Catalan phonology

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The Catalan phonology (or Valencian phonology) has a certain degree of dialectal variation. Although there are two standard varieties, one based on Central Eastern dialect and another one based on South-Western or Valencian, this article deals with features of all or most dialects, as well as regional pronunciation differences.

Contents

Catalan is characterized by final-obstruent devoicing, lenition, and voicing assimilation; a set of 7 to 8 phonemic vowels, vowel assimilations (including vowel harmony), many phonetic diphthongs, and vowel reduction, whose precise details differ between dialects.

Consonants

Consonants of Catalan [1] [2]
Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
Nasal m n 3 ɲ 6 ( ŋ )
Plosive voiceless p t 1 k 2
voiced b d 1 ɡ 2
Affricate voiceless( t͡s ) 5 t͡ʃ 7
voiced d͡z 5 d͡ʒ 7
Fricative voiceless f ( θ ) s 4 ʃ 7 ( x )( h )
voiced( v ) z 4 ʒ 7 ( ʁ )
Approximant central j w
lateral l 3 ʎ 6
Trill r 4 ( ʀ )
Tap ɾ 3

Phonetic notes:

Obstruents

Obstruents assimilate to the voicing of the following consonant. Voiced obstruents undergo final-obstruent devoicing so that fred ('cold', m. s.) is pronounced with [t] ([ˈfɾɛt], [ˈfɾət], [ˈfɾet]) while fredes ('cold', f. pl.) is pronounced with [ð] ([ˈfɾɛðəs], [ˈfɾəðəs], [ˈfɾeðes]). [13] [14] [15]

Table with minimal pairs:

Coda obstruents minimal pairs
IPA wordglosswordgloss
[p]cub'cube'cup'winepress'
[t]tord'thrush'tort'crooked'
[k]mag'magician'mac'pebble'
[f]salv'exempt'
[s]brunz's/he buzzes'bruns'dark browns'
[t͡s]hertz'hertz'
[t͡ʃ]raig'ray'

Plosives

Voiced plosives (also called stops) become lenited to fricatives or approximants in syllable onsets, after continuants: [6] /b/ → [ β ], /d/ → [ ð ], /ɡ/ → [ ɣ ].

  • Exceptions include /d/ after lateral consonants and /b/ after /f/, e.g. bolígraf boníssim[buˈliɣɾəv‿buˈnisim] (E) / [boˈliɣɾav‿boˈnisim] (W) ('really good pen').
  • In non-betacist dialects (those who do not merge /b/ with /v/), /b/ remains unlenited.
  • In some dialects, e.g. many Valencian accents, initial (that is, in all environments except after a nasal) /ɡ/ can be lenited: gat[ˈɣat] ('cat'). [16]
  • In the coda position, these sounds are always realized as stops; [17] except in some Valencian dialects, where they might be lenited. [18]

In Catalan and Balearic (not in Valencian), /b/ and /ɡ/ may be geminated in certain environments (e.g. poble[ˈpɔbːlə] 'village, people', regla[ˈreɡːlə] 'rule'). [19] [20]

Intervocalic /d/ is dropped (particularly in participles) in regular speech in Valencian, with compensatory lengthening of vowel /a/; e.g. vesprada[vesˈpɾaː] ('afternoon'). [21]

In Majorcan varieties, /k/ and /ɡ/ become [ c ] and [ ɟ ] word-finally and before front vowels, [18] in some of these dialects, this has extended to all environments except before liquids and back vowels; e.g. sang[ˈsaɲc] ('blood'). [6]

  • The dorso-palatal [ ʝ ] may occur in complementary distribution with [ ɟ ], only in Majorcan varieties that have dorso-palatals rather than the velars found in most dialects: guerra[ˈɟɛrə] ('war') vs. sa guerra[səˈʝɛrə] ('the war'). [22]

In the Valencian dialects final voiceless plosives (/p,t,k/) may be lenited before a vowel: tot açò[ˈtoð‿aˈsɔ] ('all this'). [23]

Affricates

The phonemic status of affricates is dubious; after other consonants, affricates are in free variation with fricatives, e.g. clenxa[ˈklɛnʃə]~[ˈklɛɲt͡ʃə] (E) / [ˈklɛɲt͡ʃa] (W) ('hair parting') [24] and may be analyzed as either single phonemes or clusters of a stop and a fricative.

