Conflagration

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The August Complex fire in 2020, the largest fire in California's history Doe Fire looking south from forest highway 7 (2020-08-19).jpg
The August Complex fire in 2020, the largest fire in California's history

A conflagration is a large fire. [1] Conflagrations often damage human life, animal life, health, and/or property. A conflagration can begin accidentally or be intentionally created (arson). A very large fire can produce a firestorm, in which the central column of rising heated air induces strong inward winds, which supply oxygen to the fire. Conflagrations can cause casualties including deaths or injuries from burns, trauma due to collapse of structures and attempts to escape, and smoke inhalation.

Contents

Firefighting is the practice of extinguishing a conflagration, protecting life and property and minimizing damage and injury. One of the goals of fire prevention is to avoid conflagrations. When a conflagration is extinguished, there is often a fire investigation to determine the cause of the fire.

Burned trees in front the Montagna di Verna, Peloritani mountains, Sicily Alberi bruciati sopra ritagli di lecca.JPG
Burned trees in front the Montagna di Vernà, Peloritani mountains, Sicily

Causes and types

During a conflagration a significant movement of air and combustion products occurs. [2] Hot gaseous products of combustion move upward, causing the influx of more dense cold air to the combustion zone. Sometimes, the influx is so intense that the fire grows into a firestorm. [3]

Inside a building, the intensity of gas exchange depends on the size and location of openings in walls and floors, the ceiling height, and the amount and characteristics of the combustible materials.

