Spring (hydrology)

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On an average day nearly 303 million US gallons (1,150,000 m) of water flow from Big Spring in Missouri at a rate of 469 cubic feet per second (13.3 m/s). Big Spring Missouri 1-02Aug08.jpg
On an average day nearly 303 million US gallons (1,150,000 m) of water flow from Big Spring in Missouri at a rate of 469 cubic feet per second (13.3 m/s).
Grand Prismatic Spring, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming Grand Prismatic Spring.jpg
Grand Prismatic Spring, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming

A spring is a natural exit point at which groundwater emerges from the aquifer and flows onto the top of the Earth's crust (pedosphere) to become surface water. It is a component of the hydrosphere, as well as a part of the water cycle. Springs have long been important for humans as a source of fresh water, especially in arid regions which have relatively little annual rainfall.

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Springs are driven out onto the surface by various natural forces, such as gravity and hydrostatic pressure. A spring produced by the emergence of geothermally heated groundwater is known as a hot spring. The yield of spring water varies widely from a volumetric flow rate of nearly zero to more than 14,000 litres per second (490 cu ft/s) for the biggest springs. [1]

Formation

A natural spring on Mackinac Island in Michigan Nacentemackinac.jpg
A natural spring on Mackinac Island in Michigan

Springs are formed when groundwater flows onto the surface. This typically happens when the water table reaches above the surface level, or if the terrain depresses sharply. Springs may also be formed as a result of karst topography, aquifers or volcanic activity. Springs have also been observed on the ocean floor, spewing warmer, low-salinity water directly into the ocean. [2]

Springs formed as a result of karst topography create karst springs, in which ground water travels through a network of cracks and fissures—openings ranging from intergranular spaces to large caves, later emerging in a spring.

The forcing of the spring to the surface can be the result of a confined aquifer in which the recharge area of the spring water table rests at a higher elevation than that of the outlet. Spring water forced to the surface by elevated sources are artesian wells. This is possible even if the outlet is in the form of a 300-foot-deep (91 m) cave. In this case the cave is used like a hose by the higher elevated recharge area of groundwater to exit through the lower elevation opening.

Non-artesian springs may simply flow from a higher elevation through the earth to a lower elevation and exit in the form of a spring, using the ground like a drainage pipe. Still other springs are the result of pressure from an underground source in the earth, in the form of volcanic or magma activity. The result can be water at elevated temperature and pressure, i.e. hot springs and geysers.

Sunrise at Middle Spring, Fish Springs National Wildlife Refuge, Utah MiddleSpring.JPG
Sunrise at Middle Spring, Fish Springs National Wildlife Refuge, Utah

The action of the groundwater continually dissolves permeable bedrock such as limestone and dolomite, creating vast cave systems. [3]

Types

Chalybeate spring below Cascada de los Colores, La Palma Red-coloured spring below Cascada de los Colores, La Palma.jpg
Chalybeate spring below Cascada de los Colores, La Palma

Flow

Drone video of Aegviidu blue springs in Estonia

Spring discharge, or resurgence, is determined by the spring's recharge basin. Factors that affect the recharge include the size of the area in which groundwater is captured, the amount of precipitation, the size of capture points, and the size of the spring outlet. Water may leak into the underground system from many sources including permeable earth, sinkholes, and losing streams. In some cases entire creeks seemingly disappear as the water sinks into the ground via the stream bed. Grand Gulf State Park in Missouri is an example of an entire creek vanishing into the groundwater system. The water emerges 9 miles (14 km) away, forming some of the discharge of Mammoth Spring in Arkansas. Human activity may also affect a spring's discharge—withdrawal of groundwater reduces the water pressure in an aquifer, decreasing the volume of flow. [13]

Classification

Fontaine de Vaucluse or Spring of Vaucluse in France discharges about 470 million US gallons (1,800,000 m) of water per day at a rate of 727 cu ft (20.6 m) per second. La Sorgue, Fontaine-de-Vaucluse.JPG
Fontaine de Vaucluse or Spring of Vaucluse in France discharges about 470 million US gallons (1,800,000 m) of water per day at a rate of 727 cu ft (20.6 m) per second.