  • Alveolar affricates, [ t͡s ] and [ d͡z ], occur the least of all affricates. [25]
    • [d͡z] only occurs intervocalically: metzines[məˈd͡zinəs] (E) / [meˈd͡zines] (W) ('toxic substances'). [26]
    • Instances of [t͡s] arise mostly from compounding; the few lexical instances arise from historical compounding. [24] For instance, potser[putˈt͡se] (E) / [potˈt͡seɾ] (W) ('maybe') comes from pot ('may') + ser ('be' inf). As such, [t͡s] does not occur word-initially; other than some rare words of foreign origin (e.g. tsar 'tsar', [lower-alpha 13] tsuga 'tsuga' [lower-alpha 14] ), but it may occur word-finally and quite often in cases of heteromorphemic (i.e. across a morpheme boundary) plural endings: tots[ˈtot͡s] ('everybody'). [25] Several linguists claim [t͡s] is not a phoneme on its own, but a simple combination of [t] and [s], in the same way that the [ts] English 'cats' is not phonemic. [27]
  • The distribution of alveolo-palatal affricates, [ t͡ʃ ] and [ d͡ʒ ], depends on dialect:
    • In most of Valencian and southern Catalonia, [25] [28] most occurrences of [d͡ʒ] correspond to the voiced fricative [ʒ] in Standard Eastern Catalan: gel[ˈd͡ʒɛl] ('ice').
    • In Standard Eastern Catalan, word-initial [t͡ʃ] is found only in a few words of foreign origin (e.g. txec 'Czech', [lower-alpha 15] Txaikovski 'Tchaikovsky') while being found freely intervocalically (e.g. fletxa 'arrow') and word-finally: despatx[dəsˈpat͡ʃ] (E) / [desˈpat͡ʃ] (W) ('office').
    • Standard Eastern Catalan also only allows [d͡ʒ] in intervocalic position (e.g. metge 'medic'). Phonemic analyses show word-final occurrences of /d͡ʒ/ (e.g. raig esbiaixat[ˈrad͡ʒ‿əzβiəˈʃat] (E) / [ˈrad͡ʒ‿ezbiajˈʃat] (W) 'skew ray'), but final devoicing eliminates this from the surface: raig[ˈrat͡ʃ] ('ray').
    • In various other dialects (as well as in emphatic speech), [12] [tʃ] occurs word-initially and after another consonant to the exclusion of [ʃ]. These instances of word-initial [t͡ʃ] seem to correspond to [ʃ] in other dialects, including the standard (on which the orthography is based): xinxa ('bedbug'), pronounced [ˈʃiɲʃə] in the standard, is [ˈt͡ʃiɲt͡ʃa] in these varieties. [26]

There is dialectal variation in regards to affricate length, with long affricates occurring in both Eastern and Western dialects such as in Majorca and few areas in Southern Valencia. [29] Also, intervocalic affricates are predominantly long, especially those that are voiced or occurring immediately after a stressed syllable (e.g. metge[ˈmed͡ːʒə] (E) / [ˈmed͡ːʒe] (W) 'medic'). [30] In Modern Valencian [d͡ʒ] and [d͡ːʒ] have merged into /d͡ʒ/, except in some parts of Southern Valencian.

In Aragonese Catalan (especially Ribagorçan) and Central Valencian (the so called apitxat accent), voiced fricatives and affricates are missing (i.e. /z/ has merged with /s/, /d͡ʒ/ has merged with /t͡ʃ/, with only voiceless realizations occurring). [31]

Fricatives

/v/ occurs in Balearic, [12] as well as in Alguerese, Standard Valencian and some areas in southern Catalonia. [32] Everywhere else (including parts of Valencian, like its central dialect), [31] it has merged with historic /β/ so that [b] and [β] occur in complementary distribution. [33]

  • In Majorcan, [v] and [w] are in complementary distribution, with [ v ] occurring before vowels (e.g. blava[ˈblavə] 'blue' f. vs. blau[ˈblaw] 'blue' m.).
  • In other varieties that have both sounds, they are in contrast before vowels, with neutralization in favor of [ w ] before consonants. [34]

In Majorcan and Minorcan, /f/ undergoes total assimilation to a following consonant (just as stops do): buf gros[ˈbuɡ‿ˈɡɾɔs] ('large puff'). [34]

The dental fricative /θ/ only appears in Ribagorçan and Lower Aragon, in contrast with /s/. Spanish loanwords with this sound may be replaced by /s/ in both Catalan and Valencian. [35]

The velar fricative /x/ is found in Spanish interferences, especially in Aragon and Southern Valencia. [36]

The glottal fricative /h/ is found in loanwords and interjections, although /h/ is usually replaced by /x/ in loanwords. [37]

Sonorants

Laterals

Laterals assimilate the place of articulation of the following consonant (see "Assimilations" below). The lateral /l/ may be geminated in careful speech (e.g. il·lusió[ilːuziˈo] 'illusion'). A geminated /ʎː/ may also occur (e.g. ratlla[ˈraʎːə] (E) / [ˈraʎːa] (W) 'line'). [12]

  • While "dark (velarized) l", [ ɫ ], may be a positional allophone of /l/ in most dialects (such as in the syllable coda; e.g. sòl[ˈsɔɫ] 'ground'), [38] /l/ is dark irrespective of position in Eastern dialects like Majorcan [39] and standard Eastern Catalan (e.g. tela[ˈtɛɫə]). For simplicity dark l is not transcribed in this article.
  • In Aragonese Catalan (including Ribagorçan), /l/ is palatalized to [ ʎ ] in consonant clusters; e.g. plou[ˈpʎɔw] 'it rains'. [40]
  • In Alguerese and Ribagorçan word-final /ʎ/ is depalatized to [ l ]: gall[ˈɡal] ('rooster'). [41] [42]

Nasals

Nasals assimilate the place of articulation of the following consonant (see "Assimilations" below). In careful speech, /n/ and /m/ may be geminated (e.g. innecessari[inːəsəˈsaɾi] (E) / [inːeseˈsaɾi] (W) 'unnecessary', emmagatzemar[əmːəɣəd͡zəˈma] (E) / [emːaɣa(d͡)zeˈma(ɾ)] (W) 'to store'). [12]

