɜˈd̪ə]

Elfenbein also notes the presence of the near-open vowel [ æ ]. [32]

Apridi vowels

Apridi has the additional close-mid central rounded vowel [ ɵ ]. [33]

Diphthongs in dialects

The diphthongs varies according to dialect. [34]

Standard pronunciationApridiYusupzai [35] WaziriMohmandBaniswola/Bannuchi [36] Wanetsi
aɪʌɪ
ʌː		eaɪɑa
ˈaɪˈaɪˈeæɪˈɑːiˈa
ˈəɪˈijeˈəɪˈəɪ

ˈe [37]

ˈijeˈi
oɪwaɪweoːi
œːi		eːi
uɪui,wiˈojəi
awaoow, aːw
ɑiɑeˈɑːi
ɑwɑooːw

Yousaf Khan Jazab notes that the diphthong /əɪ/ becomes /oi/ in the Khattak Dialect in the verbal suffix /ئ/, [38] but it remains as the diphthong /əɪ/ in the nominal/adjectival /ۍ/ example: مړۍ[maˈɽəɪ̯] 'meal'. [39]

Nasalisation of vowels

As noted by Yousaf Khan Jazab, the Marwat and Bansiwola dialects have nasalised vowels also. [40] It is also noted in the Waṇetsi/Tarin dialect.

These are indicated by the diacritic mark /̃/.

StandardMarwatMeaning
بوی [buɪ̯]بویں [buĩ]'smell'

Notes

  1. ↑ With some corrected IPA for words mentioned therein . Sources of correction: Kaye (1997), Zeeya Pashtoon (2009) and Qamosona.com

References

  1. ↑ Elfenbein (1997), p. 736.
  2. ↑ Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 15.
  3. ↑ Michael M.T. Henderson, Four Varieties of Pashto
  4. ↑ Morgenstierne, Georg (2003). A New Etymological Vocabulary of Pashto. Reichert. pp. vii–viii. ISBN   978-3-89500-364-6.
  5. ↑ David (2014), p. 9.
  6. ↑ David (2014), p. 35.
  7. ↑ MacKenzie, D. N. "A Standard Pashto". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 22: 232–233. Archived from the original on October 24, 2005.
  8. ↑ Gawarjon (高尔锵/Gāo Ěrqiāng) (1985). Outline of the Tajik language (塔吉克语简志/Tǎjíkèyǔ Jiǎnzhì). Beijing: Nationalities Publishing House.
  9. ↑ D.N. MacKenzie, 1990, "Pashto", in Bernard Comrie, ed, The major languages of South Asia, the Middle East and Africa, p. 103
  10. ↑ Herbert Penzl, 1965, A reader of Pashto, p 7
  11. 1 2 Elfenbein (1997), p. 737.
  12. ↑ Khan, Muhammad Kamal (2020-04-08). Pashto Phonology: An Evaluation of the Relationship between Syllable Structure and Word Order. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 56–57. ISBN   978-1-5275-4925-8.
  13. ↑ David (2014), p. 11.
  14. ↑ Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 17.
  15. ↑ Cheung, Johnny (2011). "Selected Pashto Problems II. Historical Phonology 1: On Vocalism and Etyma". Iran and the Caucasus. 15 (1–2): 169–205. doi:10.1163/157338411X12870596615557.
  16. ↑ Elfenbein (1997), p. 751.
  17. ↑ Bečka, Jiří (1969). A Study in Pashto Stress. Academia.
  18. ↑ Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 25.
  19. ↑ David, Anne Boyle (2015-06-16). Descriptive Grammar of Bangla (in German). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. pp. 56 and 109. ISBN   978-1-5015-0083-1.
  20. ↑ Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 56.
  21. ↑ David (2014), p. 68.
  22. ↑ "Pashto Intonation Patterns". Interspeech 2017.
  23. ↑ David (2014), pp. 31–34.
  24. 1 2 Coyle 2014.
  25. ↑ "Dying Languages: Special Focus on Ormuri". Pakistan Journal of Public Administration. 6. No. 2. December 2001. Archived from the original on September 3, 2012.
  26. ↑ Elfenbein (1997), pp. 740–749.
  27. ↑ David (2014), pp. 37–40.
  28. ↑ Jazab (2017), pp. 69–70.
  29. ↑ Miller, Corey (2014-05-12). "The Waziri Chain Shift" . Journal of Persianate Studies. 7 (1): 125. doi:10.1163/18747167-12341267. ISSN   1874-7167.
  30. 1 2 Elfenbein (1997), p. 748.
  31. ↑ Elfenbein (1997), p. 749.
  32. ↑ Elfenbein (1997), p. 746.
  33. ↑ Elfenbein (1997), pp. 740, 750–751.
  34. ↑ Elfenbein (1997), pp. 751–753.
  35. ↑ Rensch, Calvin Ross (1992). Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan: Pashto, Waneci, Ormuri. National Institute of Pakistan Studies, Quaid-i-Azam University. pp. 79–146.
  36. ↑ Jazab (2017), pp. 64–65.
  37. ↑ Jazab (2020), p. 189.
  38. ↑ Jazab (2020), pp. 187–188.
  39. ↑ Jazab (2017), p. 65.
  40. ↑ Jazab (2017), pp. 60–61.

Bibliography

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