Geology of the Canary Islands

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Map of the Canary Islands Map of the Canary Islands.svg
Map of the Canary Islands
Teide stratovolcano on Tenerife Teide Parque Natural.jpg
Teide stratovolcano on Tenerife
Volcanic cones on Lanzarote Timanfaya- Lanzarote- Illas Canarias- Spain-T20-denoised.jpg
Volcanic cones on Lanzarote
Pahoehoe lava flow on El Hierro Pahoehoe Lava on El Hierro in Spain 02.jpg
Pahoehoe lava flow on El Hierro
Caldera de Taburiente on La Palma Caldera de Taburiente (1).jpg
Caldera de Taburiente on La Palma

The geology of the Canary Islands is dominated by volcanic rock. The Canary Islands and some seamounts to the north-east form the Canary Volcanic Province, whose volcanic history started about 70 million years ago. [1] The Canary Islands region is still volcanically active. The most recent volcanic eruption on land occurred in 2021 [2] and the most recent underwater eruption was in 2011-12. [1]

Contents

The Canary Islands are a 450 km (280 mi) long, east-west trending, archipelago of volcanic islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, 100–500 km (60–310 mi) off the coast of Northwest Africa. [3] The islands are located on the African tectonic plate. The Canary Islands are an example of intraplate volcanism because they are located far (more than 600 km (370 mi)) from the edges of the African Plate. [4]

From east to west, the main islands are Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, Gran Canaria, Tenerife, La Gomera, La Palma, and El Hierro. [Note 1] There are also several minor islands and islets. The seven main Canary Islands originated as separate submarine seamount volcanoes on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean, which is 1,000–4,000 m (3,000–13,000 ft) deep in the Canarian region.

Lanzarote and Fuerteventura are parts of a single volcanic ridge called the Canary Ridge. These two present-day islands have sometimes been a single island in the past. Part of the ridge is now submerged, and Lanzarote and Fuerteventura are separate islands, separated by an 11 km (7 mi) wide, 40 m (130 ft) deep strait of ocean water. [6]

Volcanic activity has occurred during the last 11,700 years on all of the main islands except La Gomera. [7]

Regional setting

Volcanic activity in the Canary Volcanic Province started about 70 Ma (million years ago), occurring at numerous seamounts and the Savage Islands, across an area of the ocean floor up to 400 km north of the Canary Islands. The northernmost of this group of seamounts, Lars seamount (about 380 km north of Lanzarote), has been dated to 68 Ma. The seamounts are progressively younger southwestwards towards Lanzarote. [8]

The Canary Islands are built upon one the oldest regions of Earth's oceanic crust (175–147 Ma), part of the slow-moving African Plate, in the continental rise section of northwest Africa's passive continental margin. [9] [10] The oceanic lithosphere is about 60 km thick at the central Canary Islands and about 100 km thick at the western islands. [11]

Two seamounts, Las Hijas (southwest of El Hierro) and El Hijo de Tenerife (about 200,000 years old, located between Gran Canaria and Tenerife) may eventually (in the next 500,000 years) form new islands by future eruptions adding more lava flows to their volcanic edifices. [12]

Growth stages

Volcanic oceanic islands, such as the Canary Islands, form in deep parts of the oceans. This type of island forms by a sequence of development stages: [13]

  1. submarine (seamount) stage
  2. shield-building stage
  3. declining stage (La Palma and El Hierro)
  4. erosion stage (La Gomera)
  5. rejuvenation/post-erosional stage (Fuerteventura, Lanzarote, Gran Canaria and Tenerife). [13]

The Canary Islands differ from some other volcanic oceanic islands, such as the Hawaiian Islands: for example, the Canary Islands have stratovolcanoes, compression structures and a lack of significant subsidence. [13]