  • In Alguerese and Ribagorçan word-final /ɲ/ is depalatized to [ n ]: any[ˈan] ('year'). [41] [42]

Rhotics

The distribution of the two rhotics /r/ and /ɾ/ closely parallels that of Spanish. Wheeler analyzes intervocalic [r] as the result of gemination of a single rhotic phoneme: [43] serra/ˈsɛɾɾə/→[ˈsɛrə] (E) / /ˈsɛɾɾa/→[ˈsɛra] (W) 'saw, mountains' (this is similar to the common analysis of Spanish and Portuguese rhotics). [44]

  • Between vowels, the two contrast (e.g. mirra[ˈmirə] (E) / [ˈmira] (W) 'myrrh' vs. mira[ˈmiɾə] (E) / [ˈmiɾa] (W) 'look'), but they are otherwise in complementary distribution. [ ɾ ] appears in the onset, except in word-initial position (ruc), after /l/, /n/, and /s/ (folre 'lining', honra 'honour', Israel 'Israel'), and in compounds (infraroig 'infrared'), where [ r ] is used.
  • Different dialects vary in regards to rhotics in the coda, with Western Catalan generally featuring [ ɾ ] and Central Catalan dialects like those of Barcelona or Girona featuring a weakly trilled [ r ] unless it precedes a vowel-initial word in the same prosodic unit, in which case [ ɾ ] appears (per[peɾ] (W), [pər] (E) 'for'). [45]
  • There is free variation in /r/ word-initially, after /l/, /n/, and /s/, and in compounds (if /r/ is preceded by consonant), wherein /r/ is pronounced [r] or [ ɹ ], the latter being similar to English red: ruc[ˈruk]~[ˈɹuk] ('donkey').
    • In Northern Catalonia and in some accents of Majorcan, a uvular trill [ ʀ ] or approximant [ ʁ ] can be heard instead of the alveolar trill; e.g. córrer[ˈkoʀə]~[ˈkoʁə] ('to run'). [46]

Vowels

Vowels of Catalan [47] [2]
Front Central Back
Close i   ( y ) u
Close-mid e   ( ø )( ə ) o
Open-mid ɛ   ( œ ) ɔ
Open a   ( ɑ )

Phonetic notes:

Stressed vowels

Vowels of Standard Eastern Catalan Catalan vowel chart.svg
Vowels of Standard Eastern Catalan
Vowels of Valencian Valencian vowel chart.svg
Vowels of Valencian

Most varieties of Catalan contrast seven stressed vowel phonemes. [64] However, some Balearic dialects have an additional stressed vowel phoneme (/ə/); e.g. sec/ˈsək/ ('dry, I sit'). [18] The stressed schwa of these dialects corresponds to /ɛ/ in Central Catalan and /e/ in Western Catalan varieties (that is, Central and Western Catalan dialects differ in their incidence of /e/ and /ɛ/, with /e/ appearing more frequently in Western Catalan; e.g. Central Catalan sec/ˈsɛk/ vs. Western Catalan sec/ˈsek/ ('dry, I sit'). [64]

Contrasting series of the main Catalan dialects:

Central Catalan [18]
[Eastern Catalan]
LSIPAGloss
sac a 'bag'
sec ɛ 'dry', 'I sit'
e 'fold'
sic i 'sic'
soc ɔ 'clog'
o 'I am'
suc u 'juice'
Other contrast
LSIPAGloss
*set ɛ 'seven'
'thirst'
Balearic [18]
[Eastern Catalan]
LSIPAGloss
sac a 'bag'
sec ə 'dry', 'I sit'
e 'fold'
sic i 'sic'
soc ɔ 'clog'
o 'I am'
suc u 'juice'
Other contrast
LSIPAGloss
*set ɛ 'seven'
ə 'thirst'
Northern Catalan [65] &
Mod. Alguerese
[Eastern Catalan]
LSIPAGloss
sac a 'bag'
sec e 'dry', 'I sit'
'fold'
sic i 'sic'
soc ɔ 'clog'
u 'I am'
suc'juice'
Other contrast
LSIPAGloss
*set e 'seven'
'thirst'
Western Catalan [18] &
Alguerese [Eastern] [66]
LSIPAGloss
sac a 'bag'
sec e 'dry', 'I sit'
'fold'
sic i 'sic'
soc ɔ 'clog'
o 'I am'
suc u 'juice'
Other contrast
LSIPAGloss
set ɛ 'seven'
e 'thirst'

Reduced vowels

In Eastern Catalan, vowels in unstressed position reduce to three : /a/, /e/, /ɛ/→[ə] (phonetically [ɐ] in Barcelona); /o/, /ɔ/, /u/→[u]; /i/ remains unchanged. However there are some dialectal differences: Alguerese merges /a/, /e/ and /ɛ/ with /a/; and in most areas of Majorca, [o] can appear in unstressed position (that is, /o/ and /ɔ/ are usually reduced to [o]). [67]

In Western Catalan (which includes Valencian and North-Western Catalan), vowels in unstressed position reduce to five: /e/, /ɛ/→[e]; /o/, /ɔ/→[o]; /a/,/u/,/i/ remain unchanged. [68] However, in some Western dialects reduced vowels tend to merge into different realizations in some cases:

General
Eastern Catalan [18]
TermIPAGloss
parla ə [lower-roman 1] [lower-roman 2] 'speech'
rere'back'
lliri i 'lily'
ferro u 'iron'
mutu'mutual'
Majorcan Balearic [18]
[Eastern Catalan]
TermIPAGloss
parla ə 'speech'
rere'back'
lliri i 'lily'
ferro o 'iron'
mutu u 'mutual'
Western
Catalan [18]
TermIPAGloss
parla a 'speech'
rere e 'back'
lliri i 'lily'
ferro o 'iron'
mutu u 'mutual'
  1. ↑ In Barcelona, it becomes near-open [ɐ].
  2. ↑ In Alguerese, it becomes open [a].

Vowel harmony

Final unstressed /a/ (phonetically [ɐ]) is subject to assimilation of /ɔ/ and/or /ɛ/ in many Valencian dialects (although in some varieties this has been extended to all final instances of unstressed /a/); this process is mostly progressive (i.e. preceding vowels affect those pronounced afterwards) over the last unstressed vowel of a word (in this case /a/); e.g. hora/ˈɔɾa/ → [ˈɔɾɔ]; however, there are cases where regressive metaphony occurs over pretonic vowels; e.g. tovallola/tovaˈʎɔla/ → [tɔvɔˈʎɔlɔ] ('towel'), afecta/aˈfɛkta/ → [ɛˈfɛktɛ] ('affects'). [72] [73]

In Transitional Valencian (like the Tortosan dialect), vowel harmony tends to affect unstressed /e/ and /o/: melic/meˈlik/ → [miˈlik] ('belly button'), oportú/opoɾˈtu/ → [upuɾˈtu] ('timely'). [74]

Diphthongs and triphthongs

There are also a number of phonetic diphthongs and triphthongs, all of which begin and/or end in [ j ] or [ w ]. [75]

Falling diphthongs
IPA wordgloss IPA wordgloss
[aj]aigua'water'[aw]taula'table'
[əj] (E) / [aj] (W)mainada'children'[əw] (E) / [aw] (W)caurem'we will fall'
[ɛj]oleic'oleic'[ɛw]peu'foot'
[ej]rei'king'[ew]seu'his/her'
[əj] (E) / [ej] (W)Eivissa'Ibiza'[əw] (E) / [ew] (W)eufemisme'euphemism'
[iw]niu'nest'
[ɔj]heroi'hero'[ɔw] [lower-roman 1] nou'new'
[uj] (E) / [oj] (W)Moisès / Moisés'Moses'[ow] [lower-roman 2] sou, mouré'you are', 'I will move'
[uj] [lower-roman 3] cuit'cooked'[uw]duu's/he carries'
 
Rising diphthongs
IPA wordgloss IPA wordgloss
[ja]iaio'grandpa'[wa]guant'glove'
[jə] (E) / [ja] (W)feia's/he was doing'[wə] (E) / [wa] (W)aquarel·la'watercolour'
[jɛ]Aielo'Aielo'[wɛ]seqüència'sequence'
[je]seient'seat'[we]ungüent'ointment'
[jə] (E) / [je] (W)laietans'Laietani'[wə] (E) / [we] (W)qüestió'question'
[wi]pingüí'penguin'
[jɔ]iode'iodine'[wɔ]quota'payment'
[ju] (E) / [jo] (W)iogurt'yoghurt'[wo]seuós'greasy'
[ju]iugoslau'Yugoslav'
 
Triphthongs
IPA wordgloss IPA wordgloss
[jaj]iai'old person'
[waj]Alguaire'Alguaire'
[jəw] (E) / [jew] (W)dèieu'you were saying'[wɛw] (E) / [wew] (W)adeqüeu'you adequate'
  1. ↑ [ɔw] may merge with [aw] in Southern Valencian.
  2. ↑ Unstressed [ow] may merge with [əw] or [aw] in Eastern dialects.
  3. ↑ Merges with [wi] in some dialects.

In Standard Eastern Catalan, rising diphthongs (that is, those starting with [j] or [w]) are only possible in the following contexts: [76]

Processes

There are certain instances of compensatory diphthongization in Majorcan so that troncs/ˈtɾoncs/ ('logs') (in addition to deleting the palatal stop) develops a compensating palatal glide and surfaces as [ˈtɾojns] (and contrasts with the unpluralized [ˈtɾoɲc]). Diphthongization compensates for the loss of the palatal stop (segment loss compensation). There are other cases where diphthongization compensates for the loss of point of articulation features (property loss compensation) as in [ˈaɲ] ('year') vs. [ˈajns] ('years'). [79]

The dialectal distribution of compensatory diphthongization is almost entirely dependent on the dorsal stop (/k~c/) and the extent of consonant assimilation (whether or not it is extended to palatals). [80]

Voiced affricates are devoiced after stressed vowels in dialects like Eastern Catalan where there may be a correlation between devoicing and lengthening (gemination) of voiced affricates: metge/ˈmed͡ːʒə/ → [ˈmet͡ːʃə] ('medic'). [9] In Barcelona, voiced stops may be fortified (geminated and devoiced); e.g. poble[ˈpɔpːlə] 'village, people'). [12]

