1090s

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The 1090s was a decade of the Julian Calendar which began on January 1, 1090, and ended on December 31, 1099.

Contents

Events

1090

This section is transcluded from 1090. (edit | history)

By place

Europe
Seljuk Empire
Africa

By topic

Arts and Culture
Science and Technology

1091

This section is transcluded from 1091. (edit | history)

By place

Byzantine Empire
  • Spring – Tzachas, a Seljuk Turkish military commander, establishes an independent maritime state centred in the Ionian coastal city of Smyrna (modern-day İzmir). He proclaims himself emperor ( basileus ), and concludes an alliance with the Pechenegs in Thrace. Tzachas uses his fleet to blockade Constantinople by sea, while the Pechenegs besiege the capital by land. [3]
  • April 29 – Battle of Levounion: Emperor Alexios I supported by his allies defeats the Pechenegs' 80,000 men (including women and children) at the Evros River near Enos (modern Turkey). The Cumans and Byzantine forces fall upon the enemy camp, slaughtering all in their path. The Pechenegs are butchered so savagely, that they are almost wiped out.
Europe
Britain and France

By topic

Disasters
Religion

1092

This section is transcluded from 1092. (edit | history)

By place

Byzantine Empire
Europe
  • January 14 – Vratislaus II, the first king of Bohemia, dies after a 6½-year reign and is succeeded by his brother Conrad I who becomes duke and not king because Vratislaus has been elevated to the royal dignity 'for life' by Emperor Henry IV (see 1085). Conrad dies September 6 after a 8-month reign and is succeeded by his nephew Bretislav II (the eldest son of Vratislaus).
England
Seljuk Empire
China
  • Su Song, a Chinese statesman and scientist, publishes his Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao, a treatise outlining the construction and operation of his complex astronomical clocktower, built in Kaifeng. It also includes a celestial atlas of five star maps.

By topic

Religion

1093

This section is transcluded from 1093. (edit | history)

By place

Europe
Britain

By topic

Religion

1094

This section is transcluded from 1094. (edit | history)

By place

Byzantine Empire
  • Spring – Emperor Alexios I (Komnenos) sends a Byzantine expeditionary force under General Tatikios to Nicaea, in an attempt to re-capture the city from the Seljuk Turks. However, the arrival of Barkiyaruq's army en route stops the Byzantines. Alexios sends reinforcements; short of supplies, the Seljuk Turks retreat. Abu'l-Qasim, Seljuk governor of Nicaea, is defeated and forced to conclude a truce with Alexios. [12]
Europe
Scotland
  • May – Duncan II (son of the late King Malcolm III) invades England at the head of an army of Norman knights Scotland, aided by his half-brother Edmund. He succeeds his uncle, King Donald III (the Fair), as ruler of Scotland. [14]
  • November 12 – King Donald III mobilizes his army and kills Duncan II in battle in the Lowlands. He re-takes the Scottish throne, Edmund sides with Donald as co-ruler and is named as heir as he has no children.
Seljuk Empire
  • Sultan Mahmud I dies after a 2-year reign. He is succeeded by his brother Barkiyaruq (one of the Seljuk prince who claim the throne) as ruler of the Seljuk Empire.

By topic

Religion

1095

This section is transcluded from 1095. (edit | history)

By place

Byzantine Empire
Europe
England
  • After attacking four Norwegian merchant ships (lying in the River Tyne), Robert Mowbray, earl of Northumberland, is called for by King William II (the Red) to explain his actions. Instead, Mowbray rises up in rebellion against William along with other Norman nobles. William leads an army and besieges Bamburgh Castle, Mowbray is captured after fleeing the stronghold.

