Ancient Greek personal names

Last updated

The study of ancient Greek personal names is a branch of onomastics, the study of names, [1] and more specifically of anthroponomastics, the study of names of persons. There are hundreds of thousands and even millions of individuals whose Greek name are on record; they are thus an important resource for any general study of naming, as well as for the study of ancient Greece itself. The names are found in literary texts, on coins and stamped amphora handles, on potsherds used in ostracisms, and, much more abundantly, in inscriptions and (in Egypt) on papyri. This article will concentrate on Greek naming from the 8th century BC, when the evidence begins, to the end of the 6th century AD. [2]

Contents

Single names and names within families

A 5th century BC ostrakon: a pot shard bearing the name of a politician proposed for ostracism (exile). The individual name Aristides and patronym Lysimachos together mean "Aristides, son of Lysimachos" 1238 - Keramikos Museum, Athens - Ostrakon against Aristides, son of Lysimachos - Photo by Giovanni Dall CROPPED.jpg
A 5th century BC ostrakon: a pot shard bearing the name of a politician proposed for ostracism (exile). The individual name Aristides and patronym Lysimachos together mean "Aristides, son of Lysimachos"

Ancient Greeks usually had one name, but another element was often added in semi-official contexts or to aid identification: a father's name (patronym) in the genitive case, or some regions as an adjectival formulation. A third element might be added, indicating the individual's membership in a particular kinship or other grouping, or city of origin (when the person in question was away from that city). Thus the orator Demosthenes, while proposing decrees in the Athenian assembly, was known as "Demosthenes, son of Demosthenes of Paiania"; Paiania was the deme or regional sub-unit of Attica to which he belonged by birth. In some rare occasions, if a person was illegitimate or fathered by a non-citizen, they might use their mother's name (metronym) instead of their father's. Ten days after birth, relatives on both sides were invited to a sacrifice and feast called dekátē (δεκάτη), "tenth day"; on this occasion the father formally named the child. [3]

Demosthenes was unusual in bearing the same name as his father; it was more common for names to alternate between generations or between lines of a family. Thus it was common to name a first son after his paternal grandfather, and the second after the maternal grandfather, great-uncle, or great-aunt. A speaker in a Greek court case explained that he had named his four children after, respectively, his father, the father of his wife, a relative of his wife, and the father of his mother. [4] Alternatively, family members might adopt variants of the same name, such as "Demippos, son of Demotimos". The practice of naming children after their grandparents is still widely practiced in Greece today. [5]

Naming women

In many contexts, etiquette required that respectable women be spoken of as the wife or daughter of X rather than by their names. [6] On gravestones or dedications, however, they had to be identified by name. Here, the patronymic formula "son of X" used for men might be replaced by "wife of X", or supplemented as "daughter of X, wife of Y".

Many women bore forms of standard masculine names, with a feminine ending substituted for the masculine. Many standard names related to specific masculine achievements had a common feminine equivalent; the counterpart of Nikomachos, "victorious in battle", would be Nikomachē. The taste mentioned above for giving family members related names was one motive for the creation of such feminine forms. There were also feminine names with no masculine equivalent, such as Glykera "sweet one"; Hedistē "most delightful".

Another distinctive way of forming feminine names was the neuter diminutive suffix -ion (-ιον, while the masculine corresponding suffix was -ιων), suggesting the idea of a "little thing": e.g., Aristion from aristos "best"; Mikrion from mikros "small". Perhaps by extension of this usage, women's names were sometimes formed from men's by a change to a neuter ending without the diminutive sense: Hilaron from hilaros, "cheerful".

Formation

There were five main personal name types in Greece: [7]