Assimilations

Nasal Lateral
IPA wordgloss IPA wordgloss
[ɱ]ínfim'lowest'
[n̪]anterior'previous'[l̪]altes'tall' (f. pl.)
[ɲ]engegar'to start (up)'[ʎ]àlgid'decisive'
[ŋ]angle'angle'
[ŋn]sagna's/he bleeds'
[mː]setmana'week'
[nː]cotna'rind'[lː]Betlem'Bethlehem'
[ʎː]rotllo'roll'

Catalan denti-alveolar stops can fully assimilate to the following consonant, producing gemination; this is particularly evident before nasal and lateral consonants: e.g. setmana ('week'), cotna ('rind'), Betlem, rotllo ('roll'). Learned words can alternate between featuring and not featuring such assimilation (e.g. atles[ˈadləs]~[ˈalːəs] (E) / [ˈadlas]~[ˈalːas] (W) 'atlas', sotmetre[sudˈmɛtɾə]~[suˈmːɛtɾə] (E) / [sodˈmetɾe]~[soˈmːetɾe] (W) 'to submit', ètnic[ˈɛdnik] ~ [ˈɛnːik] 'ethnic'). [81] [82]

There is dialectal variation regarding words with ⟨tll⟩. While Central and North-Western Catalan tend to innovate with a palatalised pronunciation [ʎː], Valencian and Balearic maintain the traditional pronunciation without palatalisation [lː], i.e. ⟨tl⟩, in most cases (e.g. ametlla vs ametla 'almond').

Valencian dialects (especially Central Valencian) features simple elision in many of these cases (e.g setmana[seˈmana] 'week', rotllo[ˈroʎo] 'roll') and learned words might not exhibit either assimilation or elision: atles[ˈadles] and administrar[adminisˈtɾaɾ]. [83]

Prosody

Stress

Stress most often occurs on any of the last three syllables of a word (e.g. brúixola[ˈbɾuʃulə] (E) / [ˈbɾujʃola] (W) 'compass', càstig[ˈkastik] 'punishment', pallús[pəˈʎus] (E) / [paˈʎus] (W) 'fool').

Compound words and adverbs formed with /ˈment/ may have a syllable with secondary stress (e.g. bonament[ˌbɔnəˈmen] (E) [ˌbɔnaˈmen(t)] (W) 'willingly'; parallamps[ˌpaɾəˈʎams] (E) [ˌpaɾaˈʎamps] (W) 'lightning conductor') but every lexical word has just one syllable with main stress. [14]

Phonotactics

Any consonant, as well as [j] and [w] may be an onset. Clusters may consist of a consonant plus a semivowel (C[j], C[w]) or an obstruent plus a liquid. Some speakers may have one of these obstruent-plus-liquid clusters preceding a semivowel, e.g. síndria[ˈsin.dɾjə] ('watermelon'); for other speakers, this is pronounced [ˈsin.dɾi.ə] (i.e. the semivowel must be syllabic in this context). [84]

Word-medial codas are restricted to one consonant + [s] (extra[ˈɛks.tɾə] (E) / [ˈɛks.tɾa] (W)). [85] In the coda position, voice contrasts among obstruents are neutralized. [86] Although there are exceptions (such as futur[fuˈtuɾ] 'future'), syllable-final rhotics are often lost before a word boundary or before the plural morpheme of most words: color[kuˈlo] (E) / [koˈlo(ɾ)] (W) ('color') vs. coloraina[kuluˈɾajnə] (E) / [koloˈɾajna] (W) ('bright color'). [12]

In Central Eastern (and North-Western Catalan), obstruents fail to surface word-finally when preceded by a homorganic consonant (e.g. /nt/→[n̪]). Complex codas simplify only if the loss of the segment doesn't result in the loss of place specification. [87]

Suffixation examples in Central Eastern and North-Western Catalan varieties
FinalglossInternalgloss
no clustercamp[ˈkam]'field'camperol[kəmpəˈɾɔl] (EC)
[kampeˈɾɔl] (NW)		'peasant'
punt[ˈpun̪]'point'punta[ˈpun̪tə] (EC)
[ˈpun̪ta] (NW)		'tip'
banc[ˈbaŋ]'bank'banca[ˈbaŋkə] (EC)
[ˈbaŋka] (NW)		'banking'
malalt[məˈlal̪] (EC)
[maˈlal̪] (NW)		'ill'malaltia[mələl̪ˈti.ə] (EC)
[malal̪ˈti.a] (NW)		'illness'
hort[ˈɔr]'orchard'hortalissa[uɾtəˈlisə](EC)
[oɾtaˈlisa] (NW)		'vegetable'
gust[ˈɡus]'taste'gustar[ɡusˈta]'to taste'
clusterserp[ˈserp]'snake'serpentí[səɾpənˈti] (EC)
[seɾpenˈti] (NW)		'snake-like'
disc[ˈdisk]'disk'disquet[disˈkɛt] (EC)
[disˈket] (NW)		'diskette'
remolc[rəˈmɔlk] (EC)
[reˈmɔlk] (NW)		'trailer'remolcar[rəˈmulka] (NE)
[reˈmolka(ɾ)] (NW)		'to tow'