The seven main Canary Islands originated as separate submarine seamount volcanoes on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean. Each seamount, built up by the eruption of many lava flows, eventually became an island. Subaerial volcanic eruptions continued on each island. Late-stage fissure eruptions dominated on Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, resulting in relatively subdued topography with heights below 1,000 m (3,300 ft). The other islands are much more rugged and mountainous. In the case of Tenerife, the volcanic edifice of Teide rises about 7,500 m (24,600 ft) above the ocean floor (about 3,780 m (12,400 ft) underwater and 3,715 m (12,188 ft) above sea level). [14] [15]

The volume of volcanic rock that has built up the Canary Islands to thousands of metres above the ocean floor is about 124,600 km3; 96% of this lava is hidden below sea level and only 4% (4,940 km3) is above sea level. [16] The western islands have more of their volume (7%) above sea level than do the eastern islands (2%). [16]

Age

The age of the oldest subaerially-erupted lavas on each island decreases from east to west along the island chain: Lanzarote-Fuerteventura (20.2  Ma), Gran Canaria (14.6 Ma), Tenerife (11.9 Ma), La Gomera (9.4 Ma), La Palma (1.7 Ma) and El Hierro (1.1 Ma). [17] [4]

Rock types

Volcanic rock types found on the Canary Islands are typical of oceanic islands. The volcanic rocks include alkali basalts, basanites, phonolites, trachytes, nephelinites, trachyandesites, tephrites and rhyolites. [13] [7]

Outcrops of plutonic rocks (for example, syenites, gabbros and pyroxenites) that formed deep below the surface occur on Fuerteventura, [18] La Gomera and La Palma. Apart from some islands of Cape Verde (another volcanic island group in the Atlantic Ocean, about 1,400 km (900 mi) south-west of the Canary Islands), Fuerteventura is the only oceanic island known to have outcrops of carbonatite. [19]

Volcanic landforms

"Los Organos", columnar-jointed phonolite on La Gomera Los Organos, La Gomera X.jpg
"Los Órganos", columnar-jointed phonolite on La Gomera

Examples of the following types of volcanic landforms occur in the Canary Islands: shield volcano, stratovolcano, collapse caldera, erosion caldera, cinder cone, coulee, scoria cone, tuff cone, tuff ring, maar, lava flow, lava flow field, dyke, volcanic plug. [20]

Origins of volcanism

Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the volcanism of the Canary Islands. [21] Two hypotheses have received the most attention from geologists:

  1. The volcanism is related to crustal fractures extending from the Atlas Mountains of Morocco.
  2. The volcanism is caused by the African Plate moving slowly over a hotspot in the Earth's mantle.

Currently, a hotspot (the Canary hotspot) is the explanation accepted by most geologists who study the Canary Islands. [22] [23]

Evidence in favour of a hotspot origin for Canarian volcanism includes the age progression in the arcuate Canary Volcanic Province occurring in the same direction and at the same rate as in the neighbouring arcuate Madeira Volcanic Province (about 450 km farther north). This is consistent with the African Plate rotating anticlockwise at about 12 mm per year. [24] Also, seismic tomography has revealed the existence of a region of hot rock extending from the surface, down through the oceanic lithosphere to a depth of at least 1,000 km in the upper mantle. [25]

Volcanic eruption distribution

Seventy-five confirmed volcanic eruptions have occurred in the Canary Islands in the Holocene Epoch (the last 11,700 years of Earth's geological history). [26] Sixteen of these eruptions have been during the Modern Era of European history (that is, after c.1480). [26] Therefore, in the last 500 years, volcanic eruptions have occurred, on average, every 30 to 35 years. [27] However, in the Modern Era, the repose period between infrequent eruptions at each volcano has been highly variable (26 to 237 years for Cumbre Vieja on La Palma; 1 to 212 years for Tenerife), making reliable prediction of future eruptions unlikely. [28] [26]