Notable examples

Ostankino Tower fire Ostankino fire august 2000.jpg
Ostankino Tower fire
A fire in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina New Orleans Fire 2005-09-02.jpg
A fire in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina
Beijing Television Cultural Center fire CCTV new headquarters Fire 20090209.jpg
Beijing Television Cultural Center fire
A fire in a school in Aberdeen, Washington School burn.JPG
A fire in a school in Aberdeen, Washington
PlaceYearConflagrationNotes
Alexandria, Egypt48 BCE Burning of the library of Alexandria
Rome, Roman Empire 64 Great Fire of Rome Large parts of ancient Rome destroyed
Bremen, Archbishopric of Bremen, Holy Roman Empire 1041Fire of BremenMost of the old city including the cathedral destroyed
Lübeck, County of Holstein, Holy Roman Empire 11571157 Fire of LübeckDestruction of the city
Lübeck, County of Holstein, Holy Roman Empire 12511251 Fire of LübeckTriggered use of stone as a fire-safe building material
Lübeck, County of Holstein, Holy Roman Empire 12761276 Fire of LübeckNorthern part of old city destroyed. Triggered system of fire protection. Last fire until the bombing of WW II
Munich, Duchy of Bavaria, Holy Roman Empire 1327Fire of MunichCa. 1/3 of the city destroyed
Bern, Switzerland14051405 Fire of Bern600 houses destroyed, over 100 deaths
Moscow, Tsardom of Russia 1547 1547 Great Fire of Moscow 2,700 to 3,700 fatalities; 80,000 displaced
Moscow, Tsardom of Russia1571 1571 Fire of Moscow 10,000 to 80,000 casualties
London, England1613Burning of the Globe Theatre [10] During performance, cannon misfire caught the thatched roof on fire and the Theatre burned down
Aachen, Holy Roman Empire 1656Fire of Aachen4,664 houses destroyed, 17 deaths
Edo, Japan1657 Great Fire of Meireki 30,000 to 100,000 fatalities, 60-70% of the city was destroyed
London, England1666 Great Fire of London 13,200 houses and 87 churches were destroyed
Rostock, Holy Roman Empire 16771677 Fire of Rostockca. 700 houses destroyed. Accelerated the city's economic decline at the end of the Hanseatic period
Copenhagen, Denmark1728 Copenhagen Fire of 1728 1700 houses destroyed (28% of the city), 15,000 people made homeless
Tartu, Estonia1775 Great fire of Tartu Up to 2/3 of the city was destroyed
Copenhagen, Denmark1795 Copenhagen Fire of 1795 900 houses destroyed, 6,000 people made homeless
Kyiv 1811 Great Podil fire Over 2,000 houses, 12 churches and 3 abbeys razed, 30 deaths
Moscow, Russian Empire 1812 1812 Fire of Moscow Estimated that 75% of the city was destroyed
Hamburg, German Confederation 1842 Great Fire of Hamburg 25% of the inner city destroyed
St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.1849 Great St. Louis Fire 430 homes and 23 ships destroyed, but only 3 dead
San Francisco, California, U.S.1851 San Francisco Fire of 1851 Destroyed as much as three-quarters of San Francisco
Santiago, Chile1863 Church of the Company Fire 2,000 to 3,000 fatalities
Brisbane, Queensland, Australia1864 Great Fire of Brisbane Over four city blocks burned with over 50 houses razed and dozens of businesses
Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.1864 Atlanta Campaign during American Civil War About 11/12ths of the city burned: more than 4,000 houses, shops, stores, mills, and depots; only about 450 buildings escaped damage
Portland, Maine, U.S.1866 1866 Great fire of Portland, Maine 1800 structures destroyed on peninsula/downtown area; 10,000 left displaced and homeless
Peshtigo, Wisconsin, U.S.1871 Peshtigo Fire Resulted in most deaths by a single fire event in U.S. history (1500-2500)
Chicago, Illinois, U.S.1871 Great Chicago Fire 200 to 300 fatalities; 17,000 buildings were destroyed
Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.1872 Boston Fire Over 700 buildings destroyed
Minneapolis, Minnesota, U.S.1874 Great Mill Disaster 18 believed fatalities
New York City, U.S.1876 Brooklyn Theater Fire 273–300 fatalities
Hoboken, New Jersey, U.S.1900 Great Hoboken Pier Fire 4 ships burned, killing up to 400 people
Jacksonville, Florida, U.S.1901 Great Fire of 1901 8-hour fire destroyed over 2,300 buildings and displaced almost 10,000 people
Chicago1903 Iroquois Theater Fire Deadliest single-building fire in U.S. history, with 602 victims
New York City 1904Burning of the steamship General Slocum Over 1,000 fatalities
San Francisco, California, U.S.1906Result of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake Up to 3,000 victims; over 95% of city burned
Chelsea, Massachusetts, U.S.1908 First Great Chelsea Fire 1,500 buildings destroyed, 11,000 left homeless, when a fire at the Boston Blacking Company was fanned by 40 mph (64 km/h) winds and raced across the Chelsea Rag District, a several-block area of dilapidated wood-frame buildings housing textile and paper scrap. Half the city was destroyed. Same conditions and origin area of the Second Great Chelsea Fire (1973).
Idaho, U.S.1910Massive forest fire known as the Big Burn 3,000,000 acres (12,000 km2) burned out, 75 dead.
New York City1911 Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire Killed 146 garment factory workers; 4th deadliest industrial disaster in U.S. history
Tokyo, Japan1923 1923 Great Kantō earthquake Fire broke out following the earthquake, half the city was razed and over 100,000 died
Columbus, Ohio, U.S.1930 Ohio Penitentiary fire322 fatalities, 150 seriously injured
Berlin, Germany1933 Reichstag Fire Destruction of the Reichstag, seat of the German Parliament
Coventry, England1940 Coventry Blitz Over 800 fatalities; most of the city was destroyed
Stalingrad, U.S.S.R. 1942 Firestorm resulting from German air bombardment 955 fatalities (original Soviet estimate)
Boston1942 Cocoanut Grove fire Nightclub fire killed 492 and injured hundreds more