When the suffix -erol[əˈɾɔl] is added to camp[ˈkam] it makes [kəmpəˈɾɔl], indicating that the underlying representation is /ˈkamp/ (with subsequent cluster simplification), however when the copula [ˈes] is added it makes [ˈkamˈes]. The resulting generalization is that this underlying /p/ will only surface in a morphologically complex word. [88] Despite this, word-final codas are not usually simplified in most of Balearic and Valencian (e.g. camp[ˈkamp]). [89]

Word-initial clusters from Graeco-Latin learned words tend to drop the first phoneme: pneumàtic[nəwˈmatik] (E) / [newˈmatik] (W) ('pneumatic'), pseudònim[səwˈðɔnim] (E) / [sewˈðɔnim] (W) ('pseudonym'), pterodàctil[təɾuˈðaktil] (E) / [teɾoˈðaktil] (W) ('pterodactylus'), gnom[ˈnom] ('gnome'). [90]

Word-final obstruents are devoiced; however, they assimilate voicing of the following consonant, e.g. cuc de seda[ˈkuɡ‿dəˈsɛðə] (E) / [ˈkuɡ‿deˈsɛða] (W) ('silkworm'). In regular and fast speech, stops often assimilate the place of articulation of the following consonant producing phonetic gemination: tot bé[ˈtod‿ˈbe]→[ˈtob‿ˈbe] ('all good'). [91]

Word-final fricatives (except /f/) are voiced before a following vowel; e.g. bus enorme[ˈbuz‿əˈnormə] (E) / [ˈbuz‿eˈnorme] (W) ('huge bus'). [92]

Dialectal variation

Dialectal Map of Catalan Eastern dialects: .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} Northern Catalan Central Catalan Balearic and Alguerese Western dialects: North-Western Catalan Valencian Catalan dialects-en.png
Dialectal Map of Catalan
Eastern dialects:Western dialects:
   Valencian

The differences in the vocalic systems outlined above are the main criteria used to differentiate between the major dialects: Wheeler distinguishes two major dialect groups, western and eastern dialects; the latter of which only allow [ i ], [ ə ], and [ u ] to appear in unstressed syllables and include Northern Catalan, Central Catalan, Balearic, and Alguerese. Western dialects, which allow any vowel in unstressed syllables, include Valencian and North-Western Catalan. [94]

Regarding consonants, betacism and fricative–affricate alternations are the most prominent differences between dialects.

Other dialectal features are:

Vowels
Consonants

Historical development

Catalan shares features with neighboring Romance languages (Occitan, Italian, Sardinian, French, Spanish). [103]

In contrast with other Romance languages, Catalan has many monosyllabic words; and those ending in a wide variety of consonants and some consonant clusters. [104] Also, Catalan has final obstruent devoicing, thus featuring many couplets like amic ('male friend') vs. amiga ('female friend'). [104]

