Andagua volcanic field

Last updated

Cinder cones surrounded by lava flows Valley of the Volcanoes.jpg
Cinder cones surrounded by lava flows

The Andagua volcanic field (also known as Andahua) is a volcanic field in southern Peru which includes a number of cinder cones, lava domes and lava flows which have filled the Andagua Valley (which is also known as Valley of the Volcanoes for this reason). The volcanic field is part of a larger volcanic province that clusters around the Colca River and is mostly of Pleistocene age, although the Andagua sector also features volcanic cones with historical activity, with the last eruption about 370 years ago. Eruptions were mostly effusive, generating lava flows, cones and small eruption columns. Future eruptions are possible, and there is ongoing fumarolic activity. Volcanic activity in the field has flooded the Andahua valley with lava flows, damming local watersheds in the Laguna de Chachas, Laguna Mamacocha and Laguna Pumajallo lakes and burying the course of the Andagua River. The Andahua valley segment of the larger volcanic province was declared a geopark in 2015.

Contents

History and name

The volcanoes were first mentioned in a 1904 report but scientific investigation began by 1960; owing to the small size of Andagua volcanoes and their remote location they have not gained as much scientific interest as the large stratovolcanoes in the region. [1] Eruptions have been dated on the basis of radiocarbon dating, potassium-argon dating and the morphology of the resulting vents as younger structures are steeper. [2]

The term "Andagua volcanic field" has not been used consistently and sometimes the term "Andagua Group" or variants with "Andahua" are used, [1] reflecting the older name of the town; [3] the field is also known as Andagua-Orcopampa volcanic field. [4] The term "Valley of the Volcanoes" is a reference to the volcanoes that fill the valley floor. [5]

Geology and geomorphology

The Andagua volcanic field lies in southern Peru, [6] 135 kilometres (84 mi) from the city of Arequipa [7] and within the Arequipa Department and its provinces Castilla, Caylloma and Condesuyos. [8] The towns of Orcopampa, Andagua/Andahua, Soporo, Chachas, Sucna and Ayo lie in its area [9] along with mines [10] and the Inka sites of Antaymarca, Ayo and Jello Jello; [11] economic activity includes farming and mining as well as commerce and industrial activity. [12]

The volcanic field consists of cinder cones, lava domes, lava flow fields, pyroclastic cones, [2] and scoria cones. [13] Lava flows emanated from cones, domes and fractures; [6] some cones have been breached by lava flows. [14] Lava flows reach lengths of 20 kilometres (12 mi) and thicknesses of 80 metres (260 ft); their surfaces are blocky and feature channels. [15] The highest individual volcano is 400 metres (1,300 ft) high although the average height of cones is about 50–170 metres (160–560 ft) [6] or 200–300 metres (660–980 ft) and their width is about 500–650 metres (1,640–2,130 ft); [13] lava domes reach heights of 20–150 metres (66–492 ft). [16] Most of the vents are concentrated in the Valley of the Volcanoes, [2] a 60 kilometres (37 mi) long and 1–9 kilometres (0.62–5.59 mi) wide [3] valley that descends to the Colca River, [5] where they form clusters and alignments which have flooded the valley and tributary valleys with lava flows; [17] most vents are situated on the valley floor while others lie on its flanks. [18] Aside from the Andagua Valley proper, the volcanoes spread across the Apune Valley to the northwest and the Ayo Valley to the south. [19] These are not monogenetic volcanoes as some of them show evidence of multiple eruption episodes. [6] Colours range from grey over reddish to black, [20] with reddish colours appearing on weathered lavas. [21] Young volcanic terrain resembles a moonscape. [22] The valley is flanked by 3,500–5,000 metres (11,500–16,400 ft) high mountains. [23]

Among the vents are:

Older volcanic landforms are vegetated and have developed a soil cover, [2] and sometimes are altered by river [14] or glacial erosion or have been converted into farmland. [6] Overall, in outcrops the volcanic rocks of the Andagua valley reach great thickness, forming plains of lava and occasionally accumulations or fields of volcanic ash; [32] the total volume of volcanic rocks is about 15 ± 5 cubic kilometres (3.6 ± 1.2 cu mi) and thicknesses are about 130 metres (430 ft). [33]

The Andagua River flows through the Valley of the Volcanoes; it originates from the confluence of the Chilcaimarca and Orcopampa Rivers [34] and receives several tributaries over its course in the valley. [35] In the Valley of the Volcanoes, the Andagua River has cut a gorge into the lava fields and has formed waterfalls, [29] while elsewhere it disappears under the lava flows. Lava flows have formed lakes by damming drainages, [27] such as Laguna de Chachas, Laguna Mamacocha [5] and Laguna Pumajallo; [34] additionally sediments from older lakes have been found at Canco. [5] The waters of the Andagua River disappear in lava flows [36] over a path of over 16 kilometres (9.9 mi); [34] the Laguna Mamacocha produces the Mamacocha River [35] whose water ultimately originates in the Andagua River [36] and which eventually flows into the Colca River. [35]

Composition

The volcanic field has erupted rocks ranging from basaltic andesite to dacite, with composition varying from one individual volcano to the other [2] but dominantly sodic [37] although it has also been described as potassic owing to the poassium-silica ratio. [38] Generally, the rocks fall into the categories benmoreite, latite and mugearite [20] with rare andesite and basalt. [21] Phenocrysts include hornblende, olivine, plagioclase and pyroxene and less commonly alkali feldspar and biotite, [20] and xenoliths have been reported as well. [38] Overall, the composition of the magma is the most primitive of the magmas of southern Peru [2] and underwent crystallization in deep magma chambers [37] which "overflowed" in the form of an eruption once new magma entered them. [39] In addition, the magma underwent some degree of contamination with crustal materials. [40]

Geologic context

Off the western coast of South America, the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South American Plate at a rate of 9 centimetres per year (3.5 in/year). [41] It probably commenced during the Paleozoic [42] and continues to the present day. [43] The subduction has been accompanied by orogeny and volcanic activity, with three distinct phases of folding known as the Mochica, Peruvian and Inca phases which gave rise to faults and folds. The volcanic activity manifested itself as a set of volcanic arcs, such as the Tacaza arc with mineral-bearing calderas and the presently active Central Volcanic Zone [43] which includes the Andagua volcanic field. [1] In turn, the Central Volcanic Zone is one of three main volcanic arcs in the Andes which are separated by gaps without volcanic activity. [44] Small volcanoes such as these of the Andagua volcanic field are a subordinate part of the Peruvian Central Volcanic Zone; most volcanoes are large [4] and among these is Sabancaya with historical activity, El Misti with solfataric activity, Coropuna, which is the highest volcano in Peru and features Holocene activity, [1] Firura and Solimana north and west from Coropuna, and Mismi, Hualca Hualca, Ampato, Chachani and Pichu Pichu. [43] Additional volcanoes of this volcanic zone occur in Bolivia and Chile. [45]

The terrain surrounding the volcanic field features alluvium of Pleistocene to Holocene age, [46] the volcanic Neogene [5] /Pliocene Barroso Group [24] and Mesozoic sediments [46] of the Yura Group and the Socosani Formation. [12] Faults crisscross the volcanic field, magma may have used them as ascent paths; [42] the Valley of the Volcanoes itself is a fault-limited graben and some faults offset Quaternary deposits. [18]

The Andagua volcanic field is sometimes considered to include a 110 by 110 kilometres (68 mi × 68 mi) area outside of the Valley of the Volcanoes, which itself features seven separate clusters of volcanoes [47] with 64 volcanic centres [48] including the Valley of the Volcanoes but also the Antapuna, Colca Valley, Huambo-Cabanaconde, Laguna Parihuana, Molloco Valley and Pampa Jaran; these clusters are separated from each other by geographic and geologic traits. [18] Alternatively, some of these are considered to be a volcanic province of which Andagua is only one field of. [4]

