"},"author":{"wt":"Noliwe M. Rooks"}},"i":0}}]}" id="mwAZY">
...hair straighteners marketed by white companies suggest to blacks that only through changing physical features will persons of African descent be afforded class mobility within black communities and social acceptance by the dominant culture.[39]
—Noliwe M. Rooks
To straighten their hair, African-American women used a hair product and wide-bristled pressing or hot comb, a metal tool that was heated in an oven or on a stove before it was passed through the hair.[49][50] It later would be massed produced in a more simple, self-heating form[51] It could take hours to complete the straightening process, and because of the high temperature of the hot comb, burning and damaging the hair or skin were always high-risk.[40][49] Because it easily absorbs moisture, afro-textured hair straightened with a hot comb can quickly return to its tightly coiled state if exposed to too much moisture, such as rain or humidity.[49][52] African-American men typically wore their hair relatively short, and they avoided passing a hot comb through their hair, because it was more difficult and dangerous to do so.[53]
From the early to mid-20th century, conking was a popular style for African-American men, and required the use of a chemical treatment known as a relaxer or perm, which achieved longer-lasting straightening results.[49] The practice of using a relaxer began during slavery, when enslaved men covered their hair in axle grease to straighten and dye it.[28] Before the late 1960s, there were no publications that explained how to straighten afro-textured hair with chemicals. The earliest chemical straighteners caused severe hair breakage and dyed the hair red,[53] so it was not until the mid-20th century that relaxers became a popular and longer-lasting alternative to hot combs for African-American women. Both men and women coated their hair with a strong acid that stripped the outer layer and altered the shape of the hair shaft, causing it to "relax" or straighten,[49] and the longer the chemical was left on the hair, the straighter the hair would become. If left on the hair too long, the relaxer could burn the scalp and cause sores to form.[50]
Civil Rights era
Angela Davis (right) in 1972 with her influential hairstyleSinger-songwriter and actress Jill Scott in March 2012
The Afro, which hit its stride in the 1960s, was an expression of pride, connection, power, revolution and differentiation. The Afro first gained popularity with performers, artists, activists, youth and nationalists.[54]
Young people who did not adopt this trend were for the first time judged and subject to "blacker-than-thou" policing by their peers.[55] African-Americans began to use their hair as a way to showcase a link to their African ancestors and Blacks throughout the diaspora.[55] The Afro, in conjunction with the Civil Rights Movement, was helping to define black identity.[55]
Some artists used their actual hair as an expression of art.[56] In David Hammons's American Costume, he pressed his own body onto paper to create an image of what being African-American means and looks like.[56] He crafted the hair on the work by applying fingerprints to the paper.[56]
Young Black Americans were ‘froing their hair in great numbers as a way to emulate the style of the Black Panthers and convey their racial pride.[55] Although the Afro started in New York, it was Angela Davis, a college professor at UCLA and an associate of the Black Panther Party, who pioneered the Afro as a political statement.[55] In embracing naturalism, she glorified the Black aesthetic and facilitated its power to connect Black people to the Civil Rights Movement.[55] Her Afro became especially notorious because of its presence in her "Wanted" ad, as it was her most prominent identifier.[55] It became a way to celebrate African-ness and embrace heritage while politically rejecting European ideals.[55] Men and women in Chicago and beyond wore it as a way to support a proud way of carrying oneself in the world and occupying space.[55]
In relation to hair, the time between the 1970s and the 1990s could be described as open and experimental. "Despite occasional political flare-ups, individual choice would increasingly dictate African-American hairstyles in this era"[54] Trendy styles like braids were even adopted by whites, especially after white actress Bo Derek wore them in the movie 10. Although braids, cornrows and dreadlocks were becoming mainstream, they stirred up controversy and continue to when worn in the professional sphere.[57][58]
Popular culture
Natural hair movement