Phonological sample

Universal Declaration of Human Rights , Article 1
OriginalTots els éssers humans neixen/naixen lliures i iguals en dignitat i en drets.
Són dotats de raó i de consciència, i han de comportar-se fraternalment els uns amb els altres.
Old Catalan (around the 13th century) IPA [ˈtodz̺‿əlz̺‿ˈes̺əɾz̺‿uˈmanz̺ˈnəʃənˈʎiwɾəz̺‿iːˈɣwalz̺‿əndigniˈtat‿j‿ənˈdɾəts̺
s̺ondotats̺ðəraˈoiðəkonˈs̺s̻jɛns̻ja,j‿andəkompoɾˈtaɾs̺əfɾatəɾnalˈment‿əlz̺‿ˈunz̺‿am‿əlz̺‿altɾəs̺]
Balearic Catalan IPA[ˈtodz‿əlz‿ˈesərz‿uˈmanzˈnəʃənˈʎiwɾəz‿iːˈɣwalz‿əndiŋniˈdat‿j‿ənˈdɾəts
sondotatsðərəˈoiðəkonˈsjɛnsjə,j‿andəkompoɾˈtaɾsːəfɾətəɾnalˈment‿əlz‿ˈunz‿əm‿əlz‿altɾəs]
Eastern Central Catalan IPA[ˈtodz‿əlz‿ˈesərz‿uˈmanzˈnɛʃənˈʎiwɾəz‿iːˈɣwalz‿əndiŋniˈtat‿j‿ənˈdɾɛts
sondutatsðərəˈoiðəkunˈsjɛnsjə,j‿andəkumpurˈtaɾsəfɾətərnalˈmen‿əlz‿ˈunz‿əm‿əlz‿altɾəs]
Northern Catalan IPA[ˈtudz‿əlz‿ˈe̞sərz‿uˈmanzˈne̞ʃənˈʎiwɾəz‿iːˈgwalz‿əndiŋniˈtat‿j‿ənˈdɾe̞ts
sundutatsdərəˈuidəkunˈsjensjə,j‿andəkumpurˈtaɾsəfɾətərnalˈme̞n‿əlz‿ˈunz‿əm‿əlz‿altɾəs]
North-Western Catalan IPA[ˈtodz‿elz‿ˈeseɾz‿uˈmanzˈnajʃenˈʎiwɾez‿iːˈɣwalz‿endiŋniˈtat‿j‿enˈdɾets
sondotatsðeraˈo‿jðekonˈsjɛnsja,j‿andekompoɾˈtaɾsefɾateɾnalˈmen‿elz‿ˈunz‿am‿elz‿altɾes]
Valencian IPA[ˈtodz‿elz‿ˈeseɾz‿uˈmanzˈnajʃenˈʎiwɾez‿iːˈɣwalz‿endiŋniˈtat‿j‿enˈdɾets
sondotatsðeraˈo‿jðekonˈsjɛnsja,j‿andekompoɾˈtaɾsefɾateɾnalˈment‿elz‿ˈunz‿am‿elz‿atɾes]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ "Voiceless dental plosive – Central". Els sons del català.
    "Voiceless dental plosive – North-Western". Els sons del català.
    "Voiceless dental plosive – Valencian". Els sons del català.
  2. ↑ "Voiced dental plosive – Central". Els sons del català.
    "Voiced dental plosive – North-Western". Els sons del català.
    "Voiced dental plosive – Valencian". Els sons del català.
  3. ↑ "Voiceless velar plosive – Central". Els sons del català.
    "Voiceless velar plosive – North-Western". Els sons del català.
    "Voiceless velar plosive – Valencian". Els sons del català.
  4. ↑ "Voiced velar plosive – Central". Els sons del català.
    "Voiced velar plosive – North-Western". Els sons del català.
    "Voiced velar plosive – Valencian". Els sons del català.
  5. ↑ "Voiced alveolar nasal – Central". Els sons del català.
    "Voiced alveolar nasal – North-Western". Els sons del català.
    "Voiced alveolar nasal – Valencian". Els sons del català.
  6. ↑ "Voiced alveolar lateral – Central". Els sons del català.
    "Voiced alveolar lateral – North-Western". Els sons del català.
    "Voiced alveolar lateral – Valencian". Els sons del català.
  7. ↑ "Voiced alveolar flap – Central". Els sons del català.
    "Voiced alveolar flap – North-Western". Els sons del català.
    "Voiced alveolar flap – Valencian". Els sons del català.
  8. ↑ "Voiceless alveolar fricative – Central". Els sons del català.
    "Voiceless alveolar fricative – North-Western". Els sons del català.
    "Voiceless alveolar fricative – Valencian". Els sons del català.
  9. ↑ "Voiced alveolar fricative – Central". Els sons del català.
    "Voiced alveolar fricative – North-Western". Els sons del català.
    "Voiced alveolar fricative – Valencian". Els sons del català.
  10. ↑ "Voiced alveolar trill – Central". Els sons del català.
    "Voiced alveolar trill – North-Western". Els sons del català.
    "Voiced alveolar trill – Valencian". Els sons del català.
  11. ↑ "Voiceless alveolar affricate – Central". Els sons del català.
    "Voiceless alveolar affricate – North-Western". Els sons del català.
    "Voiceless alveolar affricate – Valencian". Els sons del català.
  12. ↑ "Voiced alveolar affricate – Central". Els sons del català.
    "Voiced alveolar affricate – North-Western". Els sons del català.
    "Voiced alveolar affricate – Valencian". Els sons del català.
  13. ↑ Institut d'Estudis Catalans. Tsar (in Catalan) (2nd ed.). Barcelona, Spain: Diccionari de la llengua catalana. Archived from the original on 14 August 2011.
  14. ↑ Institut d'Estudis Catalans. Tsuga (in Catalan) (2nd ed.). Barcelona, Spain: Diccionari de la llengua catalana. Archived from the original on 14 August 2011.
  15. ↑ Institut d'Estudis Catalans. Txec (in Catalan) (2nd ed.). Barcelona, Spain: Diccionari de la llengua catalana. Archived from the original on 14 August 2011.