Compound names

Demosthenes is compounded from two ordinary Greek roots (a structure at least as old as Proto-Indo-European): [8] demos "people" and sthenos "strength". A vast number of Greek names have this form, being compounded from two recognizable (though sometimes shortened) elements: Nikomachos from nike "victory" and mache "battle", Sophokles from sophos "wise, skilled" and kleos "glory", Polykrates from poly "much" and kratos "power". The elements used in these compounds are typically positive and of good omen, stressing such ideas as beauty, strength, bravery, victory, glory, and horsemanship. The order of the elements was often reversible: aristos and kleos give both Aristokles and Klearistos. Such compounds have a more or less clear meaning. But as was already noted by Aristotle, [9] two elements could be brought together in illogical ways. Thus the immensely productive hippos "horse" yielded, among hundreds of compounds, not only meaningful ones such as Philippos "lover of horses" and Hippodamas "horse-tamer", but also Xenippos "stranger horse" and Andrippos "man horse". There were, in turn, numerous other names beginning with Xen- and Andr-. These "irrational" compounds arose through a combination of common elements. [10] One motive was a tendency for members of the same family to receive names that echoed one another without being identical. Thus we meet Demippos, son of Demotimos, where the son's name is irrational ("people horse") and the father's name meaningful ("people honour", i.e., honored among the people).

Shortened names

A second major category of names was shortened versions ("hypocoristics," or in German Kosenamen) of the compounded names. Thus alongside the many names beginning with Kall- "beauty" such as Kallinikos "of fair victory", there are shortened Kallias and Kallon (masculine) or Kallis (feminine). Alongside victory names such as Nikostratos "victory army", there are Nikias and Nikon (masculine) or Niko (feminine). Such shortenings were variously formed and very numerous: more than 250 shortenings of names in Phil(l)- ("love") and related roots have been counted.

Simple names

Ordinary nouns and adjectives of the most diverse types were used as names, either unadjusted or with the addition of a wide variety of suffixes. For instance, some twenty different names are formed from aischros "ugly", including that of the poet we know as Aeschylus, the Latin spelling of Aischylos. Among the many different categories of nouns and adjectives from which the most common names derive are colors (Xanthos "yellow"), animals (Moschos "heifer", and Dorkas "roe deer"), physical characteristics (Simos "snub nose"), parts of the body (Kephalos, from kephale "head", and many from various slang terms for genitalia). Few of these simple names are as common as the most common compound names, but they are extraordinarily numerous and varied. Identifying their origins often taxes the knowledge of the outer reaches of Greek vocabulary. [11] Here the quest for dignity seen in the compound names largely disappears. Some, to our ears, sound positively disrespectful: Gastron "pot belly", Batrachos "frog", Kopreus "shitty", but these are probably by origin affectionate nicknames, in many cases applied to small children, and subsequently carried on within families.

Theophoric ("god-carrying") names

Many Greeks bore names derived from those of gods. Though it was not normal before the Roman period for Greeks to bear exactly the same names as gods, the two most common Greek names (Dionysios and Demetrios; feminine Dionysia and Demetria) were simple adjectival formations from the divine names Dionysos and Demeter. There were also compound theophoric names, formed with a wide variety of suffixes, of which the most common were -doros "gift of" (e.g. Dionysodoros "gift of Dionysos") or -dotos "given by" (Apollodotos). Many names were also based on cult titles of gods: Pythodoros, from Pythios "Apollo". Also common were names formed from the simple theos "god", such as Theodotos/Theodora. All the major gods except the god of war, Ares, and gods associated with the underworld (Persephone, Hades, Plouton [= Latin Pluto]) generated theophoric names, as did some lesser gods (rivers in particular) and heroes. When new gods rose to prominence (Asklepios) or entered Greece from outside (Isis, Sarapis), they too generated theophoric names formed in the normal ways (e.g. Asklepiodotos, Isidoros, Sarapias). [12]

Lallnamen

This is the German word used for names that derived not from other words but from the sounds made by little children addressing their relatives. Typically, they involve repeated consonants or syllables (like English Dada, Nana)—examples are Nanna and Papas. They grew hugely in frequency from a low base in the Roman period, probably through the influence of other naming traditions such as Phrygian, in which such names were very common.

History

The main broad characteristics of Greek name formation listed above are found in other Indo-European languages (the Indo-Iranian, Germanic, Celtic, and Balto-Slavic subgroups); they look like an ancient inheritance within Greek. [13] The naming practices of the Mycenaeans in the 14th/13th centuries BC, insofar as they can be reconstructed from the early Greek known as Linear B, seem already to display most of the characteristics of the system visible when literacy resumed in the 8th century BC, though non-Greek names were also present (and most of these pre-Greek names did not survive into the later epoch). [14] This is true also of the epic poetry of Homer, where many heroes have compound names of familiar types (Alexandros, Alkinoos, Amphimakhos). But the names of several of the greatest heroes (e.g. Achilleus, Odysseus, Agamemnon, Priamos) cannot be interpreted in those terms and were seldom borne by mortals again until a taste for "heroic" names developed under the Roman Empire; they have a different, unexplained origin. The system described above underwent few changes before the Roman period, though the rise of Macedonia to power earned names of that region such as Ptolemaios, Berenike, and Arsinoe new popularity. Alternative names ("X also known as Y") started to appear in documents in the 2nd century BC but had been occasionally mentioned in literary sources much earlier.