Springs fall into three general classifications: perennial (springs that flow constantly during the year); intermittent (temporary springs that are active after rainfall, or during certain seasonal changes); and periodic (as in geysers that vent and erupt at regular or irregular intervals). [5]

Springs are often classified by the volume of the water they discharge. The largest springs are called "first-magnitude", defined as springs that discharge water at a rate of at least 2800 liters or 100 cubic feet (2.8 m3) of water per second. Some locations contain many first-magnitude springs, such as Florida where there are at least 27 known to be that size; the Missouri and Arkansas Ozarks, which contain 10 [14] [13] known of first-magnitude; and 11 [15] more in the Thousand Springs area along the Snake River in Idaho. The scale for spring flow is as follows:

MagnitudeFlow (ft3/s, gal/min, pint/min)Flow (L/s)
1st magnitude> 100 ft3/s2800 L/s
2nd magnitude10 to 100 ft3/s280 to 2800 L/s
3rd magnitude1 to 10 ft3/s28 to 280 L/s
4th magnitude100 US gal/min to 1 ft3/s (448 US gal/min)6.3 to 28 L/s
5th magnitude10 to 100 gal/min0.63 to 6.3 L/s
6th magnitude1 to 10 gal/min63 to 630 mL/s
7th magnitude2 pint to 1 gal/min8 to 63 mL/s
8th magnitudeLess than 1 pint/min8 mL/s
0 magnitudeno flow (sites of past/historic flow)

Water content

Pruess Lake is spring-fed in the arid Snake Valley of Utah. PruessLake.JPG
Pruess Lake is spring-fed in the arid Snake Valley of Utah.

Minerals become dissolved in the water as it moves through the underground rocks. This mineral content is measured as total dissolved solids (TDS). This may give the water flavor and even carbon dioxide bubbles, depending on the nature of the geology through which it passes. This is why spring water is often bottled and sold as mineral water, although the term is often the subject of deceptive advertising. Mineral water contains no less than 250 parts per million (ppm) of tds. Springs that contain significant amounts of minerals are sometimes called 'mineral springs'. (Springs without such mineral content, meanwhile, are sometimes distinguished as 'sweet springs'.) Springs that contain large amounts of dissolved sodium salts, mostly sodium carbonate, are called 'soda springs'. Many resorts have developed around mineral springs and are known as spa towns. Mineral springs are alleged to have healing properties. Soaking in them is said to result in the absorption of the minerals from the water. Some springs contain arsenic levels that exceed the 10 ppb World Health Organization (WHO) standard for drinking water. [16] Where such springs feed rivers they can also raise the arsenic levels in the rivers above WHO limits. [16]

Water from springs is usually clear. However, some springs may be colored by the minerals that are dissolved in the water. For instance, water heavy with iron or tannins will have an orange color. [3]

In parts of the United States a stream carrying the outflow of a spring to a nearby primary stream may be called a spring branch, spring creek, or run. Groundwater tends to maintain a relatively long-term average temperature of its aquifer; so flow from a spring may be cooler than other sources on a summer day, but remain unfrozen in the winter. The cool water of a spring and its branch may harbor species such as certain trout that are otherwise ill-suited to a warmer local climate.

Types of mineral springs

Natural iron hot spring in Beppu, Japan Natural iron hot spring.jpg
Natural iron hot spring in Beppu, Japan

Uses

Trout fishing on Maramec Spring in Missouri Maramec Spring fishing ls.jpg
Trout fishing on Maramec Spring in Missouri

Springs have been used for a variety of human needs - including drinking water, domestic water supply, irrigation, mills, navigation, and electricity generation. Modern uses include recreational activities such as fishing, swimming, and floating; therapy; water for livestock; fish hatcheries; and supply for bottled mineral water or bottled spring water. Springs have taken on a kind of mythic quality in that some people falsely believe that springs are always healthy sources of drinking water. They may or may not be. One must take a comprehensive water quality test to know how to use a spring appropriately, whether for a mineral bath or drinking water. Springs that are managed as spas will already have such a test.

Drinking water

Springs are often used as sources for bottled water. [22] When purchasing bottled water labeled as spring water one can often find the water test for that spring on the website of the company selling it.

Irrigation

Springs have been used as sources of water for gravity-fed irrigation of crops. [23] Indigenous people of the American Southwest built spring-fed acequias that directed water to fields through canals. The Spanish missionaries later used this method. [24] [25]

Sacred springs

Fontes Tamarici, in Spain. La Reana2.jpg
Fontes Tamarici , in Spain.