African-American culture has increasingly embraced natural hair through the natural hair movement. It includes people with afro-textured hair who resist the images used to represent them and abstain from the use of chemical hair products in favor of products that will promote healthy natural hair. The initial emergence of the natural hair movement occurred in the 1960s with activists such as Angela Davis supporting the movement.[59] In the late 1970s–1980s, the natural hair movement began to slow down due to the social pressures placed on African- Americans to assimilate to European Beauty Standards.[59] It wasn't until the 2000s that the second wave of the natural hair movement emerged.[59] The movement has since been greatly influenced by society and media, ranging from the work and appearance of textile artist Sonya Clark,[60] singer Solange Knowles,[61] poet Maya Angelou[62] and actress Lupita Nyong'o[63] to an uprising of natural hair-focused YouTube channels and blogs.[64] The movement seeks to continue to encourage African American women to embrace their natural hair despite negative stereotypes about black natural hair that arose from European beauty standards.[65] More recently, the natural hair movement has found momentum online with various Vloggers documenting their natural hair journey to encourage other African American women and men to participate in the movement, educate the public, and create positive images of black hair in media.[66] The movement's popularity has also encouraged corporations and government agencies to create policies that are inclusive of natural black hair.[59] The availability of products for natural black hair has been helped by the founding of Black-owned hair product companies such as Ruka Hair in the UK, founded by Tendai Moyo.[67]
"Good hair"
"Good hair" is a phrase used in some Black communities to describe the perceived prestige of straight or loosely curled hair, (especially when genetically influenced by non-African ancestry) in contrast to afro-textured hair.[68] "Good hair" is also used to refer to hair that is strong, thick and soft to the touch. Although many hair stylists or beauticians would define "good hair" as "healthy hair", the phrase is rarely used in this manner in informal African-American circles.[69] Instead, it is used metaphorically to characterize beauty and acceptance. These standards vary for African-American men and women.[69]
The term's circulation within the Black community in the North America has an uncertain origin. Artist India.Arie's song "I Am Not My Hair" speaks specifically to the usage of the term "good hair" in the African-American community and in broader contexts.[70] Comedian Chris Rock's 2009 documentary Good Hair made a wider audience aware of the importance of the term within the Black community.[68] In the documentary, Rock explores the role of hair in the lives of African-Americans. He interviews Reverend Al Sharpton, who asserts, "My relaxed hair is just as African-based as an Afro because it all came out of black culture."[68]
Facial hair
Maintaining facial hair is more prevalent among African-American men than in other male populations in the U.S.[71] In fact, the soul patch is so named because African-American men, particularly jazz musicians, popularized the style.[72] The preference for facial hair among African-American men is due partly to personal taste, but also because they are more prone than other ethnic groups to develop a condition known as pseudofolliculitis barbae. The condition is commonly referred to as razor bumps, and due to the condition, many prefer not to shave.[73]
Styles
Popular African-American Hairstyles in pop-culture include:[8]
In Rogers v. American Airlines (1981), Renee Rogers, a black female flight attendant, sued her employer American Airlines for prohibiting her from wearing cornrows and braids at work.[74] The court dismissed Rogers' arguments that the ban was discriminatory based on race and sex, and ruled in favor of American Airlines.[74] The ban prohibited braids and dreadlocks in favor of a bun style, which can be a challenge to achieve with afro-textured hair that has not been straightened with heat or chemicals.[74] Since the late 20th century, many restrictions have been loosened, and professional African-American women now wear a wider variety of hairstyles.
As with women, African American men have also faced hairstyle-based discrimination in the workplace. In the case of Thornton v. Encore Global,[75] Jeffery Thornton, a black man sued his former employer Encore Global denying him a job as a technical supervisor after working for the company for four years.[75] An unnamed hiring manager at Encore told Thornton that he needed to first trim his locks off his ears, eyes and shoulders to land the gig, court documents state.[75] This case was monumental because it was the first time someone has accused an employer of violating California's CROWN Act since the legislation took effect in January 2020.