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References

  1. ↑ Recasens Vives 1996, pp. 172–173.
  2. 1 2 3 Carbonell Costa & Llisterri Boix 1999, p. 62.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Recasens Vives & Pallarès Ramon 2001, p. 288.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Wheeler 2005, pp. 10–11.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Rafel Fontanals 1999, p. 14.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Wheeler 2005, p. 10.
  7. ↑ Wheeler 2005, p. 11.
  8. ↑ Recasens Vives, Fontdevila & Pallarès Ramon 1995, p. 288.
  9. 1 2 3 Recasens Vives & Espinosa 2007, p. 145.
  10. ↑ Recasens Vives 1993.
  11. ↑ Recasens Vives & Pallarès Ramon 2001.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Carbonell Costa & Llisterri Boix 1992, p. 53.
  13. ↑ Lloret Romañach 2003, p. 278.
  14. 1 2 Carbonell Costa & Llisterri Boix 1999, p. 63.
  15. ↑ Wheeler 2005, pp. 147–149.
  16. ↑ Saborit Vilar 2009, p. 57.
  17. ↑ Hualde 1992, p. 368.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Recasens Vives & Espinosa 2005, p. 1.
  19. ↑ Carbonell Costa & Llisterri Boix 1992, pp. 53–55.
  20. ↑ Recasens Vives 1996, pp. 190–191.
  21. ↑ Recasens Vives 1996, pp. 91–92.
  22. ↑ Wheeler 2005, pp. 22–23.
  23. ↑ Saborit Vilar 2009, p. 53.
  24. 1 2 Wheeler 2005, pp. 11–12.
  25. 1 2 3 Recasens Vives & Espinosa 2007, p. 144.
  26. 1 2 Hualde 1992, p. 370.
  27. ↑ Badia Cardús 1992–1993, pp. 307–351.
  28. ↑ Wheeler 2005, pp. 13–14.
  29. ↑ Recasens Vives & Espinosa 2007, pp. 148–149.
  30. ↑ Wheeler 2005, p. 12.
  31. 1 2 Wheeler 2005, p. 23.
  32. ↑ Veny Clar 2007, p. 51.
  33. ↑ Wheeler 2005, p. 13.
  34. 1 2 Wheeler 2005, p. 81.
  35. ↑ Recasens Vives 1996, pp. 205–206.
  36. ↑ Recasens Vives 1996, pp. 232–233.
  37. ↑ Pons-Moll, pp. 2–3.
  38. 1 2 Recasens Vives & Espinosa 2005, p. 20.
  39. ↑ Recasens Vives & Espinosa 2005, p. 3.
  40. ↑ Recasens Vives 1996, pp. 311–312.
  41. 1 2 Recasens Vives 1996, p. 266.
  42. 1 2 Recasens Vives 1996, p. 321.
  43. 1 2 Wheeler 1979.
  44. ↑ Bonet Alsina & Mascaró Altimiras 1997.
  45. ↑ Padgett 2009, p. 432.
  46. ↑ Wheeler 2005, p. 24.
  47. ↑ Recasens Vives 1996, p. 60.
  48. ↑ Coromines 1976.
  49. ↑ Recasens Vives 1996, pp. 90–92.
  50. ↑ Recasens 1996, pp. 90–104.
  51. ↑ Saborit Vilar 2009, pp. 24–25.
  52. ↑ Harrison 1997, p. 2.
  53. ↑ Recasens Vives 1996, p. 81.
  54. ↑ Recasens Vives 1996, pp. 130–131.
  55. ↑ Saborit Vilar 2009, p. 27.
  56. ↑ Saborit Vilar 2009, p. 29.
  57. ↑ Recasens 1996, pp. 69–77, 135–140.
  58. ↑ Recasens Vives 1996, p. 59.
  59. 1 2 Recasens Vives 1996, pp. 66, 141.
  60. ↑ Recasens Vives 1996, pp. 69, 80–81.
  61. ↑ Recasens Vives 1996, p. 70.
  62. ↑ Recasens Vives 1996, pp. 59–142.
  63. ↑ Saborit Vilar 2009, p. 23.
  64. 1 2 Wheeler 2005, p. 38.
  65. ↑ Sebastià Bech.
  66. ↑ Francesc Ballone.
  67. ↑ Wheeler 2005, p. 54.
  68. ↑ Carbonell Costa & Llisterri Boix 1992, pp. 54–55.
  69. ↑ Recasens Vives 1996, pp. 75–76.
  70. ↑ Recasens Vives 1996, pp. 128–129.
  71. ↑ Recasens Vives 1996, p. 138.
  72. ↑ Recasens Vives 1996, p. 99.
  73. ↑ Jiménez & Lloret 2009, p. 2.
  74. ↑ Jiménez & Lloret 2009, pp. 3–4.
  75. ↑ Carbonell Costa & Llisterri Boix 1992, p. 54.
  76. ↑ Institut d'Estudis Catalans 2009.
  77. ↑ Lleó Pujol 1970.
  78. ↑ Wheeler 2005, p. 101.
  79. ↑ Mascaró Altimiras 2001, pp. 580–581.
  80. ↑ Mascaró Altimiras 2001, p. 581.
  81. ↑ Fabra Poch 2006, p. 24.
  82. ↑ Lacreu Cuesta 2002, p. 53.
  83. ↑ Wheeler 2005, p. 36.
  84. ↑ Wheeler 2005, p. 78.
  85. ↑ Wheeler 2005, p. 166.
  86. ↑ Wheeler 2005, p. 145.
  87. ↑ Herrick 2000, p. 70.
  88. ↑ Herrick 2000, p. 72.
  89. ↑ Recasens Vives 1996, p. 192.
  90. ↑ Recasens Vives 1996, p. 175.
  91. ↑ Badia i Margarit 1988, p. 35.
  92. ↑ Recasens Vives & Espinosa 2007.
  93. ↑ Wheeler, Yates & Dols Salas 1999, p. 18.
  94. ↑ Wheeler 2005.
  95. ↑ Recasens Vives 1996, p. 68.
  96. ↑ Recasens Vives 1996, pp. 131–132.
  97. ↑ Recasens Vives 1996, pp. 138–139.
  98. ↑ Recasens Vives 1996, p. 307.
  99. ↑ Wheeler 2005, pp. 34–35.
  100. ↑ Wheeler 2005, p. 15.
  101. ↑ Wheeler 2005, p. 22.
  102. 1 2 Recasens Vives & Espinosa 2007, p. 147.
  103. ↑ Wheeler 2005, p. 1.
  104. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ferrater Soler 1977, p. 630.
  105. ↑ Hall 2001, p. 19.

Bibliography

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