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Spacecraft propulsion is any method used to accelerate spacecraft and artificial satellites. In-space propulsion exclusively deals with propulsion systems used in the vacuum of space and should not be confused with space launch or atmospheric entry.
Several methods of pragmatic spacecraft propulsion have been developed, each having its own drawbacks and advantages. Most satellites have simple reliable chemical thrusters (often monopropellant rockets) or resistojet rockets for orbital station-keeping, while a few use momentum wheels for attitude control. Russian and antecedent Soviet bloc satellites have used electric propulsion for decades,[ not verified in body ] and newer Western geo-orbiting spacecraft are starting to use them for north–south station-keeping and orbit raising. Interplanetary vehicles mostly use chemical rockets as well, although a few have used ion thrusters and Hall-effect thrusters (two different types of electric propulsion) to great success.
Hypothetical in-space propulsion technologies describe the propulsion technologies that could meet future space science and exploration needs. These propulsion technologies are intended to provide effective exploration of the Solar System and will permit mission designers to plan missions to "fly anytime, anywhere, and complete a host of science objectives at the destinations" and with greater reliability and safety. With a wide range of possible missions and candidate propulsion technologies, the question of which technologies are "best" for future missions is a difficult one; expert opinion now holds that a portfolio of propulsion technologies should be developed to provide optimum solutions for a diverse set of missions and destinations. [1] [2] [3] [ verification needed ]
This section needs additional citations for verification .(July 2023) |
In-space propulsion begins where the upper stage of the launch vehicle leaves off, performing the functions of primary propulsion, reaction control, station keeping, precision pointing, and orbital maneuvering. The main engines used in space provide the primary propulsive force for orbit transfer, planetary trajectories, and extra planetary landing and ascent. The reaction control and orbital maneuvering systems provide the propulsive force for orbit maintenance, position control, station keeping, and spacecraft attitude control. [4] [2] [3]
When in space, the purpose of a propulsion system is to change the velocity, or v, of a spacecraft. Because this is more difficult for more massive spacecraft, designers generally discuss spacecraft performance in amount of change in momentum per unit of propellant consumed also called specific impulse. [5] The higher the specific impulse, the better the efficiency. Ion propulsion engines have high specific impulse (~3000 s) and low thrust [6] whereas chemical rockets like monopropellant or bipropellant rocket engines have a low specific impulse (~300 s) but high thrust. [7]
When launching a spacecraft from Earth, a propulsion method must overcome a higher gravitational pull to provide a positive net acceleration. [8]
In orbit, any additional impulse, even very tiny, will result in a change in the orbit path, in two ways:[ citation needed ]
The rate of change of velocity is called acceleration, and the rate of change of momentum is called force. [9] To reach a given velocity, one can apply a small acceleration over a long period of time, or one can apply a large acceleration over a short time; similarly, one can achieve a given impulse with a large force over a short time or a small force over a long time.[ citation needed ] This means that for maneuvering in space, a propulsion method that produces tiny accelerations but runs for a long time can produce the same impulse as a propulsion method that produces large accelerations for a short time.[ citation needed ] When launching from a planet, tiny accelerations cannot overcome the planet's gravitational pull and so cannot be used.[ citation needed ]
Earth's surface is situated fairly deep in a gravity well; the escape velocity required to get out of it is 11.2 kilometers/second. [10] [ relevant? ] As human beings evolved in a gravitational field of "one g" (9.81m/s²), an ideal propulsion system for human spaceflight would be one that provides that acceleration continuously,[ according to whom? ] (though human bodies can tolerate much larger accelerations over short periods). [11] The occupants of a rocket or spaceship having such a propulsion system would be free from all the ill effects of free fall, such as nausea, muscular weakness, reduced sense of taste, or leaching of calcium from their bones.[ citation needed ]
The Tsiolkovsky rocket equation proves using the law of conservation of momentum that for a rocket engine propulsion method to change the momentum of a spacecraft it must change the momentum of something else in the opposite direction. In other words, the rocket must exhaust mass opposite the spacecraft's acceleration direction, with such exhausted mass called propellant or reaction mass. [12] : Sec 1.2.1 [13] Some designs operate without internal reaction mass by taking advantage of things like magnetic fields or light pressure to change the spacecraft's momentum.