Among these are:

Climate and vegetation

Temperatures vary between parts of the volcanic field, with Ayo having a semi-warm climate with temperatures of 15–24 °C (59–75 °F) while Chachas has 1–17 °C (34–63 °F) and Orcopampa of −10–12 °C (14–54 °F). [12] The climate in the region is dry [53] with a wet season that lasts from November to April. [12] Precipitation increases with altitude. [54] Humid periods have occurred recently, including two around 600 and 1000 AD linked to El Nino phenomena. [53]

Vegetation in the region includes alder, cacti, eucalyptus, ichu grass, Polylepis trees, tola shrubs, pillow-shaped yareta. [55] The exact vegetation type varies with elevation, [56] defining four life zones: [55]

The Laguna Mamacocha and Chachas are populated by fish and form oases. [57] There is also farmland [58] on agricultural terraces. [53] Crops cultivated in the area, especially at Ayo and Andagua, include barley, broad bean, corn, lucerne, potatoes and wine. [55]

Eruption history

The oldest activity of the Andagua volcanic field occurred between 400,000 and 64,000 years ago and has been identified close to Chivay in the Colca Valley. [2] Three separate generations of volcanic activity have been defined, a Pleistocene generation, a Pleistocene-Holocene generation and a Holocene generation, [6] with about 3-4 vents forming every ten thousand years. [17] The eruptions of the Andagua volcanic field cones have been accompanied by the emission of slow-moving lava flows and ballistic ejecta which reached less than 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) distance from the vents; estimated volcanic explosivity indexes are 0-2 [59] and the volcanic activity has been described as Strombolian eruptions [60] or phreatomagmatic [13] and accompanied by small eruption columns. [61] Hawaiian eruptions and Strombolian eruptions generated scoria cones. [6]

Ticsho was emplaced 4,060 years ago on an older dome, [25] Mauras and Yana Mauras 2,900 years ago [14] while the eruption of Chilcayoc Grande occurred 1451 - 1523. [6] The youngest eruptions occurred along the Jenchana-Ninanmama fault [24] and the most recent event was dated to 370 years ago and took place at Chilcayoc Chico. A more recent eruption was reported in 1913, but it is not clear that it actually occurred in the Andagua volcanic field. [2] Neither historical records nor local records such as legends mention volcanic activity [62] although pre-Inka agricultural areas were impacted by lava flows [63] and two towns were destroyed by volcanic activity later than the Spanish conquest. [64] Presently, hydrogen sulfide emanates from the Ninamama flow and has generated gypsum and sulfur deposits, [24] and fumarolic activity was reported in 2003 [65] although other sources state that no fumarolic activity occurs; [61] future eruptions are certainly possible. [65]

Hazards from future eruptions

The volcanoes are regarded as "very low hazard" by the Peruvian geological agency, [66] which As of 2022 is working to build a monitoring network for the Andagua volcanoes [67] and has drawn up maps of potentially endangered infrastructure. [68] Various towns with a total population of about 11,800 people [69] are located at the feet of extinct vents, but usually at a distance from the youngest volcanoes although shifts in vent location during the course of an eruption could bring hazards to these towns. [59] Explosive eruptions could result in fallout of lava bombs, tephra and volcanic ash, but the impact would be limited to the surroundings of the vent, probably less than 6 kilometres (3.7 mi). The volcanic field however also produced lava flows in the past, which can reach larger distances and also infrastructure such as the Mantaro-Socabaya power line and could also bury the ground for perhaps thousands of years. [69]

Access and national park project

A number of paths [70] and roads pass through the volcanic field. [9] Andagua's surroundings are considered to be a typical expression of the volcanic field [5] and the creation of a national park covering parts of the volcanic field has been proposed. [71] A geopark was created in 2015 [72] and by UNESCO in 2019, [73] some volcanoes of the Andagua volcanic field are considered to be geosites [74] with some spots already protected in some way; the area is of value from the perspectives of both geotourism and science. [75] A concentration of such small volcanoes such as Andagua in an easily accessible location is not common in the world. In general, aside from their role as hazards, volcanoes are important sources of tourism-based income. [45]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Volcano</span> Rupture in a planets crust where material escapes