By topic

Religion

1096

This section is transcluded from 1096. (edit | history)

By place

First Crusade
  • Spring – Peter the Hermit begins his preaching of the First Crusade, traveling from Berry (in central France) across Champagne, and down the Meuse Valley to Cologne (modern Germany). He gathers the People's Crusade (some 40,000 supporters), which departs about April 20. Peter's speeches appeal not only to nobles and knights, but also laborers, tradesmen and peasants (among them are former brigands and criminals). [15]
  • May – The People's Crusade, under Peter the Hermit, arrives at Sopron. King Coloman (the Learned) gives them permission to pass through Hungary, and to use the markets. Peter and his followers (some 20,000 men and women) travel from Budapest southwards supported by knights, while lumbering wagons carry stores and a chest of money that he has collected for the journey.
  • May – The Rhineland massacres: Members of the People's Crusade led by Count Emicho destroy most of the Jewish communities along the Rhine in a series of large pogroms in France and Germany. Thousands of Jews are massacred, driven to suicide, or forced to convert to Christianity. Estimates of the number of Jewish men, woman and children murdered are 2,000 to 12,000. [16]
  • May 8 – French members of the People's Crusade led by Walter Sans Avoir enter Hungary, without incident they arrive at Semlin, and cross the Sava into Byzantine territory at Belgrade. Meanwhile, Walter demands food but he is refused entry, and the crusaders are forced to pillage the countryside. Eventually Walter is allowed to carry on to Niš, where he is provided with food. [17]
  • May 18 – 26 – The Worms massacre: Members of the People's Crusade under Emicho besiege Worms in the Rhineland before killing at least 800 Jews, despite the intervention of Bishop Adalbert II. He tries to hide some of them in the bishop's palace, others chose to remain outside its walls. One of the victims is Minna of Worms, an influential Jew among the Christian nobility. [18]
  • May 27 – Members of the People's Crusade under Emicho massacre at least 1,000 Jews in Mainz. Archbishop Ruthard tries to hide some of them in the cellars of Mainz Cathedral but the crusaders learn of this – and murder most of the Jews. Men, women, and children of all ages are slaughtered indiscriminately.
  • May 30 – Members of the People's Crusade led by the priest Folkmar from Saxony persecute Jews in Prague, despite the opposition of the local Catholic hierarchy. Local citizens try to hide them in their own houses. Later the Jews manage to escape to safety in neighboring villages, but are slaughtered by the hundreds.
  • June – Members of the People's Crusade under Emicho set out up the Main towards Hungary. Some followers break off from Emicho's army at Mainz and travel to Metz – where many Jews are persecuted and murdered. They proceed down the Rhine, massacring the Jews at Neuss, Wevelinghofen, and Xanten. [19]
  • June – The People's Crusade under Emicho are refused entry to Hungary on orders of Coloman, who sends troops to defend the bridge at Wieselburg. Emicho decides to build an alternative bridge and crosses the Danube. He besieges the fortress of Wieselburg, but is defeated and routed by the Hungarian army. [20]
  • June – Siege of Semlin: The People's Crusade led by Peter the Hermit arrives at Semlin. Hearing rumors of an attack from the Hungarian count Guz of Semlin on the rearguard, Geoffrey Burel assaults the castle, captures it by surprise, and defeats the Hungarian army. He plunders its supplies, herds and horses.
  • June 26 – The People's Crusade (some 30,000 men) led by Peter the Hermit crosses the Sava (stealing boats from the local fishermen) but are attacked by Pechenegs and Hungarian forces. The citizens of Belgrade flee and the crusaders pillage and burn the city. Peter travels for seven days, and arrives at Niš. [21]
  • July – The People's Crusade led by Peter the Hermit is defeated by the Byzantine army (mostly Hungarian and Bulgar mercenaries) in battle near Niš. The crusader supply train of some 2,000 wagons and Peter's treasury chest is captured by the Byzantines. About a quarter of the People's Crusade is lost.