Volcanic eruptions in the Canary Islands
IslandHolocene
(last 11,700 years)		Modern Era
(since c. 1480)		Modern Era eruption datesNotesRef.
Lanzarote421730–1736, 1824 [29]
Fuerteventura00——No specific confirmed Holocene eruptions, but they are inferred to have occurred (based on the freshness of lava and volcanic landforms) [30]
Gran Canaria110—— [31]
Tenerife4251492, 1704–1705, 1706, 1798, 1909 [32]
La Gomera00—— [27]
La Palma1481481(±11), 1585, 1646, 1677–1678, 1712, 1949, 1971, 2021 [33]
El Hierro412011–2012 [34]

Lanzarote

Remains of the Famara shield volcano's pile of lava flows at the northern tip of Lanzarote Punta Fariones in Lanzarote in Canary Islands 2015.jpg
Remains of the Famara shield volcano's pile of lava flows at the northern tip of Lanzarote

Volcanic activity at Lanzarote started during the Oligocene Epoch at 28 Ma. [35] For about the first 12 million years, the lava pile of a submarine seamount built up from the 2,500 m deep sea floor. [36] Then, in the Miocene Epoch, from 15.6 Ma to 12 Ma, the Los Ajaches subaerial shield volcano grew as an island on top of the seamount, in an area corresponding to present-day southern Lanzarote. [37] Between 10.2 Ma and 3.8 Ma, volcanic activity was focussed about 35 km to the northeast, forming a second shield volcanic island called Famara. [38] Between Los Ajaches and Famara volcanoes, a central volcanic edifice was also active from 6.6 to 6.1 Ma. [39] The edifices gradually merged to form a single island, Lanzarote, at about 4 Ma. [40] From 3.9 Ma to 2.7 Ma, volcanic activity paused and the island was eroded. [41] Today, although the lavas of Los Ajaches volcano are now mostly covered by calcrete, [42] the eroded remains of the two shield volcanoes are preserved in southern and northern Lanzarote respectively, with small outcrops of the central edifice occurring between them. At about 2.7 Ma, in the late Pliocene Epoch, the rejuvenation stage began. It produced much less lava than the earlier shield stage, mainly at the Montaña Roja and Montaña Bermeja volcanoes in southern Lanzarote. [41] Then, throughout the subsequent Pleistocene and Holocene epochs, the rejuvenation volcanism has continued and has been dominated by strombolian-style eruptions of lava from sets of volcanic cones aligned along numerous NE-SW fissures in the central part of Lanzarote. [43] Geologically recent examples of rejuvenation stage volcanism include eruptions at Montaña Corona (about 21,000 years ago), Timanfaya (1730-1736) and Tao/Nuevo del Fuego/Tinguatón (1824). [44] [45] [46]

Timanfaya, Lanzarote Lanzarote February 2016-9671 - panoramio.jpg
Timanfaya, Lanzarote

The Timanfaya eruption (1730–1736) erupted more than one billion cubic metres (1 km3) of lava, and a large volume of pyroclastic tephra, from more than 30 volcanic vents along a 14 km-long fissure in western Lanzarote. The lava flows cover one quarter of the island (an area of about 225 km2) with some of the flows reaching about 50 m in thickness. It is the largest Modern Era eruption in the Canary Islands, and the third largest eruption of basaltic lava on Earth in historical times. [47] [48] [49] [50] [51]

Almost all the volcanic rocks of Lanzarote are basaltic. [52]

Fuerteventura

Basal complex near Ajuy, Fuerteventura Betancuria, 35637, Las Palmas, Spain - panoramio (75).jpg
Basal complex near Ajuy, Fuerteventura

Fuerteventura is situated on Mesozoic oceanic crust, about 70 km from the edge of the African continental shelf and about 100 km from the African mainland, making it the Canarian island closest to Africa.

Due to its old age, the oceanic crust at Fuerteventura is relatively rigid and this has prevented subsidence and allowed weathering and erosion to expose deep levels of the island's geological structure. [53]

The two main rock sequences of Fuerteventura are (1) a lower, older (Cretaceous to early Miocene) sequence of sedimentary, plutonic and submarine volcanic rocks with intrusive dykes, often called the "basal complex", which is unconformably overlain by (2) a younger sequence of Miocene, Pliocene and Quaternary subaerial volcanic rocks.