A different phenomenon, that of individuals bearing two names (e.g., Hermogenes Theodotos), emerged among families of high social standing—particularly in Asia Minor in the Roman imperial period, possibly under the influence of Roman naming patterns. The influence of Rome is certainly visible both in the adoption of Roman names by Greeks and in the drastic transformation of names by Greeks who acquired Roman citizenship, a status marked by possession of not one but three names. Such Greeks often took the praenomen and nomen of the authors or sponsors of their citizenship, but retained their Greek name as cognomen to give such forms as Titus Flavius Alkibiades. Various mixed forms also emerged. The Latin suffix –ianus, originally indicating the birth family of a Roman adopted into another family, was taken over to mean initially "son of" (e.g. Asklepiodotianos 'son of Asklepiodotos'), then later as a source of independent new names.

Another impulse came with the spread of Christianity, which brought new popularity to names from the New Testament, names of saints and martyrs, and existing Greek names such as Theodosios "gift of god", which could be reinterpreted in Christian terms. But non-Christian names, even theophoric names such as Dionysios or Sarapion, continued to be borne by Christians — a reminder that a theophoric name could become a name like any other, its original meaning forgotten. Another phenomenon of late antiquity (5th–6th centuries) was a gradual shift away from the use of the father's name in the genitive as an identifier. A tendency emerged instead to indicate a person's profession or status within the Christian church: carpenter, deacon, etc. [15] Many Greek names have come down by various routes into modern English, some easily recognisable such as Helen or Alexander, some modified such as Denis (from Dionysios). [16]

Suffixes

Many Greeks names used distinctive suffixes that conveyed additional meaning. The suffix -ides (idas in Doric areas such as Sparta) indicates patrilineal descent, and usually means "descendant of", but in some cases can also mean "son of". For example Eurycratides means "descendant of Eurycrates", while Leonidas actually means "descendant of Leon", but literally can also mean "son of a lion". Greeks often used this suffix when naming their sons after prominent ancestors like grandfathers and so on. The diminutive suffix -ion was also common, e.g. Hephaestion ("little Hephaestus"). [17]

Names as history

The French epigraphist Louis Robert declared that what is needed in the study of names is not "catalogues of names but the history of names and even history by means of names (l'histoire par les noms)." [18] Names are a neglected but in some areas crucial historical source. [19] Many names are characteristic of particular cities or regions. It is seldom safe to use an individual's name to assign him to a particular place, as the factors that determine individual choices of name are very various. But where a good cluster of names are present, it will usually be possible to identify with much plausibility where the group in question derives from. By such means, the origins of, say, bands of mercenaries or groups of colonists named in inscriptions without indication of their homeland can often be determined. Names are particularly important in situations of cultural contact: they may answer the question whether a particular city is Greek or non-Greek, and document the shifts and complexities in ethnic self-identification even within individual families. They also, through theophoric names, provide crucial evidence for the diffusion of new cults, and later of Christianity.

Two other once-popular ways of exploiting names for social history, by contrast, have fallen out of favor. Certain names and classes of name were often borne by slaves, since their names were given or changed at will by their owners, who may not have liked to allow them dignified names. [20] But no names or very few were so borne exclusively, and many slaves had names indistinguishable from those of the free; one can never identify a slave by name alone. [21] Similar arguments apply to so-called "courtesans’ names".

Study

Jean Antoine Letronne Jean Antoine Letronne.jpg
Jean Antoine Letronne

Jean Antoine Letronne (1851) [22] was the pioneer work stressing the importance of the subject. Pape and Benseler (1863–1870) [23] was for long the central work of reference but has now been replaced. Bechtel (1917) [24] is still the main work that seeks to explain the formation and meaning of Greek names, although the studies of O. Masson et al. collected in Onomastica Graeca Selecta (1990–2000) [25] have constantly to be consulted.