In order for a rocket to work, it needs two things: reaction mass and energy. The impulse provided by launching a particle of reaction mass having mass m at velocity v is mv. But this particle has kinetic energy mv²/2, which must come from somewhere. In a conventional solid, liquid, or hybrid rocket, the fuel is burned, providing the energy, and the reaction products are allowed to flow out the back, providing the reaction mass. In an ion thruster, electricity is used to accelerate ions out the back. Here some other source must provide the electrical energy (perhaps a solar panel or a nuclear reactor), whereas the ions provide the reaction mass. [8]
When discussing the efficiency of a propulsion system, designers often focus on the effective use of the reaction mass, which must be carried along with the rocket and is irretrievably consumed when used.[ citation needed ] One measure of the amount of impulse that can be obtained from a fixed amount of reaction mass is the specific impulse, the impulse per unit weight-on-Earth (typically designated by ), with units of seconds.[ citation needed ] Because the weight on Earth of the reaction mass is often unimportant when discussing vehicles in space, specific impulse can also be discussed in terms of the measure, impulse per unit mass, with the same units as velocity (e.g., meters per second).[ citation needed ] This measure is equivalent to the effective exhaust velocity of the engine, and is typically designated . [14] (Confusingly, these values[ clarification needed ] are sometimes called specific impulse.[ citation needed ]) The two values differ by a factor of the standard acceleration due to gravity, gn, 9.80665 m/s² ().[ citation needed ]
A rocket with a high exhaust velocity can achieve the same impulse with less reaction mass; however, the energy required for that impulse is proportional to the exhaust velocity, so that more mass-efficient engines require much more energy, and are typically less energy-efficient.[ citation needed ] This is a problem if the engine is to provide a large amount of thrust: to generate a large amount of impulse per second, it must use a large amount of energy per second.[ citation needed ] As such, high-mass-efficient engine designs require enormous amounts of energy per second to produce high thrusts, but generally also tend to provide lower thrust (due to the unavailability of high amounts of energy).[ citation needed ]
In-space propulsion represents technologies that can significantly improve a number of critical aspects of the mission. Space exploration is about getting somewhere safely (mission enabling), getting there quickly (reduced transit times), getting a lot of mass there (increased payload mass), and getting there cheaply (lower cost). The simple act of "getting" there requires the employment of an in-space propulsion system, and the other metrics are modifiers to this fundamental action. [4] [3]
Development of technologies will result in technical solutions that improve thrust levels, Isp, power, specific mass, (or specific power), volume, system mass, system complexity, operational complexity, commonality with other spacecraft systems, manufacturability, durability, and cost. These types of improvements will yield decreased transit times, increased payload mass, safer spacecraft, and decreased costs. In some instances, development of technologies within this technology area (TA) will result in mission-enabling breakthroughs that will revolutionize space exploration. There is no single propulsion technology that will benefit all missions or mission types. The requirements for in-space propulsion vary widely according to their intended application. The described technologies should support everything from small satellites and robotic deep space exploration to space stations and human missions to Mars applications. [4] [3]
Furthermore, the term "mission pull" defines a technology or a performance characteristic necessary to meet a planned NASA mission requirement. Any other relationship between a technology and a mission (an alternate propulsion system, for example) is categorized as "technology push." Also, a space demonstration refers to the spaceflight of a scaled version of a particular technology or of a critical technology subsystem. On the other hand, a space validation would serve as a qualification flight for future mission implementation. A successful validation flight would not require any additional space testing of a particular technology before it can be adopted for a science or exploration mission. [4]
Spacecraft operate in many areas of space. These include orbital maneuvering, interplanetary travel, and interstellar travel.