Hamburg, Germany 1943Firestorm resulting from air bombardment 35,000 to 45,000 victims, 12 km2 (4.6 sq mi) of the city destroyed
Hartford, Connecticut, U.S.1944 Hartford Circus Fire when tent burned168 killed and over 700 injured
Dresden, Germany1945Firestorm resulting from Allied bombing Up to 25,000 fatalities during the three-day bombing; 39 km2 (15 sq mi) of the city destroyed
Tokyo, Japan1945Devastating conflagration resulting from B-29 raids during Operation Meetinghouse Up to 100,000 fatalities and 41 km2 (16 sq mi) of the city destroyed; similar fires hit the Japanese cities of Kobe and Osaka
Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan1945Firestorm developed 30 minutes after the bombing of Hiroshima, but only a conflagration developed at Nagasaki [11] Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (see nuclear explosion)
Texas City, Texas, U.S.1947 Texas City disaster Cargo ship Grandcamp caught fire and exploded, destroying most of the harbor and killing 600 people
Seaside Heights & Seaside Park, New Jersey, United States1955 The Freeman Pier Fire At least 30 businesses lost, 50 residents evacuated, no major injuries [12] [13] [14]
Chicago1958 Our Lady of the Angels School Fire 95 fatalities, 100 wounded
Singapore1961 Bukit Ho Swee Fire 4 fatalities, over 2,800 homes destroyed, 15,694 people left homeless
Brussels, Belgium1967 L'Innovation Department Store fire 322 victims, 150 wounded
Gulf of Tonkin 1967 USS Forrestal fire Fire aboard aircraft carrier during Vietnam War, killed 134 sailors and injured 161
Tasmania, Australia1967 1967 Tasmanian fires Severe wildfires that claimed 62 lives, 900 injured, displaced 7,000, and destroyed 264,000 hectares (2,640 km2) of land including 1,293 homes
Chelsea, Massachusetts, U.S.1973 Second Great Chelsea Fire 18 city blocks destroyed when a firestorm raced across the Chelsea Rag District, a several-block area of dilapidated wood-frame buildings housing textile and paper scrap. The same conditions and origin area of the First Great Chelsea Fire (1908).
Southgate, Kentucky, U.S.1977 Beverly Hills Supper Club fire 165 fatalities
Minneapolis, Minnesota 1982 Minneapolis Thanksgiving Day Fire Two people convicted of arson in setting fire to a Donaldson's department store, which in turn destroyed a full city block of downtown Minneapolis
San Juanico, Mexico 1984 San Juanico Disaster Fire and explosions at a liquid petroleum gas tank farm killed 500-600 people and 5,000-7,000 others suffered severe burns; local town of San Juan Ixhuatepec devastated
Bradford, England1985 Bradford City stadium fire 52 victims
London1987 King's Cross fire Conflagration in London Underground station killed 31 people
Waco, Texas 1993 Mount Carmel Center, the compound of the Branch Davidians cultOccurring on the final day of the Waco siege, resulting in deaths of 76 cult members; question of who actually started the fires remains unanswered [15]
Dabwali, India1995 Dabwali tent fire 540 deaths [16]
New York City and Washington, D.C., U.S.2001 September 11 attacks 2,606 victims killed in New York City as fires caused both twin towers of the World Trade Center to collapse, following impacts by two hijacked airliners. In Washington, D.C., 125 victims at the Pentagon were killed by the hijacked plane crash and subsequent fire.
West Warwick, Rhode Island, U.S.2003 The Station nightclub fire 100 killed and over 200 injured in fire at rock concert
Asunción, Paraguay2004 Ycuá Bolaños supermarket fire Almost 400 fatalities
Hemel Hempstead, England2005 Hertfordshire oil storage terminal fire The largest fire in peacetime Britain
Greece 2007 2007 Greek forest fires 84 victims in over 3,000 wildfires destroying 670,000 acres (2,700 km2) of land
Victoria, Australia2009 Black Saturday bushfires 173 victims in over 400 separate bushfires which burned 450,000 hectares (4,500 km2)
Near Haifa, Israel2010 Mount Carmel forest fire (2010) 44 victims, 12,000 acres (49 km2) of bush/forest destroyed
Comayagua, Honduras2012 Comayagua prison fire 382 fatalities
Karachi and
Lahore, Pakistan 		2012 2012 Pakistan garment factory fires About 315 fatalities, over 250 injured in 2 fires on a single day
Santa Maria, Brazil2013 Kiss nightclub fire At least 232 fatalities and 117 hospitalized [17]
Seaside Heights & Seaside Park, New Jersey, U.S.2013 Boardwalk fire At least 19 buildings destroyed, 30 businesses lost, no major injuries [18]
Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo, Alberta, Canada2016 2016 Fort McMurray Wildfire Destroyed 2400 buildings and burned 589,552 hectares (1,456,810 acres) forcing the evacuation of 80,000 residents.
London, United Kingdom 2017 Grenfell Tower fire On 14 June 2017, a fire broke out in Grenfell Tower, causing the deaths of 72 people and injured 74.
Sonoma County, California, U.S.2017 Tubbs Fire 36,807 acres burned, 5,400 structures destroyed, 22 fatalities [19]
Paço de São Cristóvão, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil2018 National Museum of Brazil fire On 2 September 2018, a fire broke out at Paço de São Cristóvão in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, which housed the 200-year-old National Museum of Brazil. The museum held more than 20 million items, of which almost 90 percent were lost.
Notre-Dame de Paris 2019 Notre-Dame de Paris Fire The fire of the Cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris was a violent fire that erupted in the Cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris. It began at the end of the afternoon of April 15, 2019, on the roof of the building, causing considerable damage. The cathedral's needle and roof collapsed, and the interior and artefacts it housed were severely damaged.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fire</span> Rapid and hot oxidation of a material

Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the exothermic chemical process of combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction products. At a certain point in the combustion reaction, called the ignition point, flames are produced. The flame is the visible portion of the fire. Flames consist primarily of carbon dioxide, water vapor, oxygen and nitrogen. If hot enough, the gases may become ionized to produce plasma. Depending on the substances alight, and any impurities outside, the color of the flame and the fire's intensity will be different.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Firestorm</span> High intensity conflagration

A firestorm is a conflagration which attains such intensity that it creates and sustains its own wind system. It is most commonly a natural phenomenon, created during some of the largest bushfires and wildfires. Although the term has been used to describe certain large fires, the phenomenon's determining characteristic is a fire with its own storm-force winds from every point of the compass towards the storm's center, where the air is heated and then ascends.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oakland firestorm of 1991</span> Suburban wildland-urban interface conflagration in California

The Oakland firestorm of 1991 was a large suburban wildland–urban interface conflagration that occurred on the hillsides of northern Oakland, California, and southeastern Berkeley over the weekend of October 19–20, 1991, before being brought under full control on October 23. The official name of this incident by Cal Fire is the Tunnel Fire. It is also commonly referred to as the Oakland Hills firestorm or the East Bay Hills fire. The fire ultimately killed 25 people and injured 150 others. The 1,520 acres destroyed included 2,843 single-family dwellings and 437 apartment and condominium units. The economic loss from the fire was estimated at $1.5 billion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flammagenitus cloud</span> Cloud that forms from large fires or explosions

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cedar Fire</span> 2003 wildfire in Southern California

The Cedar Fire was a massive, highly-destructive wildfire, which burned 273,246 acres (1,106 km2) of land in San Diego County, California, during October and November 2003. The fire's rapid growth was driven by the Santa Ana wind, causing the fire to spread at a rate of 3,600 acres (15 km2) per hour. By the time the fire was fully contained on November 4, it had destroyed 2,820 buildings and killed 15 people, including one firefighter. Hotspots continued to burn within the Cedar Fire's perimeter until December 5, 2003, when the fire was fully brought under control.