The oldest rocks of Fuerteventura are a set of mafic plutonic rocks, marine sedimentary rocks and volcanic rocks, which are intruded by igneous dykes. [54] The sedimentary rocks of the basal complex were deposited on the seafloor and represent the uppermost part of the oceanic crust that was uplifted and incorporated into the volcanic edifice during volcanic activity. The Mesozoic sedimentary rocks are mostly metamorphosed, and they are steeply tilted. The tilting occurred in the mid-Cretaceous and was probably caused by the uplift of Africa. [55] [56] The igneous rocks of the basal complex probably represent the seamount stage of Fuerteventura’s volcanic history, exposed due to uplift and erosion. [57]

In the early Miocene, volcanic activity transitioned from submarine to subaerial while the volcanic edifice was gradually built up above sea level. Fuerteventura has the oldest subaerial volcanic rocks of the Canary Islands, which have been dated to 20.6 Ma. [58] There were three main shield volcanoes built on the seamount base (from north to south): the Northern Edifice, the Central Edifice and the Jandia Edifice. [59] [60] The central shield volcano is the oldest, built mostly from 22 to 18 Ma but with a later phase from 17.5 to 13 Ma. The southern shield volcano formed from 21 to 14 Ma. The northern shield volcano was built mainly from 17 to 12 Ma. [61] These shield volcanoes erupted mostly basaltic and trachybasaltic lava flows. [62]

In the late Miocene (from about 11.5 Ma), there was a pause in volcanic activity (the erosional stage). Minor volcanic eruptions resumed in the Pliocene, at about 5.1 Ma (the rejuvenation stage) and they continued sporadically into the Quaternary, with basaltic lava flows dominating again. [63]

The most recent volcanic eruption on Fuerteventura that has been dated occurred 134,000 years ago in the middle Pleistocene. [64] Some undated volcanic cones in northern Fuerteventura may have formed more recently. [65]

Weathering, erosion and sedimentation during the Pliocene and Quaternary formed coastal and shallow-sea sedimentary rocks that were eventually covered by younger aeolian sediments, alluvial fan deposits and palaeosols. [66]

Gran Canaria

After early Miocene submarine volcanic eruptions created a seamount, subaerial volcanic activity at Gran Canaria occurred in three phases: shield stage (middle- and late-Miocene, 14.5 to 8.5 Ma), erosional stage (late Miocene, 8.5 to 5.3 Ma) and rejuvenated stage (Pliocene to Quaternary, 5.3 Ma to present). [67]

The shield stage started with an early phase of eruptions of basaltic lava flows, from 14.5 to 14.1 Ma, which built the main subaerial shield volcanic edifice that forms three quarters of the subaerial volume of Gran Canaria. [68] At least three shield volcanoes were active during this stage of island development and their lava flows gradually merged together into a single large landform. [69] This was followed by a later phase, from 14.1 to 8.5 Ma, of explosive volcanic eruptions of differentiated felsic lavas (phonolites, trachytes and rhyolites) with many pyroclastic flows (that deposited ignimbrites). In central Gran Canaria, Tejeda caldera and a cone sheet swarm were formed in this phase. [70]

Remains of Roque Nublo stratovolcano, Gran Canaria Roque Nublo, Roque de San Jose y Bentayga.jpg
Remains of Roque Nublo stratovolcano, Gran Canaria

From 8.5 to 5.3 Ma, in the erosional stage, there was minimal volcanic activity. Erosion occurred along with deposition of alluvial sediments on the island and deposition of submarine turbidite sediments offshore. [71]

In the rejuvenation stage, from 5.3 Ma to present, volcanic activity has occurred in three phases. The first phase, from 5.3 to 2.7 Ma, was dominated by the formation of Roque Nublo statovolcano in the central part of Gran Canaria. This produced lava flows, ignimbrites and debris avalanche deposits. [72] The second phase (3.5 to 1.5 Ma) had strombolian-style effusive eruptions of lava flows along a northwest-southeast trending volcanic rift. [73] The current phase, from 1.3 Ma to the present, has featured scattered phreatomagmatic and strombolian eruptions of very alkaline lavas. [74] The most recent volcanic eruption on Gran Canaria occurred about 2,000 years ago at Bandama crater, in the northeast part of the island. [75] [76]