A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geology of the Lassen volcanic area</span> Geology of a U.S. national park in California

The Lassen volcanic area presents a geological record of sedimentation and volcanic activity in and around Lassen Volcanic National Park in Northern California, U.S. The park is located in the southernmost part of the Cascade Mountain Range in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Pacific Oceanic tectonic plates have plunged below the North American Plate in this part of North America for hundreds of millions of years. Heat and molten rock from these subducting plates has fed scores of volcanoes in California, Oregon, Washington and British Columbia over at least the past 30 million years, including these in the Lassen volcanic areas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mount Mazama</span> Complex volcano in the Cascade Range

Mount Mazama is a complex volcano in the western U.S. state of Oregon, in a segment of the Cascade Volcanic Arc and Cascade Range. Most of the mountain collapsed following a major eruption approximately 7,700 years ago. The volcano is in Klamath County, in the southern Cascades, 60 miles (97 km) north of the Oregon–California border. Its collapse, due to the eruption of magma emptying the underlying magma chamber, formed a caldera that holds Crater Lake. The mountain is in Crater Lake National Park. Mount Mazama originally had an elevation of 12,000 feet (3,700 m), but following its climactic eruption this was reduced to 8,157 feet (2,486 m). Crater Lake is 1,943 feet (592 m) deep, the deepest freshwater body in the U.S. and the second deepest in North America after Great Slave Lake in Canada.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anahim Volcanic Belt</span> Chain of volcanoes and related magmatic features in British Columbia, Canada

The Anahim Volcanic Belt (AVB) is a west–east trending chain of volcanoes and related magmatic features in British Columbia, Canada. It extends from Athlone Island on the Central Coast, running eastward through the strongly uplifted and deeply dissected Coast Mountains to near the community of Nazko on the Interior Plateau. The AVB is delineated as three west-to-east segments that differ in age and structure. A wide variety of igneous rocks with differing compositions occur throughout these segments, comprising landforms such as volcanic cones, volcanic plugs, lava domes, shield volcanoes and intrusions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Payún Matrú</span> Volcano in Argentina

Payún Matrú is a shield volcano in the Reserva Provincial La Payunia of the Malargüe Department, south of the Mendoza Province in Argentina. It lies in the back-arc region of the Andean Volcanic Belt, and was formed by the subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate. Payún Matrú, along with the Llancanelo, Nevado and Salado Basin volcanic fields, form the Payenia province. It has been proposed as a World Heritage Site since 2011.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ampato</span> Dormant Stratovovlcano in Southern Peru

Ampato is a dormant 6,288-metre (20,630 ft) stratovolcano in the Andes of southern Peru. It lies about 70–75 kilometres (43–47 mi) northwest of Arequipa and is part of a north-south chain that includes the volcanoes Hualca Hualca and Sabancaya, the last of which has been historically active.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Volcanism of Canada</span> Volcanic activity in Canada

Volcanic activity is a major part of the geology of Canada and is characterized by many types of volcanic landform, including lava flows, volcanic plateaus, lava domes, cinder cones, stratovolcanoes, shield volcanoes, submarine volcanoes, calderas, diatremes, and maars, along with less common volcanic forms such as tuyas and subglacial mounds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cinder cone</span> Steep hill of pyroclastic fragments around a volcanic vent

A cinder cone is a steep conical hill of loose pyroclastic fragments, such as volcanic clinkers, volcanic ash, or scoria that has been built around a volcanic vent. The pyroclastic fragments are formed by explosive eruptions or lava fountains from a single, typically cylindrical, vent. As the gas-charged lava is blown violently into the air, it breaks into small fragments that solidify and fall as either cinders, clinkers, or scoria around the vent to form a cone that often is symmetrical; with slopes between 30 and 40°; and a nearly circular ground plan. Most cinder cones have a bowl-shaped crater at the summit.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field</span> Volcanic field in British Columbia, Canada

The Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field, also called the Clearwater Cone Group, is a potentially active monogenetic volcanic field in east-central British Columbia, Canada, located approximately 130 km (81 mi) north of Kamloops. It is situated in the Cariboo Mountains of the Columbia Mountains and on the Quesnel and Shuswap Highlands. As a monogenetic volcanic field, it is a place with numerous small basaltic volcanoes and extensive lava flows.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Volcanic history of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province</span>

The volcanic history of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province presents a record of volcanic activity in northwestern British Columbia, central Yukon and the U.S. state of easternmost Alaska. The volcanic activity lies in the northern part of the Western Cordillera of the Pacific Northwest region of North America. Extensional cracking of the North American Plate in this part of North America has existed for millions of years. Continuation of this continental rifting has fed scores of volcanoes throughout the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province over at least the past 20 million years and occasionally continued into geologically recent times.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Canadian Cascade Arc</span> Canadian segment of the North American Cascade Volcanic Arc

The Canadian Cascade Arc, also called the Canadian Cascades, is the Canadian segment of the North American Cascade Volcanic Arc. Located entirely within the Canadian province of British Columbia, it extends from the Cascade Mountains in the south to the Coast Mountains in the north. Specifically, the southern end of the Canadian Cascades begin at the Canada–United States border. However, the specific boundaries of the northern end are not precisely known and the geology in this part of the volcanic arc is poorly understood. It is widely accepted by geologists that the Canadian Cascade Arc extends through the Pacific Ranges of the Coast Mountains. However, others have expressed concern that the volcanic arc possibly extends further north into the Kitimat Ranges, another subdivision of the Coast Mountains, and even as far north as Haida Gwaii.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Huambo volcanic field</span>

Huambo volcanic field is a volcanic field in Peru. Andahua-Orcopampa lies north-northeast and Sabancaya east of Huambo, east of the Rio Colca. The town of Huambo lies between the two fields.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jom-Bolok volcanic field</span> Volcanic field in Russia

Jom-Bolok, also known as Volcano Valley and East Sayan Volcanic Field, is a volcanic field in Russia, 200 kilometres (120 mi) west of Lake Baikal. It is part of the Baikal rift zone which is also responsible for volcanism elsewhere around Lake Baikal. The volcanic activity has generated long lava flows and cinder cones. One of the lava flows is 70 kilometres (43 mi) long and has a volume of 7.9 cubic kilometres (1.9 cu mi).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sabancaya</span> Active stratovolcano in Southern Peru

Sabancaya is an active 5,976-metre-high (19,606 ft) stratovolcano in the Andes of southern Peru, about 70 kilometres (43 mi) northwest of Arequipa. It is considered part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, one of the three distinct volcanic belts of the Andes. The Central Volcanic Zone includes a number of volcanoes, some of which like Huaynaputina have had large eruptions and others such as Sabancaya and Ubinas have been active in historical time. Sabancaya forms a volcanic complex together with Hualca Hualca to the north and Ampato to the south and has erupted andesite and dacite. It is covered by a small ice cap which leads to a risk of lahars during eruptions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Big Pine volcanic field</span> Volcanic field in Inyo County, California

Big Pine volcanic field is a volcanic field in Inyo County, California. The volcanic field covers a surface area of 500 square kilometres (190 sq mi) within the Owens Valley east of the Sierra Nevada and consists of lava flows, one rhyolitic coulee and about 40 volcanic vents including cinder cones. Some vents are simple conical cinder cones while others are irregular scoria cones. Glaciers and former lakes have modified lava flows.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ticsani</span> Volcano in Peru