  • July 12 – The People's Crusade led by Peter the Hermit reaches Sofia, where they meet envoys from Constantinople with orders to keep them supplied along the road. At Philippopolis the Greeks are so deeply moved by the suffering of Peter and his followers that the locals give them money, food and horses. [22]
  • August 1 – The People's Crusade led by Peter the Hermit arrives at Constantinople. He is received by Emperor Alexios I (Komnenos), who gives him financial support. The crusaders commit endless thefts in the suburbs. Peter combines his forces with Walter Sans Avoir and camps outside Constantinople.
  • August 2 – 6 – The People's Crusade are reorganize their forces and gather supplies. Alexios I advises Peter the Hermit to wait for reinforcements but he ignores the advice. The People's army (some 30,000 men) is transported across the Bosporus – by the Byzantine fleet to Civetot (modern Turkey).
  • August – Hugh (the Great), count of Vermandois (a brother of King Philip I), departs to join the First Crusade. He travels with a small army via the Alps to Rome. While sailing the Adriatic Sea from Bari to Dyrrachium his fleet is reduced by shipwreck. Hugh's own ship is stranded on the shore near Epirus.
  • August – Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of Lower Lorraine, accompanied by his younger brother Baldwin, sets off to join the First Crusade (called by Pope Urban II) at the head of an army of some 40,000 men. He pledges his allegiance to Emperor Henry IV who issues an order not to harm Jewish communities.
  • September – French forces (7,000 infantry and 300 knights) led by Geoffrey Burel raid around Nicaea (the capital of the Rum Seljuk Turks), plundering livestock and villages in the suburbs. They commit atrocities against local Christian peasants. Children are tortured and dismembered by the crusaders. [23]
  • September – German forces (5,000 infantry and 200 knights) led by Rainald of Breis raid the region of Nicaea. They advance eastward and assault the Seljuk garrison in the castle of Xerigordos. They manage to capture; and, find it well stocked with provisions. The Greek Christians inside are spared.
  • September 29 – Siege of Xerigordos: Sultan Kilij Arslan I sends a Seljuk expeditionary force to assault and recapture the castle of Xerigordos. They cut off the water supply, and Rainald of Breis is forced to surrender. Many of the crusaders are killed but others convert to Islam and become slaves.
  • October – Robert II (Curthose), duke of Normandy (a brother of King William II), sets off to join the First Crusade. He assembles his army at Pontarlier – and travels through Italy to Rome. To raise money for the Crusade Robert mortgages the Norman duchy to William, for the sum of 10,000 pennies.
  • October – Raymond IV (Saint-Gilles), count of Toulouse, sets off to join the First Crusade. He travels with his army, accompanied by his wife Elvira and Bishop Adhemar of Le Puy, via Provence through the Balkan route (along the coast of Croatia). He arrives at Dyrrachium to march to Thessaloniki.
  • October – Bohemond I, Italo-Norman prince of Taranto (the son of Duke Robert Guiscard), departs to join the First Crusade. He crosses the Adriatic Sea from Brindisi with his army (some 4,000 men), and arrives in Vorë. While traveling, Bohemond gives strict orders not to plunder Byzantine villages.
  • October 21 – Battle of Civetot: The Seljuk Turks led by Kilij Arslan I defeat the People's army (20,000 men) near Nicaea. The crusaders are slaughtered, and the camp at Civetot is captured. Only children are spared and sent into slavery. Around 3,000 manage to escape back to Constantinople. [24]
  • December – The last of the four planned Crusader armies arrives at Constantinople, bringing the total numbers to 60,000 infantry and knights. Curiously there isn't a single king among the Crusaders' leaders. At this time Philip I, William II, and Henry IV are all under excommunication by Urban II.
  • December 25 – Godfrey of Bouillon is appointed the primary leader of the First Crusade, making it a largely French war in practice and causing the inhabitants of the Holy Land to refer to Europeans generally as "Franks". Godfrey and the other leaders agree to take an oath of loyalty to Alexios I.
Europe
Asia
  • Phayao, a modern-day province of Thailand, is founded as a city-state kingdom.