L. Robert, Noms indigènes dans l’Asie Mineure gréco-romaine (1963), [26] is, despite its title, largely a successful attempt to show that many names attested in Asia Minor and supposed to be indigenous are in fact Greek; it is a dazzling demonstration of the resources of Greek naming.

The fundamental starting point is now the multi-volume A Lexicon of Greek Personal Names, founded by P.M. Fraser and still being extended with the collaboration of many scholars. [27] This work lists, region by region, not only every name attested in the region but every bearer of that name (thus popularity of the name can be measured). The huge numbers of Greek names attested in Egypt are accessible at Trismegistos People. [28] Several volumes of studies have been published that build on the new foundation created by these comprehensive collections: S. Hornblower and E. Matthews (2000); [29] E. Matthews (2007); [30] R. W. V. Catling and F. Marchand (2010); [31] R. Parker (2013). [32]

Related Research Articles

In grammar, the accusative case of a noun is the grammatical case used to receive the direct object of a transitive verb.

Surname conventions and laws vary around the world. This article gives an overview of surnames around the world.

In linguistics, a grammatical gender system is a specific form of a noun class system, where nouns are assigned to gender categories that are often not related to the real-world qualities of the entities denoted by those nouns. In languages with grammatical gender, most or all nouns inherently carry one value of the grammatical category called gender. The values present in a given language, of which there are usually two or three, are called the genders of that language.

Latin declension is the set of patterns according to which Latin words are declined—that is, have their endings altered to show grammatical case, number and gender. Nouns, pronouns, and adjectives are declined, and a given pattern is called a declension. There are five declensions, which are numbered and grouped by ending and grammatical gender. Each noun follows one of the five declensions, but some irregular nouns have exceptions.

In grammar, the vocative case is a grammatical case which is used for a noun that identifies a person being addressed or occasionally for the noun modifiers of that noun. A vocative expression is an expression of direct address by which the identity of the party spoken to is set forth expressly within a sentence. For example, in the sentence "I don't know, John," John is a vocative expression that indicates the party being addressed, as opposed to the sentence "I don't know John", in which "John" is the direct object of the verb "know".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Akkadian language</span> Extinct Semitic language of Mesopotamia

Akkadian is an extinct East Semitic language that was spoken in ancient Mesopotamia from the third millennium BC until its gradual replacement in common use by Old Aramaic among Assyrians and Babylonians from the 8th century BC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shah</span> Royal title of Persian origin

Shah is a royal title that was historically used by the leading figures of Indian and Iranian monarchies. It was also used by a variety of Persianate societies, such as the Ottoman Empire, the Kazakh Khanate, the Khanate of Bukhara, the Emirate of Bukhara, the Mughal Empire, the Bengal Sultanate, historical Afghan dynasties, and among Gurkhas. Rather than regarding himself as simply a king of the concurrent dynasty, each Iranian ruler regarded himself as the Shahanshah or Padishah in the sense of a continuation of the original Persian Empire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Personal name</span> Set of names by which an individual is known

A personal name, full name or prosoponym is the set of names by which an individual person or animal is known, and that can be recited as a word-group, with the understanding that, taken together, they all relate to that one individual. In many cultures, the term is synonymous with the birth name or legal name of the individual. In linguistic classification, personal names are studied within a specific onomastic discipline, called anthroponymy. As of 2023, aside from humans, dolphins and elephants have been known to use personal names.

An augmentative is a morphological form of a word which expresses greater intensity, often in size but also in other attributes. It is the opposite of a diminutive.

A theophoric name embeds the word equivalent of 'god' or God's name in a person's name, reflecting something about the character of the person so named in relation to that deity. For example, names embedding Apollo, such as Apollonios or Apollodorus, existed in Greek antiquity.

Ancient Macedonian was the language of the ancient Macedonians which was either a dialect of Ancient Greek or a separate Hellenic language. It was spoken in the kingdom of Macedonia during the 1st millennium BC and belonged to the Indo-European language family. It gradually fell out of use during the 4th century BC, marginalized by the use of Attic Greek by the Macedonian aristocracy, the Ancient Greek dialect that became the basis of Koine Greek, the lingua franca of the Hellenistic period. It became extinct during either the Hellenistic or Roman imperial period, and was entirely replaced by Koine Greek.