Ticsani is a volcano in Peru northwest of Moquegua and consists of two volcanoes that form a complex. "Old Ticsani" is a compound volcano that underwent a large collapse in the past and shed 15–30 cubic kilometres (3.6–7.2 cu mi) of mass down the Rio Tambo valley. Today an arcuate ridge remains of this edifice. "Modern Ticsani" is a complex of three lava domes which were emplaced during the Holocene. Two large eruptions took place during the Holocene, producing the so-called "Grey Ticsani" and "Brown Ticsani" deposits; the last eruption occurred after the 1600 eruption of neighbouring Huaynaputina. The volcano is seismically active and features active hot springs and fumaroles; since 2015 the volcano is monitored by the Peruvian government.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sand Mountain Volcanic Field</span> Volcanic field in Oregon

The Sand Mountain Volcanic Field is a volcanic field in the upper McKenzie River watershed, located in the United States in Oregon. Part of the Cascade Volcanic Arc, it lies southwest of Mount Jefferson and northwest of Belknap Crater and Mount Washington. Its highest elevation is 5,463 feet (1,665 m).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Markagunt Plateau</span> Plateau in Iron and Kane counties in Utah, United States

Markagunt Plateau is a volcanic field in southern Utah, United States. Formed in a region of older volcanics, it consists of several cinder cones and associated lava flows. Some of the lava flows feature lava tubes such as Mammoth Cave, while others have formed lava dams and lakes like Navajo Lake. Volcanism took place during the Pliocene and latest Pleistocene but may have continued into the Holocene; legends of the Southern Paiute may reflect past eruptions.