Maspalomas sand dunes Dunes de Maspalomas - janvier 2014 - 2.JPG
Maspalomas sand dunes

Sand dunes, with a total volume of 18 million cubic metres, cover an area of 3.6 km2 of the Maspalomas cuspate foreland on Gran Canaria's south coast. [77] Aeolian landforms found in this dune field include barchan dunes and dune ridges (transverse dunes). The dunes are made of sand grains and pebbles. The average thickness of the dunes is 5–10 m but some dunes reach 20 m thick. [78] In a few areas, the underlying deltaic sediments are exposed. [79] The sand that has built the dunes has been moved about 2 or 3 kilometres by water waves and wind from the sediment source area (an offshore submarine shelf at Playa del Inglés). Since the 1960's, urbanisation has affected the local winds and this has caused the gradual reduction in volume and area of the dune field because sediment erosion now exceeds sediment deposition. [80] The dunes had long been thought to have formed during the last several thousand years [81] but a 2021 study found evidence supporting a hypothesis that the dunes formed less than 300 years ago, as a consequence of a tsunami generated by the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. [82] [83]

Earthquakes

The seismicity of the Canary Islands is low. Earthquakes that occur on or near the Canary Islands are linked to volcanism and tectonism. On the Modified Mercalli Scale (an earthquake intensity scale ranging from I for "not felt" to XII for "extreme"), most earthquakes in the region have had an intensity of VI or less. The Timanfaya eruptions on Lanzarote in 1730, however, were accompanied by earthquakes with intensities of up to X on the same scale. [84]

From 1 January 1975 to 31 December 2023, 168 earthquakes of magnitude 2.5 or larger, with epicentres on or close to the Canary Islands, were recorded; the largest of these earthquakes had a moment magnitude of 5.4 and an intensity of VII with its epicentre on the ocean floor about 28 km west of El Hierro in 2013. [85]

In 2004, an earthquake swarm occurred on Tenerife, which raised concern that a volcanic eruption may have been about to occur but no such eruption followed the swarm. [86] [87]

Earthquake swarms, due to the underground movement of molten magma, were detected before and during the volcanic eruptions of 2011–2012 and 2021. In the week before the 2021 eruption on La Palma, a swarm of more than 22,000 earthquakes occurred, with mbLg magnitudes up to about 3.5. The hypocentres of successive earthquakes migrated upwards as magma rose slowly to the surface. [88] [89] [90] During the eruption, larger earthquakes were detected, for example an earthquake of mbLg magnitude 4.3 occurred 35 km below the surface. [91]

At least four tsunamis, triggered by distant earthquakes, have hit the coasts of the Canary Islands in the Modern Era. They occurred in 1755 (1755 Lisbon earthquake), 1761 (1761 Lisbon earthquake), 1941 (1941 Gloria Fault earthquake) and 1969. [92]

See also

Further reading

Notes

  1. ↑ Since 2018, La Graciosa has been officially designated "la octava isla canaria habitada" [5] (the eighth inhabited island of the Canary Islands), in effect the eighth "main island". This is only a political and social designation. La Graciosa continues to be a geologically minor island of the Canary Islands, associated with its much larger neighbour Lanzarote.

