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Insecticides are pesticides used to kill insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. The major use of insecticides is in agriculture, but they are also used in home and garden settings, industrial buildings, for vector control, and control of insect parasites of animals and humans.
Pesticide resistance describes the decreased susceptibility of a pest population to a pesticide that was previously effective at controlling the pest. Pest species evolve pesticide resistance via natural selection: the most resistant specimens survive and pass on their acquired heritable changes traits to their offspring. If a pest has resistance then that will reduce the pesticide's efficacy – efficacy and resistance are inversely related.
In organic chemistry, a carbamate is a category of organic compounds with the general formula R2NC(O)OR and structure >N−C(=O)−O−, which are formally derived from carbamic acid. The term includes organic compounds, formally obtained by replacing one or more of the hydrogen atoms by other organic functional groups; as well as salts with the carbamate anion H2NCOO−.
Benzoylureas (BPUs) are chemical derivatives of N-benzoyl-N′-phenylurea, which are used as insecticides. They do not directly kill the insect, but disrupt moulting and egg hatch, and thus act as insect growth regulators. They act by inhibiting chitin synthase, preventing the formation of chitin in the insect's body.
Spinosad is an insecticide based on chemical compounds found in the bacterial species Saccharopolyspora spinosa. The genus Saccharopolyspora was discovered in 1985 in isolates from crushed sugarcane. The bacteria produce yellowish-pink aerial hyphae, with bead-like chains of spores enclosed in a characteristic hairy sheath. This genus is defined as aerobic, Gram-positive, nonacid-fast actinomycetes with fragmenting substrate mycelium. S. spinosa was isolated from soil collected inside a nonoperational sugar mill rum still in the Virgin Islands. Spinosad is a mixture of chemical compounds in the spinosyn family that has a generalized structure consisting of a unique tetracyclic ring system attached to an amino sugar (D-forosamine) and a neutral sugar (tri-Ο-methyl-L-rhamnose). Spinosad is relatively nonpolar and not easily dissolved in water.
Cyhalothrin is an organic compound that, in specific isomeric forms, is used as a pesticide. It is a pyrethroid, a class of synthetic insecticides that mimic the structure and properties of the naturally occurring insecticide pyrethrin which is present in the flowers of Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium. Pyrethroids, such as cyhalothrin, are often preferred as an active ingredient in agricultural insecticides because they are more cost-effective and longer acting than natural pyrethrins. λ-and γ-cyhalothrin are now used to control insects and spider mites in crops including cotton, cereals, potatoes and vegetables.
In enzymology, a chitin synthase is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction
Cyfluthrin is a pyrethroid insecticide and common household pesticide. It is a complex organic compound and the commercial product is sold as a mixture of isomers. Like most pyrethroids, it is highly toxic to fish and invertebrates, but it is far less toxic to humans. It is generally supplied as a 10–25% liquid concentrate for commercial use and is diluted prior to spraying onto agricultural crops and outbuildings.
The milbemycins are a group of macrolides chemically related to the avermectins and were first isolated in 1972 from Streptomyces hygroscopicus. They are used in veterinary medicine as antiparasitic agents against worms, ticks and fleas. They also show insecticidal and acaricidal activity.
Tuta absoluta or Phthorimaea absoluta is a species of moth in family Gelechiidae known by the common names South American tomato pinworm, tomato leafminer, tomato pinworm and South American tomato moth. It is well known as a serious pest of tomato crops in Europe, Africa, western Asia and South and Central America, with larvae causing up to 100% loss if not effectively controlled.
CropLife International is an international trade association of agrochemical companies founded in 2001. It was previously known as Global Crop Protection Federation and started out as International Group of National Associations of Manufacturers of Agrochemical Products in 1967. Its members include the world's largest agricultural biotechnology and agricultural pesticide businesses namely BASF, Bayer CropScience, Corteva, FMC Corp., Sumitomo Chemical and Syngenta. The international body combines several national-level or continent-wide organisations, each one having the same goals but differing according to local language and custom.
An insect growth regulator (IGR) is a chemical insecticide that kills insects indirectly by disrupting their life cycles. The term was initially proposed to describe the effects of juvenile hormone analogs. Although the term "insect growth disruptor" more accurately describes the actions of IGRs, it did not become widely used. IGRs encompass chemical classes with three modes of action : juvenile hormone analogs, chitin synthesis inhibitors, and ecdysone receptor agonists.