The Mount Edziza volcanic complex (MEVC) in British Columbia, Canada, has a long history of volcanism that spans more than six million years. It occurred during five cycles of magmatic activity which were characterized by 13 periods of eruptive activity. This volcanism has led to the formation of several types of volcanic landforms, including cinder cones, stratovolcanoes, subglacial volcanoes, shield volcanoes, lava domes and lava fields. The 1,000-square-kilometre (390-square-mile) plateau comprising the MEVC owes its origin to successive eruptions of highly mobile lava flows. Eruptions of the MEVC issued a wide variety of volcanic rocks. Among them were alkali basalt, hawaiite, trachybasalt, benmoreite, tristanite, mugearite, trachyte and comendite. The latter seven volcanic rocks were produced by varying degrees of magmatic differentiation in underground magma reservoirs.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Gałaś 2011, p. 1.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Gałaś 2011, p. 2.
  3. 1 2 Gałaś et al. 2023, p. 4.
  4. 1 2 3 Delacour et al. 2007, p. 582.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Gałaś et al. 2018, p. 713.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Gałaś 2011, p. 3.
  7. Mariño Salazar & Zavala Carrión 2010, p. 286.
  8. Gałaś et al. 2018, p. 708.
  9. 1 2 Gałaś 2011, p. 6-7.
  10. Gałaś et al. 2018, pp. 717–718.
  11. Goicochea 2008, p. 6.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Mariño Salazar & Zavala Carrión 2010, p. 287.
  13. 1 2 3 Carrión & Luis 2015, p. 44.
  14. 1 2 3 Gałaś 2011, p. 4.
  15. Gałaś 2011, pp. 5–6.
  16. Gałaś 2011, p. 5.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 Gałaś 2011, p. 6.
  18. 1 2 3 Gałaś 2014, p. 303.
  19. Delacour et al. 2007, p. 584.
  20. 1 2 3 Gałaś 2011, p. 15.
  21. 1 2 Gałaś 2014, p. 307.
  22. Paulo & Gałaś 2012, p. 4.
  23. Gałaś & Gałaś 2017, p. 64.
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 Gałaś 2011, p. 10.
  25. 1 2 Gałaś et al. 2023, p. 7.
  26. 1 2 3 Gałaś 2011, pp. 6, 8.
  27. 1 2 3 Gałaś 2011, p. 9.
  28. Gałaś 2011, pp. 6, 9.
  29. 1 2 Gałaś 2011, p. 8.
  30. Gałaś & Gałaś 2017, p. 65.
  31. Gałaś 2011, pp. 7–9.
  32. Teves Rivas 2017, p. 450.
  33. Ruprecht & Wörner 2007, p. 145.
  34. 1 2 3 Teves Rivas 2017, p. 449.
  35. 1 2 3 Varela Travesí, Mariño Salazar & Zavala Carrión 2016, p. 23.
  36. 1 2 Zavala Carrión, Bilberto Luis; Vílchez Mata, Manuel Salomón; Rosado Seminario, Malena (November 2008). "Zonas críticas por peligros geológicos en la cuenca del río Camaná-Majes-Colca. Primer reporte". Instituto Geológico, Minero y Metalúrgico – INGEMMET: 3.
  37. 1 2 Gałaś 2014, p. 312.
  38. 1 2 Sørensen & Holm 2008, p. 382.
  39. Ruprecht, P.; Woerner, G.; Martin, A.; Kronz, A. (1 December 2003). "Feldspar Zonation in Andesites from Monogenetic Cones and Long-lived Stratovolcanos (Andagua and El Misti, S. Peru) : Constraints for Eruption Triggers". AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts. 11: V11F–07. Bibcode:2003AGUFM.V11F..07R.
  40. Delacour et al. 2007, p. 605.
  41. Gałaś et al. 2023, p. 1.
  42. 1 2 Gałaś 2011, p. 14.
  43. 1 2 3 Gałaś 2014, p. 302.
  44. Sørensen & Holm 2008, p. 378.
  45. 1 2 Carrión & Luis 2015, p. 43.
  46. 1 2 Gałaś 2011, p. 7.
  47. Gałaś 2014, p. 301.
  48. Gałaś et al. 2023, p. 2.
  49. 1 2 Gałaś 2011, p. 11.
  50. 1 2 Gałaś 2011, p. 12.
  51. Gałaś 2011, pp. 12–13.
  52. Gałaś 2011, pp. 13–14.
  53. 1 2 3 Goicochea 2008b, p. 5.
  54. 1 2 3 4 5 Gałaś et al. 2023, p. 3.
  55. 1 2 3 Paulo & Gałaś 2012, p. 5.
  56. Varela Travesí, Mariño Salazar & Zavala Carrión 2016, p. 80.
  57. Teves Rivas 2017, p. 452.
  58. Goicochea 2008, p. 21.
  59. 1 2 Goicochea 2008b, p. 32.
  60. Ruprecht & Wörner 2007, p. 144.
  61. 1 2 Carrión & Luis 2015, p. 45.
  62. Goicochea 2008b, p. 4.
  63. Mariño Salazar & Zavala Carrión 2010, p. 288.
  64. Teves Rivas 2017, p. 451.
  65. 1 2 Gałaś 2011, p. 17.
  66. Del Carpio Calienes et al. 2022, p. 3.
  67. Del Carpio Calienes et al. 2022, p. 14.
  68. Del Carpio Calienes et al. 2022, p. 52.
  69. 1 2 Carrión & Luis 2015, p. 46.
  70. Carrión & Luis 2015, p. 47.
  71. Gałaś et al. 2018, pp. 713–714.
  72. Gałaś et al. 2018, p. 714.
  73. Mariño, Jersy; Cueva, Kevin; Thouret, Jean-Claude; Arias, Carla; Finizola, Antony; Antoine, Raphael; Delcher, Eric; Fauchard, Cyrille; Donnadieu, Franck; Labazuy, Philippe; Japura, Saida; Gusset, Rachel; Sanchez, Paola; Ramos, Domingo; Macedo, Luisa; Lazarte, Ivonne; Thouret, Liliane; Del Carpio, José; Jaime, Lourdes; Saintenoy, Thibault (5 July 2021). "Multidisciplinary Study of the Impacts of the 1600 CE Huaynaputina Eruption and a Project for Geosites and Geo-touristic Attractions". Geoheritage. 13 (3): 3. doi:10.1007/s12371-021-00577-5. ISSN   1867-2485. S2CID   235730313.
  74. Gałaś et al. 2018, p. 721.
  75. Goicochea 2008, p. 5.

Sources