The grammar of Old English differs greatly from Modern English, predominantly being much more inflected. As a Germanic language, Old English has a morphological system similar to that of the Proto-Germanic reconstruction, retaining many of the inflections thought to have been common in Proto-Indo-European and also including constructions characteristic of the Germanic daughter languages such as the umlaut.

Ancient Greek grammar is morphologically complex and preserves several features of Proto-Indo-European morphology. Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, articles, numerals and especially verbs are all highly inflected.

Proto-Indo-European nominals include nouns, adjectives, and pronouns. Their grammatical forms and meanings have been reconstructed by modern linguists, based on similarities found across all Indo-European languages. This article discusses nouns and adjectives; Proto-Indo-European pronouns are treated elsewhere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">ʿAṯtar</span> Semitic deity associated with Venus

ʿAṯtar is a deity whose role, name, and even gender varied across ancient Semitic religion. In both genders, ʿAṯtar is identified with the planet Venus, the morning and evening star. ʿAṯtar is a prominent character in the Baal Cycle.

Lithuanian has a declension system that is similar to declension systems in ancient Indo-European languages, such as Sanskrit, Latin or Ancient Greek. It is one of the most complicated declension systems among modern Indo-European and modern European languages.

Comparison is a feature in the morphology or syntax of some languages whereby adjectives and adverbs are rendered in an inflected or periphrastic way to indicate a comparative degree, property, quality, or quantity of a corresponding word, phrase, or clause. A superlative construction expresses the greatest quality, quantity, or degree relative to all other comparators.

In the modern world, Greek names are the personal names among people of Greek language and culture, generally consisting of a given name and a family name.

Gothic is an inflected language, and as such its nouns, pronouns, and adjectives must be declined in order to serve a grammatical function. A set of declined forms of the same word pattern is called a declension. There are five grammatical cases in Gothic with a few traces of an old sixth instrumental case.