In 2014, the United States Army implemented a ban on predominantly black hairstyles.[76] The ban includes dreadlocks, large cornrows and twists.[76] The rationale for this decision is that the aforementioned hairstyles look unkempt.[76] African-American women in the Army may be forced to choose between small cornrows and chemically processing their hair, if their natural hair is not long enough to fit a permitted hairstyle.[76]
Discrimination in schools
Throughout the history of education in the United States, African American students have faced significant disparities in treatment compared to their peers. These disparities include higher rates of disciplinary action and discriminatory practices related to personal appearance. For instance, there have been cited cases where African American students are disciplined at significantly higher rates than their counterparts, often due to dress code policies that target natural hairstyles as inappropriate or distracting.[77] Some examples include;
DeAndre Arnold (2020)
Description: DeAndre Arnold, a senior at Barbers Hill High School in Texas, faced suspension and threats of expulsion due to his dreadlocks. The school's dress code prohibited hairstyles that "disrupt the educational process," which was interpreted to include dreadlocks. Despite Arnold's good academic standing and involvement in sports, the school's policy enforced a strict standard that was perceived as targeting his natural hairstyle. In contrast, white students with long or styled hair often faced no similar scrutiny.[78]
Asten Johnson (2019)
Description: Asten Johnson, faced threats of expulsion due to his natural hairstyle, which was in violation of the school’s dress code that prohibited “unconventional” hairstyles. Johnson’s hair was described as “unprofessional,” a label that was frequently applied to natural hairstyles worn by African American students. The policy was less stringent on white students who wore similar lengths or styles that did not face the same level of enforcement.[79]
Darryl George (2023)
Description: Darryl George a high school student in Texas, faced disciplinary actions for wearing her natural curly hair, which was deemed "inappropriate" according to the school's dress code. The policy was particularly restrictive towards hairstyles that deviated from a certain norm, which disproportionately affected African American students. George's academic excellence and participation in extracurricular activities did not mitigate the impact of the policy, unlike white students who were often allowed to style their hair freely without facing similar penalties.[80]
Andrew Johnson (2018)
Description: In 2018, wrestler Andrew Johnson was told by his referee, Alan Mahoney, that he needed to cut his dreads or forfeit his match.[81] That same night videos and pictures began to surface online of Andrew having his dreads cut off with a pair of scissors.[81] This sparked public outrage online, with some people questioning why Johnson was able to wrestle in matches prior to this one and not have any problems.[81] People began to question Mahoney's call during the match; some saying that the ultimatum was derived from racism.[81] In 2016, Mahoney was accused of calling his fellow referee a racial slur.[81] Since this incident Mahoney was suspended from officiating for two years, and the New Jersey Interscholastic Athletic Association and the states attorney general's office's civil rights division have opened investigations into the incident.[81]
Crown Act
On March 18, 2022, the United States House of Representatives passed the CROWN (Create a Respectful and Open Workplace for Natural Hair) Act, an act aiming to protect individuals from hair-based discrimination in the workplace.[82] The bill forbids race-based hair discrimination at the federal level, notably when the hair style or hair texture being discriminated against is particularly tied to a culture or race.[82] However, many states are "employment at will" which allows employers to discharge employees for any reason, or no reason.
1 2 Mitchell Dove, Lakindra (2000-01-01). Got Hair that Flows in the Wind: The Complexity of Hair and Identity among African American Female Adolescents in Foster Care (PhD). doi:10.15760/etd.2318.
1 2 Sieber, Roy, and Frank Herreman, eds. Hair in African Art and Culture. New York: Museum for African Art and Prestel, 2000. Print. [ISBNmissing][pageneeded]
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Byrd, Ayana D., and Lori L. Tharps. Hair Story: Untangling the Roots of Black Hair in America. New York: St. Martin's, 2001. Print.[ISBNmissing][pageneeded]
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.