The Laguna Fire, also known as the Kitchen Creek Fire or the Boulder Oaks Fire, was a 175,425-acre (70,992 ha) wildfire that burned from September 22 to October 4, 1970, in the Laguna Mountains and East County region of San Diego County in Southern California. It was one of many wildfires in a massive conflagration that spanned across the state from September 22 to October 4, 1970. At the time, it was the second-largest fire in the recorded history of California after the 1932 Matilija Fire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fire whirl</span> Whirlwind induced by and often composed of fire

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">1923 Berkeley, California, fire</span> Conflagration that consumed 640 structures

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Witch Fire</span> 2007 wildfire in Southern California

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Wildfire suppression in the United States has had a long and varied history. For most of the 20th century, any form of wildland fire, whether it was naturally caused or otherwise, was quickly suppressed for fear of uncontrollable and destructive conflagrations such as the Peshtigo Fire in 1871 and the Great Fire of 1910. In the 1960s, policies governing wildfire suppression changed due to ecological studies that recognized fire as a natural process necessary for new growth. Today, policies advocating complete fire suppression have been exchanged for those who encourage wildland fire use, or the allowing of fire to act as a tool, such as the case with controlled burns.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2017 California wildfires</span>

In terms of property damage, 2017 was the most destructive wildfire season on record in California at the time, surpassed by only the 2018 season and the 2020 season, with a total of 9,560 fires burning 1,548,429 acres (6,266.27 km2) of land, according to the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection, including five of the 20 most destructive wildland-urban interface fires in the state's history. Throughout 2017, the fires destroyed or damaged more than 10,000 structures in the state, a higher tally than the previous nine years combined. State data showed that the large wildfires killed 47 people – 45 civilians and 2 firefighters – almost higher than the previous 10 years combined. The total property damage and total amount of burned land were both surpassed by the 2018 California wildfires.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">October 2017 Northern California wildfires</span> 2017 wildfires in Northern California

The October 2017 Northern California wildfires, also known as the Northern California firestorm, North Bay Fires, and the Wine Country Fires were a series of 250 wildfires that started burning across the state of California, United States, beginning in early October. Twenty-one became major fires that burned at least 245,000 acres (99,148 ha).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2018 California wildfires</span>

The 2018 wildfire season was the deadliest and most destructive wildfire season in California history. It was also the largest on record at the time, now third after the 2020 and 2021 California wildfire seasons. In 2018, there were a total of 103 confirmed fatalities, 24,226 structures damaged or destroyed, and 8,527 fires burning 1,975,086 acres (799,289 ha), about 2% of the state's 100 million acres of land. Through the end of August 2018, Cal Fire alone spent $432 million on operations. The catastrophic Camp Fire alone killed at least 85 people, destroyed 18,804 buildings and caused $16.5 billion in property damage, while overall the fires resulted in at least $26.347 billion in property damage and firefighting costs, including $25.4 billion in property damage and $947 million in fire suppression costs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LNU Lightning Complex fires</span> 2020 wildfire in Northern California

The LNU Lightning Complex fires were a large complex of wildfires that burned during the 2020 California wildfire season across much of the Wine Country area of Northern California – Lake, Napa, Sonoma, Solano, and Yolo Counties, from August 17 to October 2, 2020. The complex was composed of numerous lightning-sparked fires, most of which were small. While they ignited separately from each other, the Hennessey Fire eventually grew to merge with the Gamble, Green, Markley, Spanish, and Morgan fires, scorching 192,000 acres (777 km2) by itself, for a total burn area of 363,220 acres (1,470 km2) in the complex. The fire, which burned in the hills surrounding several large cities, such as Fairfield, Napa, and Vacaville, destroyed 1,491 structures and damaged a further 232. In all, six people were killed and another five injured. The LNU Lightning Complex is the seventh-largest wildfire in the recorded history of California.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fairview Fire</span> 2022 wildfire in Southern California

The Fairview Fire is a deadly and destructive wildfire that burned during the 2022 California wildfire season southwest of Valle Vista and east of Hemet in Riverside County, California in the United States. The fire ignited on September 5, 2022, during a severe heatwave that had plagued much of the southwest throughout early September and, due to the extreme weather conditions, grew to a deadly and destructive conflagration in the chaparral-filled foothills within just several hours of igniting.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jones Fire (1999)</span> 1999 wildfire in Northern California