References

  1. ↑ E. Eichler and others, Namenforschung, 3 vols., 1995
  2. ↑ O. Masson, 'Les noms propres d'homme en grec ancien', in E. Eichler and others, Namenforschung, vol. I (1995), 706-710
  3. ↑ N. Dunbar, Aristophanes, Birds (1995), 339.
  4. ↑ Speech against Makartatos, ascribed to Demosthenes, sect. 74 (translated by A. T. Murray) Perseus Digital Library
  5. ↑ "Naming practices". Lexicon of Greek Personal Names. Oxford University. Archived from the original on 16 August 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2016.
  6. ↑ Schaps, David (1977-12-01). "The Woman Least Mentioned1: Etiquette And Women's Names". The Classical Quarterly. 27 (2): 323–330. doi:10.1017/S0009838800035606. ISSN   1471-6844. S2CID   170776763.
  7. ↑ "Lexicon of Greek Personal Names - Names". www.lgpn.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2017-02-13. Retrieved 2017-02-12.
  8. ↑ Pulgram, Ernst (July–September 1947). "Indo-European Personal Names". Language. 23 (3). Washington: Linguistic Society of America: 189–206. doi:10.2307/409874. JSTOR   409874.
  9. ↑ Aristotle, Poetics 1457a 12-14 (translated by W. H. Fyfe) Perseus Digital Library
  10. ↑ O. Masson, Onomastica Graeca Selecta, ed. C. Dobias and L. Dubois (1990), 88 and 404.
  11. ↑ J. Curbera, 'Simple Names in Ionia', in R. Parker (ed.), Personal Names in Ancient Anatolia (2013), 107-144. ISBN   9780197265635
  12. ↑ R. Parker, 'Theophoric Names and the History of Greek Religion', in S. Hornblower and E. Matthews (eds.), Greek Personal Names. Their Value as Evidence (2000) Proceedings of the British Academy, Volume 104, pp. 53-80
  13. ↑ R. Schmitt, 'Morphologie der Namen: Vollnamen und Kurznamen bzw Kosenamen im Indogermanischen' and 'Entwicklung der Namen in älteren indogermanischen Sprachen', in E. Eichler and others, Namenforschung, vol. I (1995), 419-427 and 616-636.
  14. ↑ Jon C. Billigmeier, "An Enquiry into the Non-Greek Names on the Linear B Tablets from Knossos and their Relationship to the Languages of Asia Minor"[ full citation needed ]
  15. ↑ R. Parker, 'Introduction. New trends in Greek naming', in R. Parker (ed.), Personal Names in Ancient Anatolia (2013), 11-14, for all the developments in this paragraph.
  16. ↑ "Greek Names in English". Archived from the original on 2017-04-10. Retrieved 2017-02-12.
  17. ↑ MINON, Sophie. "Programme colloque Suffixation anthroponymique grecque Lyon Septembre 2015".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)[ permanent dead link ]
  18. ↑ L. Robert, Opera Minora Selecta, 2 (1970), 987.
  19. ↑ R. Parker, 'Introduction', in R. Parker (ed.) Personal Names in Ancient Anatolia (2013), 1-10. ISBN   9780197265635
  20. ↑ Plato, Cratylus, section 384d (translated by Harold N. Fowler) Perseus Digital Library
  21. ↑ E. Matthews, article 'Names, Personal, Greek', in S. Hornblower and A. Spawforth (eds), The Oxford Classical Dictionary ed. 4 (2012), 996. ISBN   9780199545568
  22. ↑ Letronne, J.A. (1851). "Sur l' utilité qu' on peut retirer de l'étude des propres noms grecs pour l' histoire et l' archéologie" [On the value that can be gained for history and archeology from the study of Greek proper names]. Mémoires de l'Institut National de France. Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres (in French). 19: 1–139. Reprinted in his Oeuvres choisies III. 2, 1ff
  23. ↑ Pape, W.; Benseler, G. E. (1875). Wörterbuch der griechischen Eigennamen [Dictionary of Greek Proper Names] (in German). F. Vieweg und sohn. Retrieved 20 February 2015. (Third Edition) (G. E. Benseler: article in German)
  24. ↑ Bechtel, Friedrich (1917). Die historischen Personennamen des Griechischen bis zur Kaiserzeit [Historical personal names of the Greeks up to the Imperial period] (in German). Halle: S. M. Niemeyer. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
  25. ↑ Masson, Olivier; Dobias-Lalou, Catherine; Dubois, Laurent (1990–2000). Onomastica graeca selecta (in French). Geneva: Librairie Droz. ISBN   9782600004350. OCLC   848612530.
  26. ↑ Robert, Louis (1991). Noms indigènes dans l'Asie-Mineure Greco-Romaine[Indigenous names in Greco-Roman Asia Minor] (in French) (1963 reprint ed.). Amsterdam: Adolf M. Hakkert. ISBN   9789025610074. OCLC   891116371.
  27. ↑ "Homepage, Lexicon of Greek Personal Names, University of Oxford".
  28. ↑ "Trismegistos People". Trismegistos. Retrieved 22 February 2015. An interdisciplinary portal of papyrological and epigraphical resources dealing with Egypt and the Nile valley between roughly 800 BC and AD 800 currently expanding its geographical scope to the Ancient World in general
  29. ↑ Hornblower, Simon; Matthews, Elaine, eds. (14 December 2000). Greek Personal Names: Their Value as Evidence . Oxford: Oxford University Press/British Academy Proceedings of the British Academy. ISBN   978-0-19-726216-0 . Retrieved 22 February 2015.
  30. ↑ Matthews, Elaine, ed. (29 November 2007). Old and New Worlds in Greek Onomastics. Proceedings of the British Academy. Oxford: Oxford University Press/British Academy Proceedings of the British Academy. ISBN   978-0-19-726412-6 . Retrieved 22 February 2015.
  31. ↑ Marchand, F.; Sasanow, M. (2010). Catling, R. W. V. (ed.). Onomatologos: Studies in Greek Personal Names presented to Elaine Matthews. Oxford: Oxbow Books. ISBN   9781842179826. Archived from the original on 2015-02-22. Retrieved 2015-02-22.
  32. ↑ Parker, Robert, ed. (28 November 2013). Personal Names in Ancient Anatolia. Proceedings of the British Academy. Oxford: Oxford University Press/British Academy | Proceedings of the British Academy. ISBN   978-0-19-726563-5.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.