Artificial satellites are first launched into the desired altitude by conventional liquid/solid propelled rockets after which the satellite may use onboard propulsion systems for orbital stationkeeping. Once in the desired orbit, they often need some form of attitude control so that they are correctly pointed with respect to the Earth, the Sun, and possibly some astronomical object of interest. [15] They are also subject to drag from the thin atmosphere, so that to stay in orbit for a long period of time some form of propulsion is occasionally necessary to make small corrections (orbital station-keeping). [16] Many satellites need to be moved from one orbit to another from time to time, and this also requires propulsion. [17] A satellite's useful life is usually over once it has exhausted its ability to adjust its orbit. [18]
For interplanetary travel, a spacecraft can use its engines to leave Earth's orbit. It is not explicitly necessary as the initial boost given by the rocket, gravity slingshot, monopropellant/bipropellent attitude control propulsion system are enough for the exploration of the solar system (see New Horizons). Once it has done so, it must somehow make its way to its destination. Current interplanetary spacecraft do this with a series of short-term trajectory adjustments. [19] In between these adjustments, the spacecraft simply moves along its trajectory without accelerating. The most fuel-efficient means to move from one circular orbit to another is with a Hohmann transfer orbit: the spacecraft begins in a roughly circular orbit around the Sun. A short period of thrust in the direction of motion accelerates or decelerates the spacecraft into an elliptical orbit around the Sun which is tangential to its previous orbit and also to the orbit of its destination. The spacecraft falls freely along this elliptical orbit until it reaches its destination, where another short period of thrust accelerates or decelerates it to match the orbit of its destination. [20] Special methods such as aerobraking or aerocapture are sometimes used for this final orbital adjustment. [21]
Some spacecraft propulsion methods such as solar sails provide very low but inexhaustible thrust; [22] an interplanetary vehicle using one of these methods would follow a rather different trajectory, either constantly thrusting against its direction of motion in order to decrease its distance from the Sun, or constantly thrusting along its direction of motion to increase its distance from the Sun.[ citation needed ] The concept has been successfully tested by the Japanese IKAROS solar sail spacecraft.[ citation needed ]
No spacecraft capable of short duration (compared to human lifetime) interstellar travel has yet been built, but many hypothetical designs have been discussed. Because interstellar distances are very great, a tremendous velocity is needed to get a spacecraft to its destination in a reasonable amount of time. Acquiring such a velocity on launch and getting rid of it on arrival remains a formidable challenge for spacecraft designers. [23]
The technology areas are divided into four basic groups: (1) Chemical propulsion, (2) Electric propulsion, (3) Advanced propulsion technologies, and (4) Supporting technologies; based on the physics of the propulsion system and how it derives thrust as well as its technical maturity. Additionally, there may be credible meritorious in-space propulsion concepts not foreseen or reviewed at the time of publication, and which may be shown to be beneficial to future mission applications. [24]
A large fraction of the rocket engines in use today are chemical rockets; that is, they obtain the energy needed to generate thrust by chemical reactions to create a hot gas that is expanded to produce thrust. [25] Many different propellant combinations are used to obtain these chemical reactions, including, for example, hydrazine, liquid oxygen, liquid hydrogen, nitrous oxide, and hydrogen peroxide.[ citation needed ] They can be used as a monopropellant or in bi-propellant configurations. [26]
The dominant form of chemical propulsion for satellites has historically been hydrazine, however, this fuel is highly toxic and at risk of being banned across Europe. [27] Non-toxic 'green' alternatives are now being developed to replace hydrazine. Nitrous oxide-based alternatives are garnering a lot of traction and government support, [28] [29] with development being led by commercial companies Dawn Aerospace, Impulse Space, [30] and Launcher. [31] The first nitrous oxide-based system ever flown in space was by D-Orbit onboard their ION Satellite Carrier (space tug) in 2021, using six Dawn Aerospace B20 thrusters, launched upon a SpaceX crafted Falcon 9 rocket. [32] [33]
Reaction engines produce thrust by expelling reaction mass, in accordance with Newton's third law of motion. [34] [35] [36] Examples include jet engines, rocket engines, pump-jet, and more uncommon variations such as Hall–effect thrusters, ion drives, mass drivers, and nuclear pulse propulsion. [37]
Rocket engines provide essentially the highest specific powers and high specific thrusts of any engine used for spacecraft propulsion.[ citation needed ] Most rocket engines are internal combustion heat engines (although non-combusting forms exist).[ citation needed ] Rocket engines generally produce a high-temperature reaction mass, as a hot gas, which is achieved by combusting a solid, liquid or gaseous fuel with an oxidiser within a combustion chamber. [38] The extremely hot gas is then allowed to escape through a high-expansion ratio bell-shaped nozzle, a feature that gives a rocket engine its characteristic shape.[ citation needed ] The effect of the nozzle is to dramatically accelerate the mass, converting most of the thermal energy into kinetic energy, where exhaust speeds reaching as high as 10 times the speed of sound at sea level are common.[ citation needed ]
Ion propulsion rockets can heat a plasma or charged gas inside a magnetic bottle and release it via a magnetic nozzle so that no solid matter needs to come in contact with the plasma.[ citation needed ] The machinery to do this is complex, but research into nuclear fusion has developed methods, some of which have been proposed to be used in propulsion systems, and some have been tested in a lab.[ citation needed ] (See the Wikipedia article on rocket engines for a listing of various kinds of rocket engines using different heating methods, including chemical, electrical, solar, and nuclear.)