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References

  1. 1 2 Carracedo, J.C.; Troll, V.R.; Zaczek, K.; Rodríguez-González, A.; Soler, V.; Deegan, F.M. (2015) The 2011–2012 submarine eruption off El Hierro, Canary Islands: New lessons in oceanic island growth and volcanic crisis management, Earth-Science Reviews, volume 150, pages 168–200, doi : 10.1016/j.earscirev.2015.06.007
  2. ↑ "Lava shoots up from volcano on La Palma in Spanish Canary Islands". Reuters. 2021-09-19. Retrieved 2021-09-19.
  3. ↑ Schmincke, H.U. and Sumita, M. (1998) Volcanic Evolution of Gran Canaria reconstructed from Apron Sediments: Synthesis of VICAP Project Drilling in Weaver, P.P.E., Schmincke, H.U., Firth, J.V., and Duffield, W. (editors) (1998) Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, volume 157
  4. 1 2 Carracedo, Juan Carlos; Troll, Valentin R. (2021), "North-East Atlantic Islands: The Macaronesian Archipelagos", in Alderton, David; Elias, Scott A. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Geology (Second Edition), Oxford: Academic Press, pp. 674–699, doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-102908-4.00027-8, ISBN   978-0-08-102909-1, S2CID   226588940 , retrieved 2021-03-16
  5. ↑ "El Senado reconoce a La Graciosa como la octava isla canaria habitada". El País (in Spanish). 26 June 2018. Retrieved 4 December 2019.
  6. ↑ Carracedo, J.C. and Troll, V.R. (2016) The Geology of the Canary Islands, Amsterdam, Elsevier, ISBN   978-0-12-809663-5, page 532
  7. 1 2 Tanguy, J-C. and Scarth, A. (2001) “Volcanoes of Europe”, Harpenden, Terra Publishing, ISBN   1-903544-03-3, page 101
  8. ↑ Carracedo, J.C. and Troll, V.R. (2016) "The Geology of the Canary Islands", Amsterdam, Elsevier, ISBN   978-0-12-809663-5, page 9
  9. ↑ Lang, N.P., Lang, K.T., Camodeca, B.M. (2012) "A geology-focused virtual field trip to Tenerife, Spain", Geological Society of America Special Paper 492, pages 323-334, doi: 10.1130/2012.2492(23)
  10. ↑ Vera, J.A. (editor) (2004) "Geologia de Espana", Madrid, SGE-IGME (in Spanish) page 637
  11. ↑ Schmincke, H.U. and Sumita, M. (1998) "Volcanic Evolution of Gran Canaria reconstructed from Apron Sediments: Synthesis of VICAP Project Drilling" in Weaver, P.P.E., Schmincke, H.-U., Firth, J.V., and Duffield, W. (editors) (1998) "Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results", volume 157.
  12. ↑ Carracedo, J.C. and Troll, V.R. (2016) "The Geology of the Canary Islands", Amsterdam, Elsevier, ISBN   978-0-12-809663-5, pages 9-11
  13. 1 2 3 4 Viñuela, J.M. (2007). "The Canary Islands Hot Spot" (PDF). www.mantleplumes.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 August 2019. Retrieved 30 November 2019.
  14. ↑ Hoernle, K. and Carracedo, J.C. Canary Islands, Geology in Gillespie, R. and Clague, D. (editors) (2009) Encyclopedia of Islands, page 134
  15. ↑ Martínez-García, E. Spain in Moores, E.M. and Fairbridge, R. (editors) (1997) Encyclopedia of European and Asian Regional Geology, London, Chapman and Hall, ISBN   0-412740-400, page 680
  16. 1 2 Paris, R. (2002) "Rythmes de noconstruction et de destruction des édifices volcaniques de point chaud : I'exemple des lIes Canaries (Espagne)", Université Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne - Universidad de Las Palmas - Laboratoire de Géographie Physique CNRS, Doctoral Thesis, page 15, table 1 (in French)
  17. ↑ Carracedo, J.C and Troll, V.R. (editors) (2013) “Teide Volcano:Geology and Eruptions of a Highly Differentiated Oceanic Stratovolcano”, Berlin, Springer-Verlag, ISBN   978-3-642-25892-3, Page 24
  18. ↑ Hoernle, K. and Carracedo, J.C. Canary Islands, Geology in Gillespie, R. and Clague, D. (editors) (2009) Encyclopedia of Islands, page 140