By topic

Religion

1097

This section is transcluded from 1097. (edit | history)

By place

First Crusade
  • Spring – The Crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillon attack the Byzantine imperial palace at Blachernae. Norman forces led by Bohemond I join the Crusaders – he is not welcome in Constantinople because his father, Robert Guiscard, has invaded Illyria (territory belonging to the Byzantine Empire), and captured the cities of Dyrrhachium and Corfu (see 1084).
  • May 14 – Siege of Nicaea: The Crusaders begin their campaign with the siege of Nicaea (the capital of the Sultanate of Rum), assigning their forces to different sections of the walls, which are well-defended with 200 towers. Towards the end of May an advance party of the Seljuk Turks is defeated by troops of Raymond IV (Saint-Gilles) and Robert II. [26]
  • June 19 – The Seljuk Turks surrender Nicaea to the Crusaders after a month siege. The Byzantines occupy the city; their commander Manuel Boutoumites is named by Emperor Alexios I (Komnenos) as doux of Nicaea. In the consternation the Crusaders are not allowed to plunder the city and are forced (again) to pledge their allegiance to Alexios.
  • July 1 – Battle of Dorylaeum: The Crusaders defeat a Seljuk army led by Kilij Arslan I, ruler of the Sultanate of Rum, who wants revenge for the capture of Nicaea. During the battle many Crusaders are killed but the Seljuk Turks are forced to flee and abandon their tents and treasure after being surprised by the arrival of a second Crusader army.
  • October 21 – Siege of Antioch: The Crusaders arrive outside the city and begin the siege. They can not impose a complete blockade on Antioch. The Seljuk garrison comes out of the city to harass Crusader siege-lines and intercept supply convoys (supported by a Genoese fleet of 12 galleys) from Saint Symeon and Alexandretta (modern Turkey). [27]
  • December 31 – Battle of Harenc: The Crusaders under the command of Bohemond I and Robert II defeat Seljuk forces from Aleppo, which try to relieve besieged Antioch. [28]
Europe
Scotland
  • King Donald III (the Fair) is deposed by his nephew Edgar (who is supported by King William II) after a 4-year reign. Edgar (nicknamed Probus, "the Valliant") becomes ruler of Scotland (until 1107).
England

By topic

Religion
  • October – Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, goes into exile. Conflicts between him and William II result in Anselm leaving England and heading for Rome. William confiscates Anselm's land.

1098

This section is transcluded from 1098. (edit | history)

By place

First Crusade
  • February 9 – Battle of the Lake of Antioch: The Crusaders under Bohemond I defeat a Seljuk relief force (some 12,000 men) led by Sultan Fakhr al-Mulk Radwan of Aleppo. Bohemond gathers 700 knights, and marches in the night to ambush the Seljuk Turks at the Lake of Antioch (modern Turkey). After several successful cavalry charges the Crusaders rout the Seljuk army, forcing Radwan to retreat back to Aleppo. [30]
  • March 10 – Baldwin of Boulogne enters Edessa, and is welcomed as liberator by the Armenian clergy. The local population massacres the Seljuk garrison and officials – or forces them to flee. Baldwin is acknowledged as their ruler (or doux ). He assumes the title of count and establishes the first crusader state. Baldwin marries Arda of Armenia, daughter of Lord Thoros of Marash, and consolidates his conquered territory. [31]
  • June 3 – Siege of Antioch: The Crusaders under Bohemond I capture Antioch after a 8-month siege. He established secret contact with Firouz, an Armenian guard who controlled the "Tower of the Two Sisters". He opened the gates and Bohemond entered the city. Thousands of Christians are massacred along with Muslims. Bohemond is named Prince of Antioch (under protest) and creates the Principality of Antioch. [27]
  • June 5 – Battle of Antioch: Emir Kerbogha, ruler ( atabeg ) of Mosul, arrives at Antioch with a Seljuk army (35,000 men) to relieve the city. He lays siege to the Crusaders who have just captured the city themselves (although they do not have full control of it). A Byzantine relief force led by Emperor Alexios I Komnenos turns back after Count Stephen of Blois convinces them that the situation in Antioch is hopeless. [32]
  • June 28 – Following the Holy Lance discovery by Peter Bartholomew in Antioch, the Crusaders under Bohemond I (leaving only 200 men) sortie from the city and defeat the Seljuk army. Kerbogha is forced to withdraw to Mosul, the garrison in the citadel surrenders to Bohemond personally (who raises his banner above the city) and the Crusaders occupy Antioch. The Crusade is delayed for the rest of the year. [33]
  • July 14 – Donation of Altavilla: Bohemond I grants commercial privileges and the right to use warehouses (fondaco) to the Republic of Genoa. This marks the beginning of Italian merchant settlements in the Levant. [34]
  • August 1 – Adhemar of Le Puy (or Aimar), French bishop and nominal leader of the First Crusade, dies during an epidemic (probably typhus). With this, Rome's direct control over the Crusade effectively ends.
  • August – Fatimid forces under Caliph Al-Musta'li recapture Jerusalem and occupy Palestine. The Crusaders threaten the borders of the Fatimid Caliphate which already has lost the Emirate of Sicily (see 1091).
  • December 12 – Siege of Ma'arra: The Crusaders capture the city of Ma'arra after a month's siege and massacre part of the population. Short of supplies, the army is accused of widespread cannibalism.
Britain