A sacred spring, or holy well, is a small body of water emerging from underground and revered in some religious context: Christian and/or pagan and/or other. [26] [27] The lore and mythology of ancient Greece was replete with sacred and storied springs—notably, the Corycian, Pierian and Castalian springs. In medieval Europe, pagan sacred sites frequently became Christianized as holy wells. The term "holy well" is commonly employed to refer to any water source of limited size (i.e., not a lake or river, but including pools and natural springs and seeps), which has some significance in local folklore. This can take the form of a particular name, an associated legend, the attribution of healing qualities to the water through the numinous presence of its guardian spirit or of a Christian saint, or a ceremony or ritual centered on the well site. Christian legends often recount how the action of a saint caused a spring's water to flow - a familiar theme, especially in the hagiography of Celtic saints.[ citation needed ]

Thermal springs

The Mother Spring, Pagosa Hot Springs, Colorado The Mother Spring - Pagosa Hot Springs, Colorado.jpg
The Mother Spring, Pagosa Hot Springs, Colorado

The geothermally heated groundwater that flows from thermal springs is greater than human body temperature, usually in the range of 45–50 °C (113–122 °F), but they can be hotter. [6] Those springs with water cooler than body temperature but warmer than air temperature are sometimes referred to as warm springs. [28]

Bathing and balneotherapy

Hot springs or geothermal springs have been used for balneotherapy, bathing, and relaxation for thousands of years. Because of the folklore surrounding hot springs and their claimed medical value, some have become tourist destinations and locations of physical rehabilitation centers. [29] [30]

Natural spring in Pennsylvania where runoff flows from above down through grass and rocks Spring flowing through grass.jpg
Natural spring in Pennsylvania where runoff flows from above down through grass and rocks

Geothermal energy

Hot springs have been used as a heat source for thousands of years. In the 20th century, they became a renewable resource of geothermal energy for heating homes and buildings. [29] The city of Beppu, Japan contains 2,217 hot spring well heads that provide the city with hot water. [31] Hot springs have also been used as a source of sustainable energy for greenhouse cultivation and the growing of crops and flowers. [32]

Terminology

Cultural representations

Springs have been represented in culture through art, mythology, and folklore throughout history. The Fountain of Youth is a mythical spring which was said to restore youth to anyone who drank from it. [34] It has been claimed that the fountain is located in St. Augustine, Florida, and was discovered by Juan Ponce de León in 1513. However, it has not demonstrated the power to restore youth, and most historians dispute the veracity of Ponce de León's discovery. [35] [36]

Pythia, also known as the Oracle at Delphi was the high priestess of the Temple of Apollo. She delivered prophesies in a frenzied state of divine possession that were "induced by vapours rising from a chasm in the rock". It is believed that the vapors were emitted from the Kerna spring at Delphi. [37] [38]

The Greek myth of Narcissus describes a young man who fell in love with his reflection in the still pool of a spring. Narcissus gazed into "an unmuddied spring, silvery from its glittering waters, which neither shepherds nor she-goats grazing on the mountain nor any other cattle had touched, which neither bird nor beast nor branch fallen from a tree had disturbed." (Ovid) [39]

The early 20th century American photographer, James Reuel Smith created a comprehensive series of photographs documenting the historical springs of New York City before they were capped by the city after the advent of the municipal water system. [40] Smith later photographed springs in Europe leading to his book, Springs and Wells in Greek and Roman Literature, Their Legends and Locations (1922). [41]

The 19th century Japanese artists Utagawa Hiroshige and Utagawa Toyokuni III created a series of wood-block prints, Two Artists Tour the Seven Hot Springs (Sōhitsu shichitō meguri) in 1854. [42]

The Chinese city Jinan is known as "a City of Springs" (Chinese: 泉城), because of its 72 spring attractions and numerous micro spring holes spread over the city centre. [43] [44]

Que Hua Qiu Se Tu, depicting the view of springs and mountains in Jinan, by Zhao Mengfu, Song Dynasty (Chinese:Que Hua Qiu Se Tu ) 2a Zhao Mengfu Autumn Colors on the Qiao and Hua Mountains (central part)Handscroll, ink and colors on paper, 28.4 x 93.2 cm National Palace Museum, Taipei.jpg
Que Hua Qiu Se Tu, depicting the view of springs and mountains in Jinan, by Zhao Mengfu, Song Dynasty (Chinese:鹊华秋色图)

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Karst</span> Topography from dissolved soluble rocks

Karst is a topography formed from the dissolution of soluble carbonate rocks such as limestone and dolomite. It is characterized by features like poljes above and drainage systems with sinkholes and caves underground. There is some evidence that karst may occur in more weathering-resistant rocks such as quartzite given the right conditions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aquifer</span> Underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock

An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing material, consisting of permeable or fractured rock, or of unconsolidated materials. Aquifers vary greatly in their characteristics. The study of water flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is called hydrogeology. Related terms include aquitard, which is a bed of low permeability along an aquifer, and aquiclude, which is a solid, impermeable area underlying or overlying an aquifer, the pressure of which could lead to the formation of a confined aquifer. The classification of aquifers is as follows: Saturated versus unsaturated; aquifers versus aquitards; confined versus unconfined; isotropic versus anisotropic; porous, karst, or fractured; transboundary aquifer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great Artesian Basin</span> Large artesian aquifer in Australia