  19. ↑ Bell, K.; Tilton, G.R. (2002). "Probing The Mantle: The Story From Carbonatites". Eos . 83 (25): 273–280. Bibcode:2002EOSTr..83..273B. doi: 10.1029/2002EO000190 .
  20. ↑ Tanguy, J-C. and Scarth, A. (2001) Volcanoes of Europe. Harpenden, Terra Publishing, ISBN   1-903544-03-3, page 100
  21. ↑ Vonlanthen, P.; Kunze, K.; Burlini, L.; Grobety, B. (2006). "Seismic properties of the upper mantle beneath Lanzarote (Canary Islands): Model predictions based on texture measurements by EBSD" (PDF). Tectonophysics. 428 (1–4): 65–85. Bibcode:2006Tectp.428...65V. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2006.09.005.
  22. ↑ Yepes, J.A. (2007). "The Canary Islands Topobathymetric Relief Map - Aspect Of The Sea Bed And Geology" (PDF). Spanish Institute of Oceanography (IEO). Retrieved 25 July 2018.
  23. ↑ Weis, F.A.; Skogby, H.; Troll, V.R.; Deegan, F.M.; Dahren, B. (2015). "Magmatic water contents determined through clinopyroxene: Examples from the Western Canary Islands, Spain". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 16 (7): 2127–2146. Bibcode:2015GGG....16.2127W. doi:10.1002/2015GC005800. hdl: 10553/72171 . S2CID   128390629.
  24. ↑ Hoernle, K. and Carracedo, J-C. "Canary Islands, Geology" in Gillespie, R. and Clague, D. (editors) (2009) "Encyclopedia of Islands", page 142
  25. ↑ Carracedo, J.C. and Troll, V.R. (2016) "The Geology of the Canary Islands", Amsterdam, Elsevier, ISBN   978-0-12-809663-5, pages 15-16
  26. 1 2 3 Spain Volcanoes – Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program, retrieved 26 November 2023; https://volcano.si.edu/volcanolist_countries.cfm?country=Spain
  27. 1 2 Tanguy, J-C. and Scarth, A. (2001) "Volcanoes of Europe", Harpenden, Terra Publishing, ISBN   1-903544-03-3, page 101
  28. ↑ Hoernle, K. and Carracedo, J.C. "Canary Islands, Geology" in Gillespie, R. and Clague, D. (editors) (2009) "Encyclopedia of Islands", page 135
  29. ↑ Lanzarote - Eruption history ; Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program, retrieved 08 Nov 2023; https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=383060
  30. ↑ Fuerteventura - Eruption history ; Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program, retrieved 08 Nov 2023; https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=383050
  31. ↑ Gran Canaria - Eruption history ; Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program, retrieved 08 Nov 2023; https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=383040
  32. ↑ Tenerife - Eruption history ; Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program, retrieved 08 Nov 2023; https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=383030
  33. ↑ La Palma - Eruption history ; Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program, retrieved 08 Nov 2023; https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=383010
  34. ↑ Hierro - Eruption history ; Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program, retrieved 08 Nov 2023; https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=383020
  35. ↑ Hansen Machin, A. and Perez Torrado, F. (2005) "The Island and it's Territory: Volcanism in Lanzarote", Sixth International Conference on Geomorphology, Field Trip Guide C-1, page 6
  36. ↑ Becerril, L. et al. (2017) "Assessing qualitative long-term volcanic hazards at Lanzarote Island (Canary Islands)", Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., volume 17, pages 1145–1157, doi=10.5194/nhess-17-1145-2017
  37. ↑ Coello et al. (1992) "Evolution of the eastern volcanic ridge of the Canary Islands based on new K-Ar data", Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, volume 53, pages 251-274