By topic

Religion

1099

This section is transcluded from 1099. (edit | history)

By place

First Crusade
  • January 16 – The Crusaders, under Raymond IV, count of Toulouse (Raymond of Saint-Gilles), leave Antioch, and head south towards Jerusalem. They are joined by forces of Tancred (a nephew of Bohemond I) and Robert II, duke of Normandy. Raymond is given free passage and supplies, and accepts guides from the Emir of Shaizar (modern Syria), who conducts the army (6,000 men) across the Orontes River (between Shaizar and Hama). [36]
  • January 22 – The Crusaders, under Raymond IV, reach Masyaf, where a treaty is agreed to. They decide to continue the march, rather than to capture or destroy the town. The next day the Crusaders enter the deserted town of Rafaniyah, that provides them with much-needed supplies. Raymond moves into the Buqaia Valley, and takes the strategic Kurdish fortress of Hosn al-Akrad (the future Krak des Chevaliers castle). [37]
  • February – The Crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillon set out from Antioch to Latakia. They are joined by forces of Bohemond I and Robert II, count of Flanders. On their arrival, Bohemond decides to turn back to consolidate his power in Antioch. Godfrey and Robert move on to besiege the small sea-port of Jabala. After two weeks, the Emir of Jabala makes a truce, and accepts the suzerainty of the Crusaders. [38]
  • February 14 – The Crusaders under Raymond IV besiege the fortified town of Akkar – whose garrison is loyal to Jalal al-Mulk Abu'l-Hasan, emir of Tripoli (modern Lebanon). On May 13 after a 3-month siege the investment of Akkar is raised and Raymond orders the camp to be struck. The Crusader host, finally joined by the forces of Godfrey of Bouillon and Robert II, resumes his march southwards to Tripoli. [39]
  • February 17 – Raymond IV sends a small part of his army under Raymond Pilet to attack the port of Tortosa on the Syrian coast. The Crusaders led many fires around the port to make believe their number is greater than it is. Fooled by the deception, the governor and the garrison flees by sea in the night leaving the port open for the Crusaders to capture. The port becomes strategically important for supplies. [40]
  • May – The Crusaders march past Tripoli, accompanied by guides provided by the emir who lead them safely through the towns of Batroun and Byblos. On May 19 they cross the Dog River north of Beirut into Fatimid territory. There local governors supply the Crusaders with tribute and food in return for no damage to the agricultural area. The Fatimids keep no large troops in the north, except for small garrisons. [41]
  • May 20 – The Fatimid governor of Sidon refuses to cooperate and his garrison attacks the Crusader host while they are looting local villages. The Fatimids are repulsed, the towns further south generally follow the example of Beirut. The Crusaders move on to Tyre – Raymond IV decides to wait for two days to allow a force under Baldwin of Le Bourg (supported by knights from Antioch) to catch up with him. [42]
  • May 26 – The Crusaders march to Haifa and along the coast under Mount Carmel to Caesarea (modern Israel), where they rest for four days in order to celebrate Whitsun (Whit Sunday).
  • June 2–6 – The Crusaders occupy Arsuf and turn inland towards Ramlah, where they reorganise for the march against Jerusalem. A Crusader force under Tancred liberates Bethlehem. [43]