The Great Artesian Basin (GAB) of Australia is the largest and deepest artesian basin in the world, extending over 1,700,000 square kilometres (660,000 sq mi). Measured water temperatures range from 30 to 100 °C. The basin provides the only source of fresh water through much of inland Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hot spring</span> Spring produced by the emergence of geothermally heated groundwater

A hot spring, hydrothermal spring, or geothermal spring is a spring produced by the emergence of geothermally heated groundwater onto the surface of the Earth. The groundwater is heated either by shallow bodies of magma or by circulation through faults to hot rock deep in the Earth's crust.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geothermal areas of Yellowstone</span> Geyser basins and other geothermal features in Yellowstone National Park

The geothermal areas of Yellowstone include several geyser basins in Yellowstone National Park as well as other geothermal features such as hot springs, mud pots, and fumaroles. The number of thermal features in Yellowstone is estimated at 10,000. A study that was completed in 2011 found that a total of 1,283 geysers have erupted in Yellowstone, 465 of which are active during an average year. These are distributed among nine geyser basins, with a few geysers found in smaller thermal areas throughout the Park. The number of geysers in each geyser basin are as follows: Upper Geyser Basin (410), Midway Geyser Basin (59), Lower Geyser Basin (283), Norris Geyser Basin (193), West Thumb Geyser Basin (84), Gibbon Geyser Basin (24), Lone Star Geyser Basin (21), Shoshone Geyser Basin (107), Heart Lake Geyser Basin (69), other areas (33). Although famous large geysers like Old Faithful are part of the total, most of Yellowstone's geysers are small, erupting to only a foot or two. The hydrothermal system that supplies the geysers with hot water sits within an ancient active caldera. Many of the thermal features in Yellowstone build up sinter, geyserite, or travertine deposits around and within them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Travertine</span> Form of limestone deposited by mineral springs

Travertine is a form of terrestrial limestone deposited around mineral springs, especially hot springs. It often has a fibrous or concentric appearance and exists in white, tan, cream-colored, and rusty varieties. It is formed by a process of rapid precipitation of calcium carbonate, often at the mouth of a hot spring or in a limestone cave. In the latter, it can form stalactites, stalagmites, and other speleothems. It is frequently used in Italy and elsewhere as a building material. Similar deposits formed from ambient-temperature water are known as tufa.

Hydrothermal circulation in its most general sense is the circulation of hot water. Hydrothermal circulation occurs most often in the vicinity of sources of heat within the Earth's crust. In general, this occurs near volcanic activity, but can occur in the shallow to mid crust along deeply penetrating fault irregularities or in the deep crust related to the intrusion of granite, or as the result of orogeny or metamorphism. Hydrothermal circulation often results in hydrothermal mineral deposits.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">El Tatio</span> Geyser field located in the Andes Mountains, Chile

El Tatio is a geothermal field with many geysers located in the Andes Mountains of northern Chile at 4,320 metres (14,170 ft) above mean sea level. It is the third-largest geyser field in the world and the largest in the Southern Hemisphere. Various meanings have been proposed for the name "El Tatio", including "oven" or "grandfather". The geothermal field has many geysers, hot springs, and associated sinter deposits. These hot springs eventually form the Rio Salado, a major tributary of the Rio Loa, and are a major source of arsenic pollution in the river. The vents are sites of populations of extremophile microorganisms such as hyperthermophiles, and El Tatio has been studied as an analogue for the early Earth and possible past life on Mars.

The Floridan aquifer system, composed of the Upper and Lower Floridan aquifers, is a sequence of Paleogene carbonate rock which spans an area of about 100,000 square miles (260,000 km2) in the southeastern United States. It underlies the entire state of Florida and parts of Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, and South Carolina.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Edwards Aquifer</span> Source of drinking water in Texas

The Edwards Aquifer is one of the most prolific artesian aquifers in the world. Located on the eastern edge of the Edwards Plateau in the U.S. state of Texas, it is the source of drinking water for two million people, and is the primary water supply for agriculture and industry in the aquifer's region. Additionally, the Edwards Aquifer feeds the Comal and San Marcos Springs, provides springflow for recreational and downstream uses in the Nueces, San Antonio, Guadalupe, and San Marcos river basins, and is home to several unique and endangered species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crystal Geyser</span> Geyser in Utah

Crystal Geyser is a cold water, carbon dioxide driven geyser located on the east bank of the Green River approximately 9 miles (14 km) downstream from Green River, Utah, United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geothermal power</span> Power generated by geothermal energy