Electric propulsion is commonly used for station keeping[ clarification needed ] on commercial communications satellites and for prime propulsion on some scientific space missions because of their high specific impulse. However, they generally have very small values of thrust and therefore must be operated for long durations to provide the total impulse required by a mission. [4] [39] [40] [41]
Rather than relying on high temperature and fluid dynamics to accelerate the reaction mass to high speeds, there are a variety of methods that use electrostatic or electromagnetic forces to accelerate the reaction mass directly, where the reaction mass is usually a stream of ions.[ citation needed ] Such an engine typically uses electric power, first to ionize atoms, and then to create a voltage gradient to accelerate the ions to high exhaust velocities.[ citation needed ] For these drives, at the highest exhaust speeds, energetic efficiency and thrust are all inversely proportional to exhaust velocity.[ citation needed ] Their very high exhaust velocity means they require huge amounts of energy and thus with practical power sources provide low thrust, but use hardly any fuel.[ citation needed ]
The idea of electric propulsion dates back to 1906, when Robert Goddard considered the possibility in his personal notebook. [42] Konstantin Tsiolkovsky published the idea in 1911. [43]
One institution focused on developing primary propulsion technologies, including electric, aimed at benefitting near and mid-term science missions by reducing cost, mass, and/or travel times is the Glenn Research Center (GRC).[ citation needed ] Electric propulsion architectures of particular interest to the GRC are Ion and Hall thrusters.[ citation needed ] One system combines solar sails, a form of propellantless propulsion which relies on naturally-occurring starlight for propulsion energy, and Hall thrusters. Other propulsion technologies being developed include advanced chemical propulsion and aerocapture. [3] [44] [45]
For some missions, particularly reasonably close to the Sun, solar energy may be sufficient, and has very often been used, but for others further out or at higher power, nuclear energy is necessary; engines drawing their power from a nuclear source are called nuclear electric rockets.[ citation needed ]
With any current source of electrical power, chemical, nuclear or solar, the maximum amount of power that can be generated limits the amount of thrust that can be produced to a small value.[ citation needed ] Power generation adds significant mass to the spacecraft, and ultimately the weight of the power source limits the performance of the vehicle.[ citation needed ]
Current nuclear power generators are approximately half the weight of solar panels per watt of energy supplied, at terrestrial distances from the Sun.[ citation needed ] Chemical power generators are not used due to the far lower total available energy.[ citation needed ] Beamed power to the spacecraft is considered to have potential.[ according to whom? ][ citation needed ]
Electromagnetic methods include:[ citation needed ]
This section possibly contains original research .(January 2017) |
The law of conservation of momentum is usually taken to imply that any engine which uses no reaction mass cannot accelerate the center of mass of a spaceship (changing orientation, on the other hand, is possible).[ citation needed ] But space is not empty, especially space inside the Solar System; there are gravitation fields, magnetic fields, electromagnetic waves, solar wind and solar radiation.[ citation needed ] Electromagnetic waves in particular are known to contain momentum, despite being massless; specifically the momentum flux density P of an EM wave is quantitatively 1/c2 times the Poynting vector S, i.e. P = S/c2, where c is the velocity of light.[ citation needed ] Field propulsion methods which do not rely on reaction mass thus must try to take advantage of this fact by coupling to a momentum-bearing field such as an EM wave that exists in the vicinity of the craft; however, because many of these phenomena are diffuse in nature, corresponding propulsion structures must be proportionately large.[ citation needed ]
There are several different space drives that need little or no reaction mass to function. A tether propulsion system employs a long cable with a high tensile strength to change a spacecraft's orbit, such as by interaction with a planet's magnetic field or through momentum exchange with another object. [46]
A satellite or other space vehicle is subject to the law of conservation of angular momentum, which constrains a body from a net change in angular velocity. Thus, for a vehicle to change its relative orientation without expending reaction mass, another part of the vehicle may rotate in the opposite direction. Non-conservative external forces, primarily gravitational and atmospheric, can contribute up to several degrees per day to angular momentum, [47] so secondary systems are designed to "bleed off" undesired rotational energies built up over time. Accordingly, many spacecraft utilize reaction wheels or control moment gyroscopes to control orientation in space. [48]
The concept of Solar sails rely on radiation pressure from electromagnetic energy, but they require a large collection surface to function effectively.[ citation needed ] E-sails propose to use very thin and lightweight wires holding an electric charge to deflect particles, which may have more controllable directionality.[ citation needed ]
Magnetic sails deflect charged particles from the solar wind with a magnetic field, thereby imparting momentum to the spacecraft. [49] For instance, the so-called Magsail is a large superconducting loop proposed for acceleration/deceleration in the solar wind and deceleration in the Interstellar medium. [50] A variant is the mini-magnetospheric plasma propulsion system [51] and its successor, the magnetoplasma sail, [52] which inject plasma at a low rate to enhance the magnetic field to more effectively deflect charged particles in a plasma wind.