  • June 7 – Siege of Jerusalem: The Crusaders reach the outskirts of Jerusalem, and begin the siege of the Holy City. Iftikhar al-Dawla offers a peace agreement but this is refused. [44]
  • June 13 – The Crusaders under Godfrey of Boullion launch their first assault on Jerusalem, while the Fatimid garrison and Jewish militia defend the northern wall at the Damascus Gate. [45]
  • June 17 – A naval squadron of six Genoese ships led by Guglielmo Embriaco (loaded with military materials) enters the port of Jaffa, all except one are trapped by a larger Fatimid fleet. [46]
  • July 8 – The Crusaders attempt to take Jerusalem by storm but are repulsed. In a procession they walk around the walls under leadership of priests in the hope the city would surrender. [47]
  • July 13 – The Crusader army (some 12,000 men) launch a final assault on Jerusalem. The attacks against the northern and southern wall are repulsed without establishing a foothold. [48]
  • July 15
    • The Crusaders breach the walls of Jerusalem after a two-pronged assault. They enter the city and begin, for two days, an unprecedented slaughter against the Muslims and Jews. [44]
    • Iftikhar al-Dawla surrenders Jerusalem to Raymond IV in the Tower of David with a great sum of treasure in return for his life. He is escorted out of the city with his bodyguard. [49]
  • July 22 – The Kingdom of Jerusalem is established in the Middle East. Godfrey of Bouillon is named king (but refuses to be crowned) and takes the title Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri . [50]
  • August 10 – The Crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillon (supported by 1,200–1,300 knights) assemble at Yibna (Ibelin) – close to the coast and almost halfway from Jaffa to Ascalon. [51]
  • August 12 – Battle of Ascalon: The Crusader army (some 10,000 men) decisively defeats the Fatimids who are sent to relieve Jerusalem. Vizier Al-Afdal is forced to retreat to Egypt. [52]
  • November – A Crusader army under Bohemond I travels south to begin a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. They are accompanied by Baldwin of Boulogne, brother of Godfrey of Bouillon. [53]
  • December 21 – The Crusaders under Bohemond I and Baldwin arrive at Jerusalem. Four days later, Daimbert, archbishop of Pisa, is installed as the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem. [54]

By topic

Religion

Significant people

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Baldwin I of Jerusalem First count of Edessa (r. 1098–1100) and first king of Jerusalem (r. 1100–1118)

Baldwin I, also known as Baldwin of Boulogne, was the first count of Edessa from 1098 to 1100, and king of Jerusalem from 1100 to his death. He was the youngest son of Eustace II, Count of Boulogne, and Ida of Lorraine and married a Norman noblewoman, Godehilde of Tosny. He received the County of Verdun in 1096, but he soon joined the crusader army of his brother Godfrey of Bouillon and became one of the most successful commanders of the First Crusade.

Bohemond I of Antioch, also known as Bohemond of Taranto, was the prince of Taranto from 1089 to 1111 and the prince of Antioch from 1098 to 1111. He was a leader of the First Crusade, leading a contingent of Normans on the quest eastward. Knowledgable about the Byzantine Empire through earlier campaigns with his father, he was the most experienced military leader of the crusade.