The 1999 Jones Fire was a destructive wildfire in the U.S. state of California's Shasta County. The fire ignited on October 16, and was contained on October 19, 1999. It burned 26,200 acres (10,600 ha), destroyed 954 structures, and resulted in one fatality, becoming the then-second most destructive wildfire ever recorded in California, behind only the Oakland firestorm of 1991. As of 2023 it remains one of the 20 most destructive wildfires in the history of the state. The cause of the fire was never determined.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2001 California wildfires</span>

The 2001 California wildfire season was a series of wildfires that burned throughout the U.S. state of California during 2001. According to California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection statistics, 9,317 fires burned a total of 377,340 acres.

References

  1. ↑ Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed., "Conflagration"
  2. ↑ "Conflagration". tititudorancea.com.
  3. ↑ "California wildfires rage, north and south, killing at least nine and putting tens of thousands at risk". Washington Post. Retrieved 10 November 2018.
  4. ↑ Kramer, William Michael (2009). Disaster Planning and Control. Fire Engineering Books. ISBN   9781593701895.
  5. ↑ Metz, M; et al. (2013). Pile Foundations Baltic Piling Days 2012. CRC Pr I Llc. p. 38. ISBN   978-0415643344.
  6. ↑ "New Museum Plans for Turku's Great Fire Anniversary". News Now Finland. September 4, 2017. Retrieved January 8, 2021.
  7. ↑ Karl Heinrich Schleiden: Versuch einer Geschichte des großen Brandes in Hamburg vom 5. bis 8. Mai 1842. Hamburg: Hoffmann und Campe, 1843. (in German).
  8. ↑ The Return of the Urban Firestorm ... What happened in Colorado was something much scarier than a wildfire | By David Wallace-Wells | Intelligencer | Jan. 1, 2022
  9. ↑ "CHIPS Articles: NRL RDT&E; Protecting Ships and Crew". Archived from the original on 2016-03-05. Retrieved 2016-02-22.
  10. ↑ "The First Globe". Shakespeare's Globe Theatre. The Shakespeare Globe Trust. Archived from the original on 4 December 2008. Retrieved 15 March 2014.
  11. ↑ Glasstone, Samuel; Dolan, Philip J., eds. (1977), "Chapter VII — Thermal Radiation and Its Effects" (PDF), The Effects of Nuclear Weapons (Third ed.), United States Department of Defense and the Energy Research and Development Administration, p. 304, Nagasaki probably did not furnish sufficient fuel for the development of a fire storm as compared to the many buildings on the flat terrain at Hiroshima.
  12. ↑ Salvini, Emil R. (June 30, 2009). "The Freeman Pier Fire- 1955- Seaside". Tales of the New Jersey Shore and its Environs.
  13. ↑ "Seaside begins rebuilding as fire ashes cool". The Star-Ledger. Seaside Heights. 1955.
  14. ↑ "Fire Loss High, Insurance Low; Concessions Listed". Seaside Heights. 1955.
  15. ↑ "The Siege at Waco". Crimes of the Century. Season 1. Episode 7. August 25, 2013. CNN.
  16. ↑ Arnold, Jim (April 7, 2005), Large Building Fires and Subsequent Code Changes (PDF), Clark County Department of Development Services, Building Division, p. 18 (Item 55), archived from the original (PDF) on December 7, 2008
  17. ↑ Barbassa, Juliana; Sigaja, Marco (January 27, 2013). "Brazil Nightclub Fire Kills At Least 232 People". The Huffington Post.
  18. ↑ Double Down (September 12, 2013). "Seaside Businesses Impacted by the Boardwalk Fire". WKXW, New Jersey 101.5 FM Radio.
  19. ↑ Cal Fire (October 23, 2017). "Top 20 Most Destructive California Wildfires" (PDF). State of California - Cal Fire. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 27 October 2017.
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