Japan launched a solar sail-powered spacecraft, IKAROS, in May 2010, which successfully demonstrated propulsion and guidance (and is still active as of this date).[ when? ][ citation needed ] As a further proof of the solar sail concept, NanoSail-D became the first such powered satellite to orbit Earth. [53] As of August 2017, NASA confirmed the Sunjammer solar sail project was concluded in 2014 with lessons learned for future space sail projects. [54] The U.K. Cubesail programme will be the first mission to demonstrate solar sailing in low Earth orbit, and the first mission to demonstrate full three-axis attitude control of a solar sail. [55]
The concept of a gravitational slingshot is a form of propulsion to carry a space probe onward to other destinations without the expense of reaction mass; harnessing the gravitational energy of other celestial objects allows the spacecraft can pick up kinetic energy. [56] However, even more energy can be obtained from the gravity assist if rockets are used.[ citation needed ]
Beam-powered propulsion is another method of propulsion without reaction mass, and includes sails pushed by laser, microwave, or particle beams.[ citation needed ]
Advanced, and in some cases theoretical, propulsion technologies may use chemical or nonchemical physics to produce thrust, but are generally considered to be of lower technical maturity with challenges that have not been overcome. [57] For both human and robotic exploration, traversing the solar system is a struggle against time and distance. The most distant planets are 4.5–6 billion kilometers from the Sun and to reach them in any reasonable time requires much more capable propulsion systems than conventional chemical rockets. Rapid inner solar system missions with flexible launch dates are difficult, requiring propulsion systems that are beyond today's current state of the art. The logistics, and therefore the total system mass required to support sustained human exploration beyond Earth to destinations such as the Moon, Mars or Near Earth Objects, are daunting unless more efficient in-space propulsion technologies are developed and fielded. [58] [59]
A variety of hypothetical propulsion techniques have been considered that require a deeper understanding of the properties of space, particularly inertial frames and the vacuum state. To date, such methods are highly speculative and include:[ citation needed ]
A NASA assessment of its Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program divides such proposals into those that are non-viable for propulsion purposes, those that are of uncertain potential, and those that are not impossible according to current theories. [60]
This section needs additional citations for verification .(July 2023) |
Below is a summary of some of the more popular, proven technologies, followed by increasingly speculative methods. Four numbers are shown. The first is the effective exhaust velocity: the equivalent speed that the propellant leaves the vehicle. This is not necessarily the most important characteristic of the propulsion method; thrust and power consumption and other factors can be. However,
The second and third are the typical amounts of thrust and the typical burn times of the method; outside a gravitational potential small amounts of thrust applied over a long period will give the same effect as large amounts of thrust over a short period, if the object is not significantly influenced by gravity.[ citation needed ] The fourth is the maximum delta-v the technique can give without staging. For rocket-like propulsion systems this is a function of mass fraction and exhaust velocity; mass fraction for rocket-like systems is usually limited by propulsion system weight and tankage weight.[ citation needed ] For a system to achieve this limit, the payload may need to be a negligible percentage of the vehicle, and so the practical limit on some systems can be much lower.[ citation needed ]
Method | Effective exhaust velocity (km/s) | Thrust (N) | Firing duration | Maximum delta-v (km/s) | Technology readiness level |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Solid-fuel rocket | <2.5 | <107 | Minutes | 7 | 9: Flight proven |
Hybrid rocket | <4 | Minutes | >3 | 9: Flight proven | |
Monopropellant rocket | 1 – 3 [61] | 0.1 – 400 [61] | Milliseconds – minutes | 3 | 9: Flight proven |
Liquid-fuel rocket | <4.4 | <107 | Minutes | 9 | 9: Flight proven |
Electrostatic ion thruster | 15 – 210 [62] | Months – years | >100 | 9: Flight proven | |
Hall-effect thruster (HET) | up to 50 [63] | Months – years | >100 | 9: Flight proven [64] | |
Resistojet rocket | 2 – 6 | 10−2 – 10 | Minutes | ? | 8: Flight qualified [65] |
Arcjet rocket | 4 – 16 | 10−2 – 10 | Minutes | ? | 8: Flight qualified[ citation needed ] |