Pons, Count of Tripoli Count of Tripoli from 1112 to 1137

Pons was count of Tripoli from 1112 to 1137. He was a minor when his father, Bertrand, died in 1112. He swore fealty to the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos in the presence of a Byzantine embassy. His advisors sent him to Antioch to be educated in the court of Tancred of Antioch, ending the hostilities between the two crusader states. Tancred granted four important fortresses to Pons in the Principality of Antioch. Since Pons held his inherited lands in fief of the kings of Jerusalem, Tancred's grant strengthened the autonomy of the County of Tripoli. On his deathbed, Tancred also arranged the marriage of his wife, Cecile of France, to Pons.

The Treaty of Devol was an agreement made in 1108 between Bohemond I of Antioch and Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos, in the wake of the First Crusade. It is named after the Byzantine fortress of Devol. Although the treaty was not immediately enforced, it was intended to make the Principality of Antioch a vassal state of the Byzantine Empire.

References

  1. ↑ Gilbert Meynier (2010). L'Algérie cœur du Maghreb classique. De l'ouverture islamo-arabe au repli (658-1518). Paris: La Découverte; p. 83.
  2. ↑ Steven Runciman (1952). A History of the Crusades. Vol II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem, pp. 96–97. ISBN   978-0-241-29876-3.
  3. ↑ Brian Todd Carey (2012). Road to Manzikert: Byzantine and Islamic Warfare (527–1071), p. 160. ISBN   978-1-84884-215-1.
  4. 1 2 Picard, Christophe (2000). Le Portugal musulman (VIIIe-XIIIe siècle. L'Occident d'al-Andalus sous domination islamique. Paris: Maisonneuve & Larose. p. 109. ISBN   2-7068-1398-9.
  5. ↑ Brian Todd Carey (2012). Road to Manzikert: Byzantine and Islamic Warfare (527–1071), p. 160. ISBN   978-1-84884-215-1.
  6. ↑ "Carlisle Castle". English Heritage. Archived from the original on 2008-01-10. Retrieved 2007-12-21.
  7. ↑ "Lincoln Cathedral website". Archived from the original on January 10, 2008. Retrieved 2007-12-21.
  8. ↑ Stratton, J. M. (1969). Agricultural Records. London: John Baker. ISBN   0-212-97022-4.
  9. ↑ Basil Dmytryshyn (2000). Medieval Russia: A sourcebook 850–1700, p. 60. Academic International Press.
  10. ↑ "Norman Britain". British History Timeline. BBC . Retrieved 2007-12-21.
  11. 1 2 Palmer, Alan; Veronica (1992). The Chronology of British History. London: Century Ltd. pp. 56–58. ISBN   0-7126-5616-2.
  12. ↑ Timothy Venning (2015). A Chronology of the Crusades, p. 24. ISBN   978-1-138-80269-8.
  13. ↑ Picard C. (1997). La mer et les musulmans d'Occident au Moyen Age. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
  14. ↑ Potter, Philip J. (2009). Gothic Kings of Britain: The Lives of 31 Medieval Rulers (1016–1399), pp. 127–128. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland. ISBN   978-0-7864-4038-2.
  15. ↑ Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 101. ISBN   978-0-141-98550-3.
  16. ↑ Gerd Mentgen. Crusades in Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution (Vol 1), ed. Richard S. Levy, pp. 151–53.
  17. ↑ Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 102. ISBN   978-0-141-98550-3.
  18. ↑ Chazan, R. (1996). European Jwery and the First Crusade, p. 122. University of California Press. ISBN   978-0-520-20506-2.
  19. ↑ Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 115. ISBN   978-0-141-98550-3.
  20. ↑ Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, pp. 116–117. ISBN   978-0-141-98550-3.
  21. ↑ Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 104. ISBN   978-0-141-98550-3.
  22. ↑ Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 105. ISBN   978-0-141-98550-3.
  23. ↑ Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, pp. 107–108. ISBN   978-0-141-98550-3.
  24. ↑ Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 109. ISBN   978-0-141-98550-3.