Geothermal power is electrical power generated from geothermal energy. Technologies in use include dry steam power stations, flash steam power stations and binary cycle power stations. Geothermal electricity generation is currently used in 26 countries, while geothermal heating is in use in 70 countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soda Springs Geyser</span> Artificial carbonated spring in Idaho, US

The Soda Springs Geyser is an Artesian well drilled into the carbonated aquifer that lies beneath Soda Springs, Idaho. Thousands of natural springs in the area were a landmark on the Oregon Trail.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cold-water geyser</span> Natural explosive eruption of cold water

Cold-water geysers are geysers that have eruptions whose water spurts are propelled by CO2-bubbles, instead of the hot steam which drives the more familiar hot-water geysers: The gush of a cold-water geyser is identical to the spurt from a freshly-opened bottle of soda pop. Cold-water geysers look quite similar to their steam-driven counterparts; however, their CO2-laden water often appears whiter and more frothy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Manitou Mineral Springs</span> United States historic place

Manitou Mineral Springs are natural mineral springs in Manitou Springs, Colorado and Cheyenne Spring House is on the National Register of Historic Places. The springs are located in one of the country's largest National Historic Districts.

Mount Shasta City Park is an urban park located in the city of Mount Shasta, California, United States. It is one of two parks within the Mt. Shasta Recreation and Parks District and hosts the district's headquarters. The 26 acres (11 ha) park and offers a variety of opportunities for recreation such as hiking, picnicking and biking. Many community events occur within the park buildings and in the surrounding park land. The park is also home to the headwaters of the Upper Sacramento River.

Mud Hole Spring is an unusual warm-water, submarine discharge of water off the southwestern Gulf Coast of Florida, at 26°15′51″N82°01′02″W, approximately 18.5 kilometres (11.5 mi) south of the Sanibel Island Light and Lee County, Florida. It discharges geothermally warmed and turbid water from the sea floor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Truth or Consequences Hot Springs</span> Thermal springs system

Truth or Consequences Hot Springs is a thermal spring system located in the Hot Springs Artesian Basin area of Truth or Consequences, New Mexico in Sierra County.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geothermal activity</span> Activity resulting from underground heat

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Beverly Hot Springs is the only remaining natural geothermal hot spring within the center of the city of Los Angeles. It is located between Beverly Hills and downtown Los Angeles on what is now Oxford Avenue.

References

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  4. 1 2 3 "Well Design and Spring Development". National Engineering Handbook. January 2010. Archived from the original on 21 October 2020.
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  7. ↑ Westbrook, Cherie J. (2017). "Heads Above Water: The Inside Story of the Edwards Aquifer Recovery Implementation Program by Robert L. Gulley". Great Plains Research. 27 (2): 143. doi:10.1353/gpr.2017.0022. ISSN   2334-2463. S2CID   133972692.
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  15. ↑ "Thousand Springs Research Project". 9 May 2006. Archived from the original on 12 December 2012 – via University of Idaho.
  16. 1 2 Li, Chaoliu; Kang, Shichang; Chen, Pengfei; Zhang, Qianggong; Mi, Jue; Gao, Shaopeng; Sillanpää, Mika (2014). "Geothermal spring causes arsenic contamination in river waters of the southern Tibetan Plateau, China". Environmental Earth Sciences. 71 (9): 4143–4148. Bibcode:2014EES....71.4143L. doi:10.1007/s12665-013-2804-2. S2CID   128479153.
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  29. 1 2 van Tubergen, A (1 March 2002). "A brief history of spa therapy". Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 61 (3): 273–275. doi:10.1136/ard.61.3.273. PMC   1754027 . PMID   11830439.
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  32. ↑ "Case Studies in Hot Spring Use for Sustainable Energy" (PDF). Oita Prefectural Government. Retrieved 17 November 2021.
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  36. ↑ Shaer, Matthew (June 2013). "Ponce De Leon Never Searched for the Fountain of Youth". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
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  39. ↑ Nelson, Max (April–May 2000). "Narcissus: Myth and Magic". The Classical Journal. 95 (4): 363–389. JSTOR   3298150 . Retrieved 13 November 2021.
  40. ↑ "James Reuel Smith springs and wells photograph collection 1893–1902 – Brooklyn collection". New York Historical Society digital collection. Retrieved 13 November 2021.
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  42. ↑ "Sokokura, from the series Two Artists Tour the Seven Hot Springs (Sōhitsu shichitō meguri)". Fine Arts Museum of San Francisco. Retrieved 13 November 2021.
  43. ↑ "Overview - Jinan, a City of Springs". english.jinan.gov.cn. Retrieved 20 July 2022.
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