Field-emission electric propulsion (FEEP) | 100 [66] – 130 | 10−6 – 10−3 [66] | Months – years | ? | 8: Flight qualified [66] |
Pulsed plasma thruster (PPT) | 20 | 0.1 | 80 – 400 days | ? | 7: Prototype demonstrated in space |
Dual-mode propulsion rocket | 1 – 4.7 | 0.1 – 107 | Milliseconds – minutes | 3 – 9 | 7: Prototype demonstrated in space |
Solar sails | 299,792.458, Speed of light | 9.08/km2 at 1 AU 908/km2 at 0.1 AU 10−10/km2 at 4 ly | Indefinite | >40 |
|
Tripropellant rocket | 2.5 – 5.3[ citation needed ] | 0.1 – 107[ citation needed ] | Minutes | 9 | 6: Prototype demonstrated on ground [68] |
Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster (MPD) | 20 – 100 | 100 | Weeks | ? | 6: Model, 1 kW demonstrated in space [69] |
Nuclear–thermal rocket | 9 [70] | 107 [70] | Minutes [70] | >20 | 6: Prototype demonstrated on ground |
Propulsive mass drivers | 0 – 30 | 104 – 108 | Months | ? | 6: Model, 32 MJ demonstrated on ground |
Tether propulsion | — | 1 – 1012 | Minutes | 7 | 6: Model, 31.7 km demonstrated in space [71] |
Air-augmented rocket | 5 – 6 | 0.1 – 107 | Seconds – minutes | >7? | 6: Prototype demonstrated on ground [72] [73] |
Liquid-air-cycle engine | 4.5 | 103 – 107 | Seconds – minutes | ? | 6: Prototype demonstrated on ground |
Pulsed-inductive thruster (PIT) | 10 – 80 [74] | 20 | Months | ? | 5: Component validated in vacuum [74] |
Variable-specific-impulse magnetoplasma rocket (VASIMR) | 10 – 300[ citation needed ] | 40 – 1,200[ citation needed ] | Days – months | >100 | 5: Component, 200 kW validated in vacuum |
Magnetic-field oscillating amplified thruster (MOA) | 10 – 390 [75] | 0.1 – 1 | Days – months | >100 | 5: Component validated in vacuum |
Solar–thermal rocket | 7 – 12 | 1 – 100 | Weeks | >20 | 4: Component validated in lab [76] |
Radioisotope rocket/Steam thruster | 7 – 8[ citation needed ] | 1.3 – 1.5 | Months | ? | 4: Component validated in lab |
Nuclear–electric rocket | As electric propulsion method used | 4: Component, 400 kW validated in lab | |||
Orion Project (near-term nuclear pulse propulsion) | 20 – 100 | 109 – 1012 | Days | 30 – 60 | 3: Validated, 900 kg proof-of-concept [77] [78] |
Space elevator | — | — | Indefinite | >12 | 3: Validated proof-of-concept |
Reaction Engines SABRE [79] | 30/4.5 | 0.1 – 107 | Minutes | 9.4 | 3: Validated proof-of-concept |
Electric sails | 145 – 750, solar wind | ? | Indefinite | >40 | 3: Validated proof-of-concept |
Magsail in Solar wind | — | 644 [80] [lower-alpha 1] | Indefinite | 250-750 | 3: Validated proof-of-concept |
Magnetoplasma sail in Solar wind [82] | 278 | 700 | Months - Years | 250-750 | 4: Component validated in lab [83] |
Magsail in Interstellar medium [81] | — | 88,000 initially | Decades | 15,000 | 3: Validated proof-of-concept |
Beam-powered/laser | As propulsion method powered by beam | 3: Validated, 71 m proof-of-concept | |||
Launch loop/orbital ring | — | 104 | Minutes | 11 – 30 | 2: Technology concept formulated |
Nuclear pulse propulsion (Project Daedalus' drive) | 20 – 1,000 | 109 – 1012 | Years | 15,000 | 2: Technology concept formulated |
Gas-core reactor rocket | 10 – 20 | 103 – 106 | ? | ? | 2: Technology concept formulated |
Nuclear salt-water rocket | 100 | 103 – 107 | Half-hour | ? | 2: Technology concept formulated |
Fission sail | ? | ? | ? | ? | 2: Technology concept formulated |
Fission-fragment rocket | 15,000 | ? | ? | ? | 2: Technology concept formulated |
Nuclear–photonic rocket/Photon rocket | 299,792.458, Speed of light | 10−5 – 1 | Years – decades | ? | 2: Technology concept formulated |
Fusion rocket | 100 – 1,000[ citation needed ] | ? | ? | ? | 2: Technology concept formulated |
Antimatter-catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion | 200 – 4,000 | ? | Days – weeks | ? | 2: Technology concept formulated |
Antimatter rocket | 10,000 – 100,000[ citation needed ] | ? | ? | ? | 2: Technology concept formulated |
Bussard ramjet | 2.2 – 20,000 | ? | Indefinite | 30,000 | 2: Technology concept formulated |
Method | Effective exhaust velocity (km/s) | Thrust (N) | Firing duration | Maximum delta-v (km/s) | Technology readiness level |
Table Notes
Spacecraft propulsion systems are often first statically tested on Earth's surface, within the atmosphere but many systems require a vacuum chamber to test fully. Rockets are usually tested at a rocket engine test facility well away from habitation and other buildings for safety reasons. Ion drives are far less dangerous and require much less stringent safety, usually only a large-ish vacuum chamber is needed. Famous static test locations can be found at Rocket Ground Test Facilities. Some systems cannot be adequately tested on the ground and test launches may be employed at a Rocket Launch Site.