  25. ↑ Catlos, Brian A. (2004). The victors and the vanquished: Christians and Muslims of Catalonia and Aragon, 1050-1300. Cambridge University Press. p. 13. ISBN   0-521-82234-3.
  26. ↑ Abels, Richard Philip; Bernard S. Bachrach (2001). The Normans and their adversaries at war. Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer. p. 92. ISBN   0-85115-847-1.
  27. 1 2 Rickard, J. "Antioch, crusader siege of, 21 October 1097-3 June 1098" . Retrieved 4 January 2012.
  28. ↑ Rickard, J. "Battle of Harenc, 9 February 1098" . Retrieved 4 January 2012.
  29. ↑ Picard C. (1997). La mer et les musulmans d'Occident au Moyen Age. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
  30. ↑ Abels, Richard Philip; Bernard S. Bachrach (2001). The Normans and their adversaries at war. Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer. p. 92. ISBN   0-85115-847-1.
  31. ↑ Tyerman, Christopher (2006). God's War: A New History of the Crusades, p. 134. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN   978-0-674-02387-1.
  32. ↑ Andrew Roberts (2011). Great Commanders of the Medieval World (454–1582), p. 121. ISBN   978-0-85738-589-5.
  33. ↑ Rickard, J. "Battle of the Orontes, 28 June 1098 (First Crusade)" . Retrieved 4 January 2012.
  34. ↑ Benvenuti, Gino (1985). Le Repubbliche Marinare. Amalfi, Pisa, Genova e Venezia. Rome: Newton & Compton Editori. p. 34. ISBN   88-8289-529-7.
  35. ↑ Siecienski, Anthony Edward (2010). The Filioque: History of a Doctrinal Controversy. Oxford University Press. pp. 117–118. ISBN   9780195372045.
  36. ↑ Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 221. ISBN   978-0-141-98550-3.
  37. ↑ Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 222. ISBN   978-0-141-98550-3.
  38. ↑ Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 224. ISBN   978-0-141-98550-3.
  39. ↑ David Nicolle (2003). The First Crusade 1096–99 - Conquest of the Holy Land, pp. 69–70. Osprey Publishing: Campaign 132. ISBN   978-1-84176-515-0.
  40. ↑ Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 223. ISBN   978-0-141-98550-3.
  41. ↑ Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, pp. 227–228. ISBN   978-0-141-98550-3.
  42. ↑ Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 228. ISBN   978-0-141-98550-3.
  43. ↑ David Nicolle (2003). The First Crusade 1096–99 - Conquest of the Holy Land, p. 71. Osprey Publishing: Campaign 132. ISBN   978-1-84176-515-0.
  44. 1 2 Rickard, J. "Siege of Jerusalem, 9 June-18 July 1099" . Retrieved 4 January 2012.
  45. ↑ David Nicolle (2003). The First Crusade 1096–99 - Conquest of the Holy Land, p. 73. Osprey Publishing: Campaign 132. ISBN   978-1-84176-515-0.
  46. ↑ David Nicolle (2003). The First Crusade 1096–99 - Conquest of the Holy Land, pp. 73–76. Osprey Publishing: Campaign 132. ISBN   978-1-84176-515-0.
  47. ↑ David Nicolle (2003). The First Crusade 1096–99 - Conquest of the Holy Land, p. 76. Osprey Publishing: Campaign 132. ISBN   978-1-84176-515-0.
  48. ↑ Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Vol I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 236. ISBN   978-0-141-98550-3.
  49. ↑ Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Vol I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 237. ISBN   978-0-141-98550-3.
  50. ↑ Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Vol I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 242. ISBN   978-0-141-98550-3.
  51. ↑ David Nicolle (2003). The First Crusade 1096–99 - Conquest of the Holy Land, p. 83. Osprey Publishing: Campaign 132. ISBN   978-1-84176-515-0.
  52. ↑ Rickard, J. "Ascalon, battle of, 12 August 1099" . Retrieved 4 January 2012.
  53. ↑ Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Vol I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 250. ISBN   978-0-141-98550-3.
  54. ↑ Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Vol I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 251. ISBN   978-0-141-98550-3.
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