Diamide insecticides are a class of insecticides, active mainly against lepidoptera (caterpillars), which act on the insect ryanodine receptor. They are diamides of either phthalic acid or anthranilic acid, with various appropriate further substitutions.
Cyantraniliprole is an insecticide of the diamide class. It shows strong activity and lepidoptera (caterpillars), and since it shows systemic activity it is also active against sucking pests such as aphids and whitefly.
Etoxazole is a narrow spectrum systemic acaricide used to combat spider mites. It targets a variety of mites in the egg, larvae and nymph stages however not the adult stage. It also exhibits insecticidal activity towards aphids, the green rice leafhopper and diamondback moth. The mode of action has been shown to inhibit chitin synthase (IRAC group 10B). Resistance due to its high efficacy and cross resistance when used with other acaricides are both of concern similar to was seen in the fast development of cross resistance in the previous generation of acaricides. The LC50 for resistant mite strains has been observed over 100,000 times greater than that of susceptible strains. Thus resistance management strategies are important in order to limit the increase of etoxazole resistant mite strains.
Chlorantraniliprole is an insecticide of the diamide class used for insects found on fruit and vegetable crops as well as ornamental plants.
Nereistoxin is a natural product identified in 1962 as the toxic organic compound N,N-dimethyl-1,2-dithiolan-4-amine. It had first been isolated in 1934 from the marine annelid Lumbriconereis heteropoda and acts by blocking the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. Researchers at Takeda in Japan investigated it as a possible insecticide. They subsequently developed a number of derivatives that were commercialised, including those with the ISO common names bensultap, cartap, thiocyclam and thiosultap.
Broflanilide is a complex, polycyclic, organohalogen insecticide which provides a novel mode of action (MoA).
Flupyradifurone is a systemic butenolide insecticide developed by Bayer CropScience under the name Sivanto. Flupyradifurone protects crops from sap-feeding pests such as aphids and is safer for non-target organisms compared to other insecticides. Sivanto was launched in 2014 since it obtained its first commercial registration in central America. Insecticide Resistance Action Committee (IRAC) classified Flupyradifurone as 4D subset (butenolide) and it is the first pesticide in the butenolide category. It was approved by European Union in 2015.
Pymetrozine is an insecticide in the pyridine-azomethine chemical class, primarily utilized for controlling homopteran pests, such as aphids and whiteflies, in agricultural settings. Its mode of action selectively targets the feeding behavior of sap-feeding insects, causing them to cease feeding soon after ingestion. This unique mechanism limits its impact on non-target organisms, including beneficial insects. Pymetrozine has been extensively used on rice, potatoes, a wide variety of vegetable brassica crops and various other crops as an alternative to organophosphorus pesticides.
References
- ↑ Sparks, Thomas C; Storer, Nicholas; Porter, Alan; Slater, Russell; Nauen, Ralf (2021). "Insecticide resistance management and industry: the origins and evolution of the I nsecticide R esistance A ction C ommittee (IRAC) and the mode of action classification scheme". Pest Management Science. 77 (6): 2609–2619. doi: 10.1002/ps.6254 . ISSN 1526-498X. PMC 8248193 . PMID 33421293.
- ↑ Insecticide Resistance Action Committee (April 2007). "Resistance Management for Sustainable Agriculture and Improved Public Health" (PDF). Croplife.
- ↑ "Arthropod Pesticide Resistance Database". Michigan State University. Retrieved 2024-12-10.
- ↑ "IRAC / Our sponsors". IRAC. Retrieved 4 December 2024.
- 1 2 "Interactive MoA Classification". Insecticide Resistance Action Committee. 2020-09-16. Retrieved 2021-04-01.
- ↑ Sparks, Thomas C.; Nauen, Ralf (2015). "IRAC: Mode of action classification and insecticide resistance management". Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology. 121. Elsevier BV: 122–128. doi: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2014.11.014 . ISSN 0048-3575.
- ↑ "Mode of Action Team". Insecticide Resistance Action Committee. Retrieved 5 December 2024.
- ↑ Sparks, Thomas C.; Crossthwaite, Andrew J.; Nauen, Ralf; Banba, Shinichi; et al. (2020). "Insecticides, biologics and nematicides: Updates to IRAC's mode of action classification - a tool for resistance management". Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology. 167: 104587. doi: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2020.104587 .
- ↑ "Classification of Pesticides". BCPC: Compendium of Pesticide Common Names. Retrieved 5 December 2024.