There have been many ideas proposed for launch-assist mechanisms that have the potential of drastically reducing the cost of getting into orbit. Proposed non-rocket spacelaunch launch-assist mechanisms include:
This section needs additional citations for verification .(July 2023) |
Studies generally show that conventional air-breathing engines, such as ramjets or turbojets are basically too heavy (have too low a thrust/weight ratio) to give any significant performance improvement when installed on a launch vehicle itself. However, launch vehicles can be air launched from separate lift vehicles (e.g. B-29, Pegasus Rocket and White Knight) which do use such propulsion systems. Jet engines mounted on a launch rail could also be so used.
On the other hand, very lightweight or very high speed engines have been proposed that take advantage of the air during ascent:
Normal rocket launch vehicles fly almost vertically before rolling over at an altitude of some tens of kilometers before burning sideways for orbit; this initial vertical climb wastes propellant but is optimal as it greatly reduces airdrag. Airbreathing engines burn propellant much more efficiently and this would permit a far flatter launch trajectory, the vehicles would typically fly approximately tangentially to Earth's surface until leaving the atmosphere then perform a rocket burn to bridge the final delta-v to orbital velocity.
For spacecraft already in very low-orbit, air-breathing electric propulsion would use residual gases in the upper atmosphere as propellant. Air-breathing electric propulsion could make a new class of long-lived, low-orbiting missions feasible on Earth, Mars or Venus. [85] [86]
When a vehicle is to enter orbit around its destination planet, or when it is to land, it must adjust its velocity. This can be done using all the methods listed above (provided they can generate a high enough thrust), but there are a few methods that can take advantage of planetary atmospheres and/or surfaces.
In science fiction, space ships use various means to travel, some of them scientifically plausible (like solar sails or ramjets), others, mostly or entirely fictitious (like anti-gravity, warp drive, spindizzy or hyperspace travel). [87] : 8, 69–77 [88] : 142
Interplanetary spaceflight or interplanetary travel is the crewed or uncrewed travel between stars and planets, usually within a single planetary system. In practice, spaceflights of this type are confined to travel between the planets of the Solar System. Uncrewed space probes have flown to all the observed planets in the Solar System as well as to dwarf planets Pluto and Ceres, and several asteroids. Orbiters and landers return more information than fly-by missions. Crewed flights have landed on the Moon and have been planned, from time to time, for Mars, Venus and Mercury. While many scientists appreciate the knowledge value that uncrewed flights provide, the value of crewed missions is more controversial. Science fiction writers propose a number of benefits, including the mining of asteroids, access to solar power, and room for colonization in the event of an Earth catastrophe.
A resistojet is a method of spacecraft propulsion that provides thrust by heating a typically non-reactive fluid. Heating is usually achieved by sending electricity through a resistor consisting of a hot incandescent filament, with the expanded gas expelled through a conventional nozzle.
In spacecraft propulsion, a Hall-effect thruster (HET) is a type of ion thruster in which the propellant is accelerated by an electric field. Hall-effect thrusters are sometimes referred to as Hall thrusters or Hall-current thrusters. Hall-effect thrusters use a magnetic field to limit the electrons' axial motion and then use them to ionize propellant, efficiently accelerate the ions to produce thrust, and neutralize the ions in the plume. The Hall-effect thruster is classed as a moderate specific impulse space propulsion technology and has benefited from considerable theoretical and experimental research since the 1960s.
An ion thruster, ion drive, or ion engine is a form of electric propulsion used for spacecraft propulsion. An ion thruster creates a cloud of positive ions from a neutral gas by ionizing it to extract some electrons from its atoms. The ions are then accelerated using electricity to create thrust. Ion thrusters are categorized as either electrostatic or electromagnetic.
A magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) thruster (MPDT) is a form of electrically powered spacecraft propulsion which uses the Lorentz force to generate thrust. It is sometimes referred to as Lorentz Force Accelerator (LFA) or MPD arcjet.