  38. ↑ Hansen Machin, A. and Perez Torrado, F. (2005) "The Island and it's Territory: Volcanism in Lanzarote", Sixth International Conference on Geomorphology, Field Trip Guide C-1, page 7
  39. ↑ Instituto Geológico y Minero de España (IGME) Cartográfica de Canarias (GRAFCAN) (2015) "Descripción de las Unidades Geológicas de Lanzarote" for "Mapa Geológico de Canarias", Instituto Geológico y Minero de España; Madrid, Spain: 2015. Gobierno de Canarias, CARTOGRAF, FEDER, Programa MAC 2007–2013, 1992–1994, page 2
  40. ↑ Hansen Machin, A. and Perez Torrado, F. (2005) "The Island and it's Territory: Volcanism in Lanzarote", Sixth International Conference on Geomorphology, Field Trip Guide C-1, page 8
  41. 1 2 Instituto Geológico y Minero de España (IGME) Cartográfica de Canarias (GRAFCAN) (2015) "Descripción de las Unidades Geológicas de Lanzarote" for "Mapa Geológico de Canarias", Instituto Geológico y Minero de España; Madrid, Spain: 2015. Gobierno de Canarias, CARTOGRAF, FEDER, Programa MAC 2007–2013, 1992–1994, page 3
  42. ↑ Carracedo, J.C. and Day, S. (2002) “Canary Islands”, Harpenden, Terra Publishing, ISBN   1-903544-07-6, page 58
  43. ↑ Instituto Geológico y Minero de España (IGME) Cartográfica de Canarias (GRAFCAN) (2015) "Descripción de las Unidades Geológicas de Lanzarote" for "Mapa Geológico de Canarias", Instituto Geológico y Minero de España; Madrid, Spain: 2015. Gobierno de Canarias, CARTOGRAF, FEDER, Programa MAC 2007–2013, 1992–1994, pages 3 and 4
  44. ↑ Carracedo, J.C. and Day, S. (2002) “Canary Islands”, Harpenden, Terra Publishing, ISBN   1-903544-07-6, pages 1–11, 57
  45. ↑ Hoernle, K. and Carracedo, J-C. “Canary Islands, Geology” in Gillespie, R. and Clague, D. (editors) (2009) “Encyclopedia of Islands”, page 140
  46. ↑ Lanzarote and Chinijo Archipelago Geopark http://www.geoparquelanzarote.org/geologia/
  47. ↑ Carracedo, J.C. and Troll, V.R. (2016) "The Geology of the Canary Islands", Amsterdam, Elsevier, ISBN   978-0-12-809663-5, page 486
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  49. ↑ Carracedo J.C. and Perez Torrado, F.J. "Cenozoic Volcanism in the Canary Islands: Canarian geochronology, stratigraphy and evolution: an overview" in Gibbons, W. and Moreno, T. (editors) (2002) "Geology of Spain", London, The Geological Society, ISBN   1-86239-110-6, page 463
  50. ↑ Schmincke, H.U. and Sumita, M. (1998) "Volcanic Evolution of Gran Canaria reconstructed from Apron Sediments: Synthesis of VICAP Project Drilling" in Weaver, P.P.E., Schmincke, H.-U., Firth, J.V., and Duffield, W. (editors) (1998) "Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results", volume 157
  51. ↑ Padilla, G. et al. (2010) "Diffuse CO2 Emission from Timanfaya Volcano, Lanzarote, Canary Islands, Spain", Cities on Volcanoes - Conference 6 - Abstracts
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  58. ↑ Hoernle, K. A. and Tilton, G. R. (1991) "Sr-Nd-Pb isotope data for Fuerteventura (Canary Islands) basal complex and subaerial volcanics: applications to magma genesis and evolution", Schweiz. Mineral. Petrogr. Mitt., volume 71, pages 3–18
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  61. ↑ Balogh, K.; Ahijado, A.; Casillas, R.; Fernandez, C. (1999) "Contributions to the chronology of the Basal Complex of Fuerteventura, Canary Islands", Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, volume 90, pages 81–101
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  66. ↑ Casillas, R. and Ahijado, A. "Cenozoic Volcanism in the Canary Islands: Fuerteventura" in Gibbons, W. and Moreno, T. (editors) (2002) "Geology of Spain", London, The Geological Society, ISBN   1-86239-110-6, page 444
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