A pulsed plasma thruster (PPT), also known as a plasma jet engine, is a form of electric spacecraft propulsion. PPTs are generally considered the simplest form of electric spacecraft propulsion and were the first form of electric propulsion to be flown in space, having flown on two Soviet probes starting in 1964. PPTs are generally flown on spacecraft with a surplus of electricity from abundantly available solar energy.
A nuclear electric rocket is a type of spacecraft propulsion system where thermal energy from a nuclear reactor is converted to electrical energy, which is used to drive an ion thruster or other electrical spacecraft propulsion technology. The nuclear electric rocket terminology is slightly inconsistent, as technically the "rocket" part of the propulsion system is non-nuclear and could also be driven by solar panels. This is in contrast with a nuclear thermal rocket, which directly uses reactor heat to add energy to a working fluid, which is then expelled out of a rocket nozzle.
A mass driver or electromagnetic catapult is a proposed method of non-rocket spacelaunch which would use a linear motor to accelerate and catapult payloads up to high speeds. Existing and contemplated mass drivers use coils of wire energized by electricity to make electromagnets, though a rotary mass driver has also been proposed. Sequential firing of a row of electromagnets accelerates the payload along a path. After leaving the path, the payload continues to move due to momentum.
Beam-powered propulsion, also known as directed energy propulsion, is a class of aircraft or spacecraft propulsion that uses energy beamed to the spacecraft from a remote power plant to provide energy. The beam is typically either a microwave or a laser beam and it is either pulsed or continuous. A continuous beam lends itself to thermal rockets, photonic thrusters and light sails, whereas a pulsed beam lends itself to ablative thrusters and pulse detonation engines.
In a traditional nuclear photonic rocket, an onboard nuclear reactor would generate such high temperatures that the blackbody radiation from the reactor would provide significant thrust. The disadvantage is that it takes much power to generate a small amount of thrust this way, so acceleration is very low. The photon radiators would most likely be constructed using graphite or tungsten. Photonic rockets are technologically feasible, but rather impractical with current technology based on an onboard nuclear power source.
The Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket (VASIMR) is an electrothermal thruster under development for possible use in spacecraft propulsion. It uses radio waves to ionize and heat an inert propellant, forming a plasma, then a magnetic field to confine and accelerate the expanding plasma, generating thrust. It is a plasma propulsion engine, one of several types of spacecraft electric propulsion systems.
Laser propulsion is a form of beam-powered propulsion where the energy source is a remote laser system and separate from the reaction mass. This form of propulsion differs from a conventional chemical rocket where both energy and reaction mass come from the solid or liquid propellants carried on board the vehicle.
In spaceflight, an orbital maneuver is the use of propulsion systems to change the orbit of a spacecraft. For spacecraft far from Earth an orbital maneuver is called a deep-space maneuver (DSM).
Solar electric propulsion (SEP) refers to the combination of solar cells and electric thrusters to propel a spacecraft through outer space. This technology has been exploited in a variety of spacecraft designs by the European Space Agency (ESA), the JAXA, Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and NASA. SEP has a significantly higher specific impulse than chemical rocket propulsion, thus requiring less propellant mass to be launched with a spacecraft. The technology has been evaluated for missions to Mars.
The gridded ion thruster is a common design for ion thrusters, a highly efficient low-thrust spacecraft propulsion method running on electrical power by using high-voltage grid electrodes to accelerate ions with electrostatic forces.
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A plasma propulsion engine is a type of electric propulsion that generates thrust from a quasi-neutral plasma. This is in contrast with ion thruster engines, which generate thrust through extracting an ion current from the plasma source, which is then accelerated to high velocities using grids/anodes. These exist in many forms. However, in the scientific literature, the term "plasma thruster" sometimes encompasses thrusters usually designated as "ion engines".
Spacecraft electric propulsion is a type of spacecraft propulsion technique that uses electrostatic or electromagnetic fields to accelerate mass to high speed and thus generating thrust to modify the velocity of a spacecraft in orbit. The propulsion system is controlled by power electronics.
Field propulsion is the concept of spacecraft propulsion where no propellant is necessary but instead momentum of the spacecraft is changed by an interaction of the spacecraft with external force fields, such as gravitational and magnetic fields from stars and planets. Proposed drives that use field propulsion are often called a reactionless or propellantless drive.
The NASA Solar Technology Application Readiness (NSTAR) is a type of spacecraft ion thruster called electrostatic ion thruster. It is a highly efficient low-thrust spacecraft propulsion running on electrical power generated by solar arrays. It uses high-voltage electrodes to accelerate ions with